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YETERINAEY   MEDICINES 
THEIK  ACTIONS  AND  USES 


I'rinterl  ul  the  lulinhnrg^  Vniversity  Preff 
By  T.  and  A.  CusXBTaui.k. 

I'dK 
l«  A  V  I  I)    DOUG  LA8. 

X      .       .      .      SIMPKIN,    MARSHALL,    HAMILTON,    KENT 
AND   CO.,    LTD. 


t'AMBRlDOE 
OLASGOW   . 


MAfMILLAN   AND   BOWES. 
.lAMES   MACLEHOSE    AND  SOXS 


VETERINARY  MEDICINES 


THEIR  ACTIONS  AND  USES 


FINLAY  DUN 


FOBMEBLY  LKCTUBEE  OX  MATERIA  MEDICA  AND  DIETETICS  AT  THE 

EDINBURGH  VKTERINAKT  COLLEGE,   AND 

KXAMINER  IN   CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  VETERINARY  SURGEONS 


EDITED   BY 

JAMES  MACQUP^EN,  F.R.C.V.S. 

BOYAL  VETERINABT  COLLEGE.   LONDON 


(Icnti)  (Ebition 


New  York 
WILLIAM  K.  JENKINS  CO. 

PUBLISHERS 

851-853  Sesth  Avenue 


1907 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2009  witii  funding  from 

NCSU  Libraries 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/veterinarymediciOOdunf 


NOTE   TO   ELEVENTH   EDITION 

Owing  to  the  rapid  sale  of  Dun's  Veterinary  Medicines, 
another  edition  has  been  called  for  earlier  than  was  antici- 
pated. After  due  consideration  of  the  few  important  changes 
in  Veterinary  Therapeutics  which  have  been  recorded  within 
the  last  five  years,  and  after  examination  of  the  text  of  the 
existing  book,  which  seems  to  require  no  immediate  material 
alteration,  the  present  edition — virtually  a  reprint  of  the 
tenth — has  been  produced. 

J.  MACQUEEN. 

April  1906. 


ft  2 


PEEFACE  TO  THE  TENTH  EDITION 

A  NEW  Edition  of  this  standard  work  on  Veterinary  Materia 
Medica  has  been  wanted  for  some  time.  Prior  to  his 
lamented  death,  Mr.  Finlay  Dim,  recognising  the  urgenc}^ 
of  the  demand,  had  commenced  the  preparation  of  the 
Tenth  Edition,  which,  on  the  plans  indicated  by  his  MS. 
and  marginal  notes,  has  now  been  completed.  Numerous 
important  alterations,  rendered  necessary  by  the  publication 
of  the  new  British  Pharmacopoeia  (1898),  have  been  made 
and  many  new  remedies  have  been  inserted.  The  body  of 
the  work  has  been  rearranged,  and  while  every  article  has 
been  revised,  no  change  has  been  made  in  the  principles 
enunciated  by  the  author.  To  provide  space  for  the  various 
additions  and  alterations  without  enlarging  the  volume,  the 
text  in  places  dealing  with  the  Chemistry  of  Drugs,  has  been 
curtailed.  Revision  has  been  carried  out  with  a  constant 
regard  to  practical  utility,  and  in  the  hope  that  Dun's 
Veterinary  Med.icines  will  continue  to  serve  eftectually  the 
requirements  of  students  and  practitioners. 

The  Editor  desires  gratefully  to  acknowledge  his  in- 
debtedness to  Professor  German  Sims  Woodhead,  Cambridsre 
University,  for  revising  and  extending  the  pages  on  bacteria 
and  antitoxines;  and  to  Professor  John  F.  M'Fadj-ean, 
Principal,  Royal  Veterinary  College,  for  permission  to  insert 
the  directions  for  using  mallein,  tuberculin,  and  black- 
quarter    vaccine.      Much   valuable    information    has    been 


VI 11  PREFACE 

obtained  from  Guinard's  Tlierapeutique  et  Pliarmaco- 
dynamie  (1899),  Delaud  and  Stourbe's  Pharmacie  et 
Toxicologic  Veterinaires  (1900),  Cagny's  Fot^mulaire  dea 
VMerinaires,  Hale  White's  Materia  Mcdica  (fourth  edition), 
Squire's  Companion  to  the  British  Pharmacopoeia  (1899) 
Martindale  and  Westcott's  Extra  Pharmacopoeia  (ninth 
edition),  Coblentz's  The  Newer  Remedies  (1899),  and  Hare's 
Practical  Therapeutics. 

J.  MACQUEEN. 

RdYAL  Veterinary  Colleoe, 
London,  10//t  April  19ul. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  EIGHTH  EDITION 

The  First  Edition  of  Veterinary  Medicines  was  published  in 
1854,  while  I  was  Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and  Dietetics 
at  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary  College.  The  work  continues 
a  text-book  at  the  British  Veterinary  Colleges,  is  used  by 
Veterinarians  and  Agriculturists,  and  meets  with  increasing 
demand  in  the  United  States  of  America  and  in  the  Colonies. 

The  Seventh  Edition,  published  in  1889,  has  for  some  time 
been  out  of  print.  The  increased  bulk  of  the  present  volume 
results  from  the  introduction  of  the  recently  discovered 
antiseptics  and  antipyretics  of  the  benzol  series,  and  other 
new  remedies;  from  details  of  various  British  and  foreign 
experiments  made  with  alkaloids  and  other  medicines ;  and 
from  fuller  and  more  systematic  treatment  of  the  actions  of 
various  important  drugs. 

As  in  previous  editions,  the  general  actions  and  uses  of 
Veterinary  Medicines,  and  the  more  important  principles  and 
practice  of  Pharmacy,  are  dealt  with  in  the  Introduction. 
This  preliminary  section  has  been  arranged  on  the  plan 
adopted  by  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  in  his  admirable  work  on 
Pharmacology,  Therapeutics,  and  Materia  Medica.  The 
several  drugs,  discussed  in  alphabetical  order  according  to 
their  English  names,  occupy  the  bulk  of  the  volume.  Under 
each  individual  medicine  the  space  allotted  to  preparation 
and  properties  has  been  curtailed,  while  careful  revision  has 
been  made  of  the  matter  relating  to  the  actions  on  the 
several  domesticated  animals,  the  curative  uses,  doses,  and 
niedicinal  forms. 


X  PREFACE 

The  Index  of  Diseases  and  Remedies,  which  in  former 
editions  was  little  more  than  a  list  of  drugs  usually  pre- 
scribed in  diiferent  disorders,  has  been  considerably  enlarged, 
and  an  endeavour  has  been  made  to  indicate  the  nature 
of  each  disease,  the  conditions  which  dictate  the  use  of 
particular  remedies,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  relieve 
or  cure. 

In  preparing  the  present  edition  the  following  works  have 

been    consulted: — Dr.     Lauder    Brunton's    FJiarmacology, 

Therapeutics,   and    Materia    Medica ;     the    late    Professor 

^ohQvt&on'&  Equine  Medicine;  Professor  Williams'  volumes 

on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and 

Svirgery:  and  the  Journal  of  Comparative  Pathology  and 

Therajyeutics.     Her  twig's  Praktische  Arzneimittellehre  fiir 

Thierdrzte,  and    Moiroud's   Traite  Mdmentaire  de  Matiere 

MMicale  et  de  Pharinacologie  Viterinaire — for  many  years 

the  standard  works  on  Veterinary  Pharmacology  in  Germany 

and  France  respectively — have  contributed  matter  to  former 

editions.      Further  valuable  information  has  been  derived 

from  the  Lehrbuch  der  Arzneiraittellehre  fiir   Thierdrzte, 

von  Dr.  Eugen  Frohner,  Professor  an  der  K.  Thierdrztlichen 

Hochschule  zu  Berlin  (1890);    Traits.  Therapeutique  et  de 

Matiere  Mddicale  VStdrinaires,  par  M.Kaufmann,  Professeur 

de  Physiologic  et  de  Therapeutique  d  VfJcole   Vdterinaire 

d'Alfort  (1892);  Precis  de  Therapeutique  de  Matiere  Mddicale 

et  de  Pharmacie  Vetdrinaires,  par  Paul  Cagny,  President 

de  la  Society  Centrale  de  Medecine  Veterinaire  (1892);  as 

well  as   from  Pathologic    et    Therapeutique  Speciales  des 

Animaux  Domestiques,  par  MM.  Dr.  Friedberger  de  Munich 

et  Dr.  Frohner  de  Berlin,  traduit  de  I'allemand  par  MM. 

P.  J.  Cadiot  et  J.  N.  Pies  (1891). 

FINLAY  DUN. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
1 


INTRODUCTION, 

I.  THE  ACTION^i  AND  U.^ES  OF  MEDICINAL  AGENTS,  2 

II.  VETERINARY  MEDICINES,       ....  153 

The    Alkaline    Metals,    Ammonium.    Potassium, 

Sodium,  ......  161 

The     Alkaline     Earths,     Calcium,     Magnesium. 

Barium,  Aluminium,  ....  '202 

The  Metals,  Bismuth,  Lead,  Zinc,  Copper,  Silver, 

Iron,  Antimony,  Arsenic,  Mercury, 
The  Non-Metals,  Phosphorus,  Bromine,  Chlorine 

Iodine,  Sulphur,       .  -  •  - 

Acids,     ..-••• 
Carbon  Compounds,  Alcohols,  Ethers, 


304 
321 
343 


III.  MEDICINES    DERIVED   ERO-M   THE   VEGETABLE 

KINGDOM, 426 

Medicines  Derived  from  the  Animal  Kingdom,    .  661 

IV.  VETERINARY  PHARMACY,  ....  687 
INDEX  OF  DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES,  .  •  TIT 
INDEX  OF  3IEDICINES,             ....  779 


\ 


VETERINARY    MEDICIlSrES 

THEIR   ACTIONS   AND   USES 


INTRODUCTION 

Veterinary  Materia  Medica,  in  the  extended  sense  of 
the  term,  treats  of  every  agent  which  is  used  for  the 
relief  or  cure  of  disease  or  injury,  or  for  the  preservation  of 
health,  among  the  domesticated  animals.  The  full  con- 
sideration of  a  subject  so  large  and  diversified  would, 
however,  fill  several  volumes,  and  the  present  work  has 
been  restricted  to  the  description  of  drugs,  their  natural 
history,  characters  and  properties,  their  pharmaceutical  pre- 
parations, and  their  actions  and  uses  among  veterinary 
patients.  Medicines  or  drugs,  although  derived  from  the 
mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  kingdoms,  possess  many 
actions  in  common,  and  are  prepared  for  use  by  similar 
chemical  and  pharmaceutical  processes.  In  this  work  the  first 
section  is  devoted  to  general  observations  on  Pharmacology, 
which  treats  of  the  actions  of  drugs,  and  Therapeutics,  or  the 
application  of  remedies  to  the  cure  of  disease.  A  description 
of  the  medicines,  arranged  according  to  their  source,  occupies 
the  body  of  the  volume,  which  is  completed  by  a  section  on 
Pharmacy,  or  the  preparation  and  dispensing  of  medicines, 
and  an  index  of  diseases  and  remedies. 


Section  I 
The  Actions  and  Uses  of  Medicines 

The  general  and  medical  management  of  the  domestic 
animals  has  greatly  improved  during  the  past  forty  years. 
The  laws  of  health,  the  causes  and  nature  of  disease,  as  well 
as  the  actions  and  uses  of  remedies  have  been  more  fully 
studied.  The  beneficent  curative  effects  of  fresh  air,  diet, 
suitable  surroundings  and  good  nursing  are  more  thoroughly 
realised.  Preventive  treatment  also  receives  more  attention 
alike  from  stock-owners  and  practitioners.  Disease  accord- 
ingly is  not  only  less  prevalent,  but  it  is  generally  less 
serious,  and  the  attacks  of  shorter  duration.  In  Great 
Britain  such  equine  maladies  as  specific  ophthalmia,  canker 
of  the  feet,  and  mange,  are  now  seldom  seen,  while  colic  and 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  are  not  nearly  so  common  as 
they  were  forty  years  ago.  Cattle  plague,  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia, and  sheep-pox  have  been  exterminated.  The 
prevalence  of  glanders  or  farcy,  swine  -  fever,  rabies  and 
bovine  tuberculosis  should  be  greatly  limited  by  the  measures 
now  being  adopted  in  dealing  with  these  disorders. 

Fuller  and  more  definite  knowledge  of  the  actions  of 
remedial  agents  has  been  obtained  by  systematic  experi- 
ments and  clinical  observations  not  only  on  the  lower 
animals  but  on  man  himself.  Numerous  illustrations  might 
be  adduced  of  the  practical  benefits  of  such  investigations. 
Magendie's  experiments  with  the  Java  upas  antiar  and  nux 
vomica  demonstrated  that  these  strychnine-containing  plants 
violently  stimulate  the  spinal  cord,  producing  tetanic  con- 
vulsions. In  virtue  of  this  stimulation  of  the  cord,  and  its 
reflex  functions,  carefully  regulated  doses  of  this  drug  have 
been  utilised  to  restore  disturbed  co-ordination  of  the 
gastro-intestinal  functions,  and  to  relieve  some  forms  of 
paralysis.  Experiments  on  animals  also  have  demonstrated 
the  action  of  digitalis  and  strophanthus  as  cardiac  stimu- 
lants, and  hence  have  led  to  their  use  in  strengthening  and 


BACTERIOLOGY  3 

steadying  the  weak  and  overtaxed  heart.  It  has  been 
proved  in  the  same  way  that  ergot  of  rye,  and  its  active 
constituent,  ergotin,  have  the  power  of  causing  contraction  of 
the  arterioles,  hence  their  employment  for  the  arrest  of 
internal  haemorrhage.  Belladonna,  and  its  active  principle 
atropine,  have  been  shown  to  diminish  sensibility  of  the 
ends  of  the  vagi  and  sensory  nerves,  and  from  this  results 
their  value  in  quieting  cardiac  irritability,  diminishing  ex- 
cessive bronchial  secretion,  and  relieving  certain  forms  of 
pain.  When  the  precise  action  of  medicines  is  recognised 
then  practical  use  is  obviously  rendered  not  only  safer,  but 
more  effective. 

The  Study  of  Bacteriology  within  the  last  twenty  years, 
has  done  much  to  throw  light  on  the  diagnosis,  prevention 
and  treatment  of  disease  both  in  men  and  animals,  and  is 
apjDarently  destined  to  do  much  more.  A  number  of  diseases 
classified  as  zymotic,  and  comprising  anthrax,  glanders, 
tuberculosis,  rabies,  strangles,  swine  -  fever,  tetanus,  with 
typhoid,  eruptive  and  other  fevers,  have  been  shown  to 
depend  upon  the  introduction  into  the  body  of  micro- 
organisms belonging  to  the  lower  class  of  vegetable  fungi 
which,  in  susceptible  subjects,  multiply  rapidly,  and  pro- 
duce chemical  ferments,  alkaloidal  poisons,  and  deadly 
albumoses.  Pasteur,  Koch,  and  others  have  investigated  the 
life-history  of  many  of  these  disease-producing  microbes,  the 
pathogenic  conditions  to  which  they  give  rise,  and  the 
methods  by  which  their  invasion  may  be  averted  or  counter- 
acted. Microbes,  when  cultivated  in  media  containing 
chemicals,  or  when  repeatedly  passed  by  inoculation  through 
the  bodies  of  certain  animals,  become  weakened,  and  lose  their 
virulence.  Attenuated  cultures  or  vaccines,  properly  em- 
ployed, confer  on  certain  animals  more  or  less  protection 
against  poisonous  doses  of  the  natural  virus  subsequently 
introduced  by  infection,  or  by  experimental  inoculation. 
In  districts  of  France,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Switzerland, 
where  anthrax  abounds,  cattle  and  sheep  for  many  jea.rs 
have  been  vaccinated  with  attenuated  anthrax  virus,  the 
mortality  amongst  the  vaccinated  is  stated  to  be  less  than 
one-tenth  of  that  which  occurs  amongst  the  unvaccinated 


4  PROTECTIVE    VACCINES 

Stock.  Sterilised  cultivation  of  hog  cholera  virus  is  used  in 
America  as  a  protective  against  swine  plague.  Immunity 
from  fowl  cholera,  and  from  septicemia,  has  been  similarly 
secured.  Pasteur,  by  repeated  injection  of  attenuated  rabies 
vaccine,  rendered  dogs  and  other  animals  insusceptible  to 
the  action  of  lethal  doses  of  rabies  virus,  and  Pasteur's 
method  applied  to  persons  bitten  by  rabid  animals  continues 
to  afford  protection  against  hj^drophobia  in  99  per  cent,  of 
the  cases  timeously  submitted  to  this  treatment.  Pigeons 
inoculated  with  small  doses  of  snake  poison  for  periods  of 
three  months  withstand  seven  times  the  ordinary  fatal  dose 
of  snake  poison.  The  modified  black-quarter  virus,  obtained 
by  drying  and  heating  the  muscle  of  an  animal  that  has 
suffered  from  this  disease  also  exerts  a  distinct  effect  in 
protecting  even  susceptible  animals  against  attacks  of  this 
disease ;  whilst  cultivations  of  the  swine  erysipelas  bacillus, 
when  similarly  modified  by  heat,  have  been  used  with  great 
success  as  a  protective  inoculation  agent  against  the  ravages 
of  swine  erysipelas  (Rouget  du  pore).  The  manner  in  Avhich 
these  vaccines  effect  their  protective  powers  has  been  variously 
explained,  but  the  most  satisfactory  view  is,  that  small 
repeated  doses  of  the  cultivated  organism  or  its  products 
modify  the  functions  of  the  cells  on  which  they  specially 
act,  and  thus  confer  upon  .them  a  tolerance  against  deadly 
doses  of  the  same  or  allied  poisons  (Bacteria  and  their 
Products,  by  G.  Sims  Woodhead,  M.D.).  Going  further  than 
this,  however,  it  must  now  be  recognised  as  a  result  of  the 
observations  of  Behring,  Roux,  Ehrlich,  and  numerous  later 
workers,  that  this  tolerance  is  due  in  great  part  to  the  pro- 
duction, during  the  reaction  between  the  cell  and  the  toxine, 
of  an  antitoxine  which  at  first  stored  in  the  cell,  soon  over- 
flows its  boundaries  and  passes  into  the  blood  where  it 
appears  to  be  stored  up  in  the  fluid  elements,  always  ready 
to  combine  with  any  toxine  that  may  be  produced  in  or 
introduced  into  the  tissues.  This  is  not  the  only  factor  in 
the  resistance,  but  it  is  certainly  a  very  important  one. 
From  the  fact  that  these  antitoxic  substances  are  stored  up 
in  the  fluid  constituents  of  the  blood  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  produce  antitoxine  in  one  animal,  and  then  by 


AHTlTOXINES  6 

drawing  off  its  blood,  and  allowing  the  clot  to  separate  from 
the  serum  to  obtain  a  fluid  containing  a  large  quantity  of 
antitoxine  which  injected  into  a  second  patient  acts  upon 
the  toxine  neutralising  it  just  as  surely  and  completely  as  if 
it  were  acting  upon  the  original  patient.  This  has  gradually 
developed  into  a  definite  system  of  treatment — the  anti- 
toxine treatment.  It  has  been  worked  out  most  thoroughly 
in  diphtheria  in  the  human  subject,  and  in  tetanus  in  veteri- 
nary medicine ;  whilst  fair  results  have  also  been  obtained 
using  a  similar  method  in  the  treatment  of  snake  poisoning. 
In  Diphtheria,  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  (1)  because 
the  local  lesion,  i.e.  the  false  membrane,  &c.,  is  usually  well 
marked  before  the  constitutional  disturbances,  i.e.  the  toxic 
effects,  make  their  appearance ;  and  (2)  because  the  poison 
is  not  only  formed  slowly,  but  takes  some  time  to  produce 
its  effects  upon  the  nervous  tissues  to  which  it  usually 
attaches  itself 

To  produce  diphtheria  antitoxine  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
inject  subcutaneously  the  toxic  products  of  the  diphtheria 
bacillus  grown  in  slightly  alkaline  broth,  or  still  better  in 
broth  containing  a  certain  proportion  of  blood  plasma  into 
some  animal,  preferably  a  horse.  This  should  be  followed  by 
a  rise  of  temperature,  and  by  swelling  at  the  seat  of  injection. 
Unless  this  reaction  is  obtained  no  antitoxine  will  be  formed. 
Gradually  increasing  doses  of  the  toxine  must  be  injected 
from  time  to  time,  care  being  taken  to  obtain  a  distinct 
reaction  after  each  injection,  and  to  make  the  fresh  injection 
before  the  effects  of  the  last  one  have  completely  passed 
away.  After  a  time  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  very  difficult 
to  obtain  a  local  reaction,  or  a  rise  of  temperature,  even 
when  large  quantities  of  toxine  are  injected.  During  the 
whole  of  this  period  it  will  be  found  that  the  antitoxic  value 
of  the  blood  is  rising  more  or  less  rapidly,  and  at  last  there 
is  sufficient  antitoxine  present  to  make  it  valuable  for  the 
treatment  of  diphtheria  patients.  The  antitoxine  in  the 
serum  injected  into  a  patient  suffering  from  the  effects  of 
diphtheria  poisoning,  combines  with  the  toxine  formed  by 
the  diphtheria  bacillus,  and  so  prevents  it  from  exerting  its 
deleterious  action  upon  the   tissues   of  the   patient.     The 


SERUM    TIIERAPV 

diphtheria  bacilli,  with  their  poison  neutralised,  now  behave 
like  ordinary  non-pathogenetic  organisms,  and  are  rapidly 
destroyed  by  the  tissues,  and  the  patient  recovers. 

In  tetanus  the  principle  of  production  of  antitoxinc  is  the 
same  as  in  diphtheria,  but  the  treatment  has  not  been  so 
successful,  because  the  disease  in  this  case  does  not  manifest 
itself  locally  in  the  first  instance,  the  poison  has  already 
attacked  the  nerve  centres  before  the  necessity  for  treatment 
makes  its  appearance.  The  damage  has  already  been  done, 
and  antitoxinc,  though  it  can  neutralise  the  poison,  and  so 
prevent  further  damage  being  done,  cannot  make  good  the 
ravages  already  carried  on.  Tetanus  antitoxinc,  however, 
like  diphtheria  antitoxinc,  acts  as  a  most  poAverful  prophy- 
lactic, and  it  is  in  this  character  that  its  greatest  value  as  a 
therapeutic  agent  must  be  sought. 

Calmette's  antivenin  has  also  been  found  to  be  of  great 
use  in  the  treatment  of  snake  bite.  It  is  prepared  in  the 
same  way  as  are  the  other  antitoxines.  By  treating  a  horse 
with  gradually  increasing  doses  of  the  mixed  venom  taken 
from  various  snakes — cobra,  black  snake  and  others,  it  is 
found  that,  if  sufficient  care  be  taken  to  give  small  enough 
preliminary  doses,  and  to  allow  the  animal  to  regain  weight 
and  condition  after  each  injection,  large  doses  may  be  given 
later ;  the  horse  then  becomes  not  only  immune  against  the 
action  of  these  large  doses,  but  his  blood  contains  an  anti- 
venin which,  held  in  solution  in  the  serum,  may  be  injected 
into  other  animals  where  it  acts  not  only  as  a  prophylactic, 
but  also  as  a  curative  agent  against  snake  bite,  even  of  the 
most  virulent  types. 

Scrum  therapy,  or  the  treatment  of  disease  with  these 
various  antitoxic  substances,  has  now  taken  a  recognised 
place  in  medicine,  and  a  new  vista  has  been  opened  up  in 
connection  with  the  treatment  of  si)ecific  infective  diseases 
that  are  produced  by  poisons. 

Tiie  products  of  micro-organisms,  however,  liave  been 
utilised  in  other  most  important  fashions.  Tuberculin 
(which  consists  essentially  of  the  products  of  the  tubercle 
bacillus  grown  in  beef  peptone  broth  containing  a  five  per 
cent,  solution  of  glycerin,  the   bacilli   destroyed   and  then 


CLASSIFICATIONS   OF   MEDICINES  7 

filtered  out  by  means  of  a  Pasteur-Chamberland  filter,  the 
whole  concentrated  by  evaporation  at  a  low  temperature),  is 
now  used  for  the  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis,  as  it  is  found 
that  these  products,  when  injected  subcutaneously,  appear 
to  co-operate  with  the  poisons  already  in  the  body,  and  to 
cause  a  reaction  of  the  tissues,  and  a  rise  in  temperature 
which,  together,  give  evidence  of  the  presence  of  a  tubercular 
process.  Exactly  the  same  thing  happens  in  the  case  of 
mallein,  which  is  prepared  in  the  same  way  from  the 
glanders  bacillus  as  the  tuberculin  is  prepared  from  the 
tubercle  bacillus.  A  small  quantity  of  this  substance  in- 
jected subcutaneously  in  a  healthy  animal  with  a  normal 
temperature  gives  rise  to  little  or  no  local  swelling,  and  a 
very  slight  rise  of  temperature,  whilst  a  similar  quantity  in- 
jected into  a  horse  suffering  from  glanders  gives  rise  to  a  local 
swelling  of  considerable  size,  which  goes  on  increasing  up  to 
the  18th  or  24th  hour,  or  even  longer,  and  is  accompanied 
by  a  rise  of  temperature  to  104''  F.  In  certain  cases  where 
the  temperature  is  high  to  begin  with,  even  where  the 
disease — tuberculosis  or  glanders — is  well  advanced,  no 
characteristic  reaction  is  obtained ;  but  in  almost  all  these 
cases  the  diagnosis  can  be  made  without  the  aid  of  the 
specific  products. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  bacteria  are  coming  to  play  a 
greater  and  greater  part  in  both  diagnosis  and  treatment  of 
disease,  just  as  they  have  come  to  play  such  an  important 
role  in  our  conception  of  its  production. 

Classifications  of  Medicines 

Medicines  are  drawn  from  the  three  great  natural  king- 
doms, and  are  characterised  by  various  physical  and  chemical 
properties:  but  these  characters  do  not  afford  sufficiently 
accurate  or  definite  indications  of  the  actions  of  drugs  on 
living  bodies,  and  hence  are  not  of  much  service  in  practical 
classifications.  The  atomic  weis^hts  of  inorganic  elements 
are  of  little  or  no  value  in  determining  on  what  organs  or  in 
what  way  inorganic  elements  and  their  compounds  act  as 
medicines.      The    soluble    salts   of   the   heavy  metals   are 


8  CHEMICAL,    BOTANICAL,    AND 

certainly  generally  active  poisons,  though  neither  similar 
chemical  composition  nor  similar  chemical  reaction  neces- 
sarily confers  similar  physiological  effects.  Substances  which 
crystallise  in  the  same  form,  have,  however,  somewhat 
similar  actions,  and  on  this  isomorphous  basis  the  elements 
have  been  arranged  into  nine  groups,  in  each  of  which 
it  is  noted  that  the  intensity  of  action  increases  with 
the  atomic  weight  (Dr.  Lauder  Brunton).  The  same  base, 
united  with  different  acids,  produces  salts  which  exhibit 
very  different  actions,  as  illustrated  in  the  several  com- 
pounds of  sodium  and  potassium.  Equally  diverse  physio- 
logical effects  are  produced  by  compounds  resulting  from 
conjoining  the  same  acid  with  different  bases.  Such  irritant 
corrosive  substances  as  caustic  soda  and  sulphuric  acid, 
entering  into  chemical  combination,  produce  a  neutral,  com- 
paratively mild  saline.  Organic,  like  inorganic,  bases  are 
notably  modified  by  the  acid  radicles  with  which  they 
unite.  Thus,  amyl-hydride  is  an  aniesthetic  ;  when  oxygen 
is  introduced,  as  in  amyl-alcohol,  or  amyl-acetate,  spasm  is 
added  to  the  antesthesia ;  amyl  -  iodide  notably  increases 
secretion,  while  amyl-nitrite  lessens  arterial  pressure.  It 
is  hence  evident  that  the  action  of  a  compound  medicine 
cannot  be  inferred  from  a  knowledge  of  the  action  of  the 
substances  that  combine  to  form  it.  On  the  contrary,  a 
compound  substance  exerts  special  actions  of  its  own,  these 
depending  on  the  proportion  of  its  components,  and  upon  its 
own  physical  qualities. 

Very  important  investigations  have  been  made  by  Pro- 
fessors Crum  Brown,  Fraser,  Schroff  and  Jolyet,  in  artificially 
modifying  the  chemical  constitution,  and  thus  changing  the 
physiological  actions  of  drugs.  When  strychnine,  brucine 
and  thebaine,  which  act  upon  the  spinal  cord  as  powerful 
convulsants,  are  converted  b}'  addition  of  methyl  into 
methyl-str3'chninc,  methyl-brucine  and  methyl-thebaine, 
they  act  upon  the  ends  of  motor  nerves  as  paralysants. 
Indeed,  methyl,  when  combined  with  other  alkaloids,  as 
quinine,  morphine,  atropine  and  codeine,  renders  these  also 
powerful  paralysers  of  motor  nerves. 

The  study  of  the  natural  orders  of  plants  affords  some 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    CLASSIFICATIONS  9 

general  information  as  to  their  physiological  actions.  Thus, 
the  Ranunculacese  furnish  many  acrid  irritants,  such  as 
aconite,  podophyllum  and  stavesacre.  The  Solanacese  yield 
narcotics,  such  as  tobacco  and  dulcamara;  while  the  sub- 
order, Atropacese,  are  paralysers  of  involuntary  muscles. 
The  seeds  of  many  Umbelliferse  yield  carminative  volatile 
oils.  These  general  botanical  characters  do  not,  however, 
afford  sufficient  data  for  the  accurate  classification  of  drugs. 
Edible  as  well  as  poisonous  plants  occur  in  many  natural 
orders.  Plants  of  different  orders  and  genera  sometimes 
closely  resemble  each  other,  while  plants  of  the  same  genus 
may  have  very  different  properties.  Thus,  one  species  of 
Strychnos  yields  strychnine,  which  stimulates  the  motor 
centres  of  the  spinal  cord,  inducing  tetanic  convulsions, 
while  another  yields  curare,  which  paralyses  the  peripheral 
endings  of  motor  nerves.  But  even  the  same  drug  some- 
times yields  antagonistic  active  principles.  From  opium 
are  obtained  the  soothing  anodyne  morphine,  the  convulsant 
thebaine,  and  the  emetic  apomorphine.  Calabar  bean  yields 
eserine  which  depresses,  and  calabarine  which  stimulates 
the  spinal  cord.  Jaborandi  yields  pilocarpine  and  its  an- 
tagonist jaborine,  the  former  stimulating,  and  the  latter 
paralysing  the  ends  of  secretory  nerves. 

The  grouping  of  medicines  according  to  their  actions  has 
not  hitherto  been  of  much  more  practical  value  than  their 
chemical  or  botanical  classification.  The  precise  actions  of 
many  medicines  are  only  now  becoming  definitely  known. 
Many,  moreover,  have  a  variety  of  actions,  and  hence  have 
to  be  included  in  several  groups.  Alcohol,  for  example,  is 
stimulant,  irritant,  narcotic,  and  sedative,  as  well  as  nutrient, 
antiseptic,  and  antipyretic.  Opium  is  narcotic,  anodyne, 
and  hypnotic ;  but  it  also  stimulates  certain  patients,  and 
tetanises  others. 

Disregarding  the  classifications  hitherto  adoj)ted,  students 
and  practitioners  will  find  it  advantageous  to  study  the 
actions  of  medicines  upon  the  chief  organs  and  functions  of 
the  body.  Adopting  this  method.  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  de- 
votes a  large  section  of  his  admirable  work  on  Pharmacology, 
Therapeutics,  and  Materia  Medica  to  an  explanation  of  the 


10  ACTIONS  OF  MEDICINES 

actions  of  medicines  on  protoplasm,  muscle,  the  nervous 
system,  resi^iration,  circulation,  digestion,  etc. '^  and  following 
a  similar  plan  this  introductory  section  will  be  subdivided 
as  under : — 

Actions  of  Medicinal  Agents. 

I.  Local  and  general  actions  :  absorption  and  distribution. 
II.  Elective  affinity  between  drugs  and  particular  tissues 
or  cells :  elimination. 

III.  Effects  on  different  classes  of  patients : 

IV.  Modifying  influences   of    Climate   and    Temperature, 

Habit,  Idiosyncrasy,  Disease,  and  Surroundings,  etc. 

Curative  Systems  :  Allopathy,  Homoeopathy. 

On  Protoplasm,  Blood,  and  Low  Organisms. 
Antiseptics  :    Disinfectants  :     Deodorisers  :    Germicides  : 
Antiperiodics. 

On  the  Surface  of  the  Body. 

Counter-irritants:    Rubefacients:    Vesicants:   Pustulants: 

Caustics : 
Setons :  The  Actual  Cautery : 
Astringents :  Styptics : 
Demulcents :  Emollients :  Diluents. 

On  Muscles. 

Muscular  Poisons :  Muscular  Stimulants. 

On  the  Nervous  System. 
The  Brain.     Cerebral  Stimulants :  Exhilarants. 

Cerebral  Depressants:  Soporifics:  Narcotics:  Anodynes: 

Antispasmodics :  Anesthetics. 
The  Spinal  Cord.     Spinal  Stimulants  and  Depressants. 
Motor  Nerves.     Stimulants :  Paralysers. 
Sensory  Nerves.      Stimulants:    Local   Sedatives:    Local 

AniTesthetics. 

On  the  Eye  and  other  Special  Senses. 
Mydriatics  dilate  the  Pupil. 
Myotics  contract  the  Pupil. 


ACTIONS   OP   MEDICINES  11 

On  the  Respiratory  Organs. 

Errhines   or   Sternutatories :   Resj^iratory  Sedatives :  Ex- 
pectorants :  Disinfectants. 
On  the  Circulatory  Organs. 

Cardiac  Stimulants :  Vascular  Stimulants : 

„         Tonics :  „         Tonics : 

„        Sedatives:  „        Sedatives. 

On  the  Digestive  System. 
The   Salivary  Glands   and  Fauces.     Sialagogues :  Anti- 

sialics :  Refrigerants. 
The   Stomach.      Gastric    Tonics:    Stomachics:    Bitters: 

Antacids:  Emetics:  Anti-emetics:  Gastric  Sedatives. 
The   Intestines.      Purgatives:    Carminatives:    Intestinal 

Astringents :  Antise2)tics. 
The  Liver.     Hepatic  Stimulants:  Cholagogues:  Hepatic 

De23ressants : 
Worms.     Athelmintics :  Vermicides:  Vermifuges. 

On  the  Skin. 

Diaphoretics:  Sudorifics:  Anhydrotics:  Parasiticides. 

On  the  Urinary  Organs. 
The  Kidneys :  Diuretics. 

The  Bladder :  Lithontriptics :  Urinary  Sedatives :  Tonics : 
Astringents :  Disinfectants. 

On  the  Organs  of  Generation. 

Aphrodisiacs :  Anaphrodisiacs : 

Ecbolics : 

Agents  acting  on  the  Mammary  Glands. 

On  Tissue  Change  and  Temperature. 

Restoratives :  Tonics :  Hsematinics :  Alteratives : 
Antipyretics :  Febrifuges :  Blood-letting. 

Poisons  and  Antidotes. 

Mode  of  Administration. 

Doses :  Manner  of  exliibition. 


12         rUYSIOLOGICAL   AND   THERAPEUTIC   ACTIONS 


THE    ACTIONS    OF    MEDICINES 

LOCAL  AND  GENERAL  ACTIONS  —  ABSORPTION  —  ELECTIVE 
AFFINITY  BETWEEN  DRUGS  AND  PARTICULAR  TISSUES  OR 
CELLS — EFFECTS  ON  DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  PATIENTS — 
MODIFYING  INFLUENCES  OF  CLIMATE  AND  TEMPERATURE, 
HABIT,  IDIOSYNCRASY,   DISEASE,  SURROUNDINGS,  ETC. 

I.  Every  medicine  is  possessed  of  certain  effects  or  actions 
on  living  animals,  as  distinctive  as  its  colour,  taste,  or 
chemical  properties.  Such  actions,  when  exerted  in  health, 
are  termed  physiological  actions ;  when  exerted  in  the  treat- 
ment of  disease  they  are  termed  tlierapeutic  or  curative 
actions.  These  actions  cannot,  however,  be  regarded  as 
twofold  or  distinct,  for  the  physiological  action  determines 
and  is  merged  in  the  curative  results.  A  horse  eats  some 
indigestible  food,  and  in  consequence  suffers  from  spasm  of 
the  bowels,  for  which  a  dose  of  purgative  medicine  may  be 
prescribed.  The  purgative  exerts  its  physiological  action  by 
increasing  intestinal  secretion  and  peristalsis ;  the  irritant  is 
thus  swept  away,  and  spasm  and  pain  are  removed.  A  dose 
of  physic  prescribed  for  a  horse  with  itching  and  swollen 
legs  produces  the  physiological  effects  of  emptying  the 
bowels,  and  clearing  the  body  of  irritant  waste  matters  with 
the  curative  result  of  relieving  or  removing  the  itching  and 
swelling  of  the  limbs.  Hunting  horses  frequently,  after  a 
hard  day,  have  stiff"  limbs,  with  puffy  joints  and  tendons ; 
diligent  hand-rubbing  and  subsequent  bandaging  mechani- 
cally and  physiologically  stimulate  the  activity  of  the  local 
circulation,  with  the  therapeutic  effect  of  restoring  the  parts 
to  their  normal  state.  All  the  physiological  actions  pro- 
duced by  medicines  may  not  be  favourable  to  the  curative 
result  desired,  but  subsidiary,  useless,  or  harmful  effects  may 
be  diminished  or  neutralised  by  judicious  selection  and 
combination  of  remedies.  Some  medicines  arc  chicHy  local 
and  direct  in  their  action.  A  strong  acid  applied  to  the 
skin  irritates  and,  it  may  be,  destroys  it.  A  hot  fomentation 
or  poultice  in  contact  with  a  painful  surface  soothes  it,  and 
relieves  local  congestion  and  pain.     The  primary  action  of 


ABSORPTION    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF   MEDICINES        13 

local  irritants  is  frequently  followed  by  secondary  and 
remote  effects.  In  sore  throat  the  application  of  a  blister 
directly  irritates  and  inflames  the  skin,  and  reflexly,  or 
through  the  nervous  system,  it  relieves  congestion  and  pain 
of  the  respiratory  membrane.  In  horses  a  large  cantharides 
blister,  owing  to  absorption  of  the  active  principle  of  the 
fly,  occasionally  produces  febrile  symptoms,  and  congestion 
of  the  urinary  passages  by  which  the  irritant  is  excreted. 

The  general  effects  of  most  medicines  are  only  produced 
when  they  enter  the  blood,  and  the  more  rapidly  a  medicine 
enters  the  circulation  the  more  immediate  and  powerful  are 
its  effects.  The  short  time  required  for  absorption,  distribu- 
tion, action  and  elimination  is  well  illustrated  in  the  rapidly 
fatal  effects  of  such  poisons  as  prussic  acid  and  strychnine. 
Yellow  prussiate  of  potash  injected  into  the  trachea  Avas 
detected  two  minutes  later  in  the  jugular  vein  (Colin); 
injected  into  one  of  the  jugular  veins  of  a  horse  it  appeared 
in  the  other  in  twenty-five  seconds,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
was  exhaled  from  the  mucous  and  serous  membranes 
(Hering).  Barium  chloride  traversed  the  circulation  of  a 
horse  in  twenty  seconds,  and  injected  into  the  jugular  vein  of 
a  dog  it  reached  the  carotid  artery  in  seven  seconds.  When 
the  foot  of  an  Albino  rat  was  immersed  for  a  few  seconds  in 
chloroform  containing  one  per  cent,  of  atropine,  absorption 
occurred,  and  dilatation  of  the  pupils  followed  in  from  two 
to  five  minutes  (Waller). 

Medicines  may  be  administered  by  injection  into  the  sub- 
cutaneous areolar  tissue,  the  trachea,  veins,  glands,  muscles, 
rectum,  uterus,  udder,  and  large  serous  cavities;  but  the 
most  frequent  and  generally  the  most  convenient  mode  of 
administration  is  by  the  mouth,  whence,  speedily  reaching 
the  stomach  and  small  intestine,  medicines  enter  the  circu- 
lation. Administered  in  a  tolerably  concentrated  but  soluble 
form  medicines  do  not  require  to  be  acted  upon  by  the 
ferment-containing  secretions  of  the  digestive  canal;  but 
the  digestion  of  mashes  and  many  restorative  foods  is  pro- 
moted by  the  alkaline  saliva,  which  also  favours  the  hydration 
and  solution  of  some  drugs.  The  acid,  pepsin-containing, 
gastric  juice  dissolves  protcids,  as  well  as  iron,  mercurial  and 


14  ABSORPTION    BY   THE   DIGESTIVE   TRACT 

other  salts.  The  alkaline  bile  emulsionises  fats  and  resins ; 
the  pancreatic  fluid  furthers  digestion  of  starch  albumin 
and  fats;  and  specially  refractory  substances  are  more 
thoroughly  reduced  by  the  alkaline  intestinal  juices.  Medi- 
cines taken  up  by  the  vessels  of  the  gastro-intestinal  mucous 
membrane  are  convoyed  to  the  liver  where  they  may  be 
stored  up,  detained  for  a  time,  neutralised  or  moditied, 
eliminated  in  the  bile,  or  passed  unchanged  into  the  general 
circulation. 

Absorption  by  the  healthy  buccal  membrane  is  possible, 
but  medicines  introduced  into  the  mouth  are  either  quickly 
swallowed  or  rejected,  and  consequently  contact  with  its 
thick  epithelium  is  too  brief  to  permit  of  penetration. 
Gastric  absorption  varies  with  the  species,  the  age  of  the 
animal,  and  the  state  of  the  stomach  as  regards  contents, 
digestive  phenomena,  and  freedom  from  disease.  Very  active 
in  dogs  and  pigs,  gastric  absorption  in  cattle  and  sheep  only 
occurs  in  the  abomasum.  In  horses,  absorption  by  the 
stomach  has  been  doubted  or  denied  since  Bouley  and  Colin 
published  the  results  of  their  experiments  with  strychnine. 
Bouley,  after  dividing  the  pneumogastric  nerves,  admini- 
stered lethal  doses  of  strychnine  without  injurious  effect. 
Colin  found  that  after  tying  the  pylorus,  large  doses  of 
strychnine  introduced  into  the  stomach  did  not  poison  ;  but 
later  experiments  seem  to  prove  that  poisoning  docs  not 
occur  when  after  an  interval  the  ligature  is  removed,  and 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  allowed  to  pass  into  the 
bowel.  Schiff"  considers  that  absorption  of  the  strychnine  is 
sufficiently  gradual  to  allow  of  its  being  proportionately 
eliminated  in  the  urine,  and  that  the  drug  docs  not  accumu- 
late in  the  blood  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause  poisoning. 

The  empty  stomach  is  supposed  to  absorb  more  rapidly 
than  the  stomach  tilled  with  food  :  but  the  empty  stomach 
is  less  vascular,  and  its  corrugated  lining  is  protected  by  a 
thick  mucus,  which  probably  retards  absorption.  Medicines 
given  on  a  full  stomach  or  mixed  with  the  food  are  exposed 
to  attenuation  and  the  action  of  the  secretions  formed  in 
the  digesting  stomach,  and,  if  unstable,  they  may  undergo 
rapid  alteration,  and  fail  to  produce  general  effects.     Medi- 


ABSORPTION   BY   THE   RESPIRATORY   TRACT         15 

cines  intended  to  act  directly  on  the  stomach  should  be 
given  to  the  animal  fasting,  and  nutrients  should  be  given 
either  with  the  food  or  soon  after  feeding.  In  gastric  impac- 
tion medicine  given  by  the  mouth  seldom  acts  with  the 
desired  rapidity.  It  mixes  with  the  ingesta,  but  owing  to 
the  movements  of  the  stomach  being  either  diminished  or 
suspended,  the  food  does  not  pass  into  the  intestine,  or  the 
drug  in  sufficient  quantity  does  not  reach  the  absorbent 
surface,  and  in  consequence  its  action  is  delayed. 

Absorption  by  the  small  intestine  in  all  the  domestic 
animals  is  very  active.  A  strychnine  salt  injected  into  the 
duodenum  produces  its  effects  in  three  or  four  minutes,  and 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  similarly  used  may  be  found  in 
the  blood  in  five  to  six  minutes  (Kaufmann).  The  caecum 
and  large  colon  absorb  rapidly,  and  in  cases  of  tympany 
treated  by  puncture  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  canula 
to  introduce  medicines  directly  into  the  intestine.  The 
rectum  and  floating  colon  rapidly  absorb  soluble  medicines 
and  nutrients  introduced  by  the  anus ;  and  in  gastric  disease 
rectal  injection  is  preferable  to  administration  by  the  mouth. 
Ansesthesia  may  be  induced  by  chloral  or  ether  thrown  into 
the  rectum,  but  this  method  is  unsatisfactory.  To  ensure 
speedy  absorption,  and  to  prevent  ejection  of  medicines 
introduced  through  the  anus,  the  solution  should  be  warm 
and  concentrated  to  a  few  drachms.  Larger  quantities  will 
be  retained  and  absorbed,  but  the  injection  should  not  be 
bulky  if  immediate  effects  are  desired. 

The  respiratory  tract  furnishes  probably  the  most  actively 
absorbent  mucous  surface  in  the  body.  Long  used  for 
anaesthetic  inhalations,  it  is  occasionally  employed  for  the 
administration  of  remedies  in  cases  of  purpura  ha^morrhagica, 
and  parasitic  bronchitis.  Soluble  drugs,  introduced  by  in- 
sufflation, are  absorbed  by  the  nasal  lining,  and  medicines 
in  aqueous  or  alcoholic  solution,  not  too  concentrated,  are  well 
borne  and  very  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  tracheal,  bronchial, 
and  pulmonary  mucous  membranes.  Drugs  dissolved  or 
suspended  in  oil  are  less  tolerated,  although  Dr.  Levi,  the 
chief  authority  on  intra-tracheal  administration,  maintains 
that  small  injections  of  oil  are  absorbed.     Emulsions,  how- 


16  ABSORPTION    BY   THE  SKIN 

ever,  are  safer,  so  long  as  the  quantity  is  small  and  injec- 
tion is  made  slowly.  Intra- tracheal  injections  are  especially 
risky  in  bronchitis  and  pneumonia.  Beyond  a  slight  gain  in 
time,  intra-tracheal  injection  has  no  advantage  over  hypo- 
dermic administration,  except  in  cases  where  direct  or  local 
action  is  required  (Guinard). 

Although  seldom  employed  in  practice  for  the  administra- 
tion of  medicines,  the  female  generative  tract — the  uterus, 
especially  after  parturition,  absorbs  very  rapidly.  Potassium 
iodide  has  been  found  in  the  urine  in  from  two  to  four 
minutes  after  injection  into  the  womb.  The  healthy  vagina 
absorbs  very  slowly,  but  when  congested  its  absorbent  power 
is  much  increased.  Absorption  from  the  lining  of  the  galac- 
tophorous  sinus  of  the  cow's  udder  is  fairly  active.  The 
absorbent  power  of  the  conjunctiva  is  well  kno^vn.  Cocaine 
appears  to  promote  conjunctival  absorption  of  solutions  of 
atropine,  eserine,  and  strychnine,  and  of  other  drugs. 

The  peritoneum,  pleura,  and  the  synovial  membranes  of 
joints  and  tendons  absorb  very  rapidly.  Potassium  prussiate 
injected  into  the  peritoneal  cavity  was  found  six  minutes 
later  in  the  urine;  and  strychnine  similarly  used  caused 
death  in  less  than  four  minutes.  Anaesthesia  can  be  readily 
induced  in  dogs  by  intra-peritoneal  injection  of  chloral  and 
morphine. 

Drugs,  even  when  volatile,  pass  very  slowly  and  im- 
perfectly through  the  unbroken  skin,  except  when  applied 
with  the  assistance  of  an  electric  current  (cataphoresis  or 
dielectrolysis),  but  absorption  readily  occurs  from  open 
wounds  and  abraded  skin  surfaces.  Clean-cut  fresh  wounds, 
free  from  bleeding,  absorb  more  rapidly  than  wounds  which 
are  irregular,  bruised,  or  bleeding.  Absorption  by  granulation 
tissue  is  less  active,  though  occasionally  undesirable  effects 
follow  the  careless  application  of  toxic  antiseptics  to  wounds 
in  process  of  healing.  Drugs  incorporated  with  oil  or  lard 
penetrate  more  readily  than  do  ointments  made  with  vase- 
line. Absorption  of  aqueous  solutions  is  hindered  or  pre- 
vented by  the  sebaceous  matter,  but  salts  which  are  dissolved 
by  the  secretion  of  the  skin  may  produce  general  effects. 
Kxperimcnts  prove  that  agents  which  are  soluble  in  sebaceous 


SPECIAL  AFFINITY   FOR   PARTICULAR,  ORGANS         17 

matter,  or  which  emit  during  their  application  vapour  or 
gas,  as  guaiacol,  alcohol,  benzine,  potassium  iodide,  mer- 
curials, carbolic  acid,  etc.,  pass  more  or  less  rapidly  through 
the  skin.  But  the  intact  epidermis  offers  considerable 
resistance  to  penetration ;  and  in  practice,  lotions,  liniments, 
or  ointments,  carefully  used  seldom  endanger  life.  Slow 
absor]3tion  may  occur,  but  owing  to  rapid  ehmination  the 
drug  does  not  accumulate  in  sufficient  quantity  to  excite 
toxic  symptoms.  The  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  absorbs 
nearly  as  rapidly  as  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane. 
Hypodermic  injections,  properly  prepared,  are  promptly 
taken  up  unchanged  by  the  blood-vessels  and  lymphatics. 

II.  Between  certain  organs,  -tissues,  or  groups  of  cells,  and 
certain  medicines,  there  appears  to  be  a  special  elective 
affinity.  A  medicine  absorbed  and  in  circulation,  owing  to 
its  chemical  affinity,  becomes  arrested  in  contact  with  cer- 
tain cell  groups,  where  it  fixes  itself  and  tends  to  replace 
some  of  the  normal  nutritive  elements.  From  the  common 
stream  of  blood  each  tissue  takes  up  its  appropriate  nutrient 
materials,  and,  in  like  manner,  it  appears  to  select  its  own 
medicines.  The  characteristic  effects  are  not  developed 
until  medicines  come  into  actual  contact  with  the  special 
organs,  or,  it  may  be,  the  particular  cells,  on  which  alone 
they  operate.  Curare  does  not  exert  its  paralysing  power 
until  it  reaches  the  intramuscular  endings  of  the  motor 
nerves.  Magendie  found  that  strychnine  does  not  excite  its 
notable  tetanic  convidsions  until  it  is  in  contact  with  the 
spinal  cord.  Indeed,  w^hen  a  frog  or  other  small  animal, 
immediately  after  receiving  a  full  dose  of  strychnine,  has 
the  spinal  cord  removed  or  broken  down,  tetanic  symptoms 
do  not  occur. 

On  the  particular  part  on  which  they  act — as,  for  example, 
on  the  nerve-centres  or  nerve- endings  that  control  blood- 
vessels or  glandular  secretions  —  some  medicines  exert 
stimulant,  others  depressant  or  paralysing  effects.  These 
effects,  as  already  indicated  in  the  case  of  drugs  acting 
locally,  frequently  produce  reflexly  indirect  or  remote 
effects.  The  same  medicine  sometimes  acts  differently 
when  given   in   different   doses.      Thus,   alcohol  and  ether 

B 


18        ACTION    DIFFERENT    ON    DIFFERENT   ANIMALS 

in  small  doses  arc  stimulants,  but  in  large  doses  are 
depressants. 

Within  the  living  body  most  medicines  not  only  effect 
changes,  but  themselves  coincidently  undergo  changes, 
notably  of  oxidation  or  deoxidation.  Thus,  many  salts  of 
tartaric,  acetic,  and  other  organic  acids  are  converted  into 
carbonates.  Morphine  has  its  chemical  constitution  altered, 
and  its  soothing  anodyne  actions  in  part  superseded,  by 
nauseating  and  irritant  effects.  The  activity  of  medicines 
depends  materially  on  their  solubility,  the  rapidity  of  their 
absorption,  and  the  period  during  which  they  remain  within 
the  body.  Some  drugs,  as  lead,  mercury,  silver,  and  digitalis, 
are  apt  to  be  retained  for  a  considerable  period,  and  hence 
have  more  or  less  continuous  or  cumulative  effect.  Un- 
usual activity  of  such  excreting  channels  as  the  bowels  or 
kidne3^s  hurries  most  medicines  out  of  the  body,  and  hence 
diminishes  their  action. 

In  a  variable  but  usually  short  period,  medicines,  generally 
in  a  modified  form,  are  eliminated  by  the  bowels,  kidneys, 
skin,  salivary  and  mammary  glands,  or  jDulmonar}'  mucous 
membrane.  Digitalis,  for  example,  after  exerting  its  action 
mainly  on  the  heart  and  arterioles,  is  removed  by  the  kid- 
neys. Alcohol  and  its  analogues  are  got  rid  of  by  the  skin 
and  kidneys,  and  also  pass  away  through  the  respiratory 
mucous  membrane.  During  their  excretion  medicines  exert 
their  in-contact  effects  on  the  excretory  organ  and  passages. 
Thus,  aloes  and  full  doses  of  oils  and  neutral  salts,  after 
stimulating  the  secretion  and  movements  of  the  bowels,  are 
in  part  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  thence  are  returned 
into  the  bowels,  causing  further  purgation.  Nitre,  and  small 
doses  of  salines  and  ethers,  chiefly  removed  through  the 
kidneys,  produce  diuresis.  Terebene  and  various  balsams 
during  their  excretion  b}?-  the  pulmonary  membrane  or 
urinary  passages  exert  their  antiseptic  and  astringent 
properties. 

III.  The  several  species  of  veterinary  patients  are 
differently  affected  by  many  medicines.  These  differences, 
however,  are  in  degree  rather  than  in  kind,  and  depend 
upon   differences   in   organisation   and   function.      On    the 


SPECIAL    ACTIONS    ON    HORSES  19 

circulatory,  respiratory,  and  urinary  systems,  which  nearly 
resemble  each  other  in  man  and  the  domestic  animals, 
medicines  act  tolerably  uniformly.  Thus,  aconite,  digitalis, 
and  nitre  produce  very  similar  effects  in  men,  horses,  dogs, 
and  cattle.  Greater  diversity,  however,  occurs  in  regard  to 
medicines  acting  on  the  nervous,  digestive,  and  cutaneous 
systems,  which  differ  considerably  in  the  several  species  of 
animals.  Rabbits  and  monkeys  seem  to  possess  a  special 
resistance  to  the  action  of  atropine.  Apomorphine,  which 
promptly  causes  vomiting  in  dogs,  has  no  emetic  action  on 
pigs.  Morphine  is  an  excellent  hypnotic  for  the  dog ;  but 
in  the  cat  and  pig  it  causes  excitement  and  convulsions. 

The  more  highly  any  organ  or  system  of  organs  is  de- 
veloped, the  more  susceptible  does  it  become  to  the  action 
^of  medicines,  and,  it  may  be  added,  to  diseases  also.  This 
general  law  explains  why  the  highly-developed  human  brain 
is  specially  susceptible  to  the  ett'ects  of  such  cerebral  medi- 
cines as  opium  and  chloral,  and  why  frogs,  whose  spinal 
system  is  better  developed  than  their  brain,  are  so  sus- 
ceptible to  strychnine,  which  acts  specially  on  the  cord. 
The  human  cerebrum,  the  seat  of  intelligence,  is  more  than 
seven  times  the  weight  of  the  mesencephalon  and  cerebellum, 
which  regulate  motor  energy.  In  the  domestic  animals  the 
cerebrum  is  only  five  times  the  weight  of  the  posterior  parts 
of  the  brain,  whilst  the  cord  is  relatively  larger  than  in  man. 
These  differences  of  development  explain  how  such  medi- 
cines as  opium,  chloroform,  and  chloral  cause  in  man  blunted 
intellectual  function  and  deep  stupor,  while  in  the  lower 
animals,  with  less  marked  depression  of  brain  function,  they 
conjoin  more  marked  deranged  motor  function  and  con- 
vulsions. 

The  Horse  has  a  small  stomach,  and  capacious,  highly- 
vascular  intestines,  adapted  for  absorption  of  nutriment  from 
bulky  vegetable  food.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  water  in  the 
ingesta  pass  off  by  the  bowels,  while  in  man  only  5  per  cent, 
is  removed  by  this  channel,  and  the  amount  is  still  less  in 
dogs  and  cats.  Vegetable  purgatives,  notably  aloes,  appear 
more  suitable  than  mineral  purgatives,  and  act  chiefly  on 
the  small  and  large  intestines.     Except  in  very  rare  diseased 


20  SPECIAL   ACTIONS   ON   CATTLE  AND   SHEEP 

States,  and  under  the  intiucnce  of  large  doses  of  aconite, 
attempts  at  vomition  are  not  excited  in  horses.  Tartar 
emetic,  of  which  a  few  grains  cause  immediate  emesis  in 
dogs,  has  no  such  physiological  effect  on  cither  horses  or 
cattle.  According  to  some  authorities,  this  insusceptibility 
of  the  horse  to  the  action  of  emetics  is  ascribablc  to  an 
inaptitude  of  the  vagus  nerve  to  receive  and  convey  the 
special  irritation,  but  more  probably  it  is  due  to  imperfect 
development  of  the  vomiting  centre.  Actual  vomition  in 
horses  is  hindered  by  the  small  stomach  not  being  readily 
compressed  between  the  diaphragm  and  abdominal  muscles, 
and  by  the  stout  band  of  muscular  fibres  which  surrounds 
its  esophageal  opening.  Most  substances  which  act  as 
emetics  on  men  and  dogs  are  supposed  to  produce  sedative 
effects  when  given  to  horses  in  sufficient  doses ;  but  the 
many  sedatives  available  in  human  and  canine  practice 
operate  uncertainly  and  imperfectly  on  horses,  for  which 
aconite  is  the  chief  reliable  sedative  medicine.  The  kidneys 
of  horses  are  easily  stimulated ;  in  ordinary  circumstances 
they  remove  about  one-seventh  of  the  fluid  ingesta,  while 
the  same  organs  in  man  drain  away  54  per  cent.,  and  in 
dogs  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  fluid  discharges.  Sudoriflcs 
are  loss  prompt  than  in  man,  and  are  apt  to  act  on  the  kid- 
neys, unless  the  animal  be  well  clothed. 

In  Cattle  the  peculiarities  of  the  action  of  medicines  are 
chiefly  referable  to  the  construction  of  their  alimentary 
canal,  and  to  their  phlegmatic  temperament.  The  stomach 
of  these  ruminants  is  quadrisected,  is  extensively  lined  with 
cuticular  mucous  membrane,  and,  as  regards  its  first  three 
divisions,  is  less  vascular,  and  in  function  is  less  chemical 
and  more  mechanical  than  the  corresponding  portion  of  the 
alimentary  canal  of  men,  dogs,  or  horses.  The  first  and 
third  compartments  always  contain  food,  often  in  large 
quantity.  These  facts  explain  why  cattle  require  large  doses 
of  all  medicines,  why  considerable  quantities  of  irritant  and 
corrosive  poisons  can  be  given  them  with  comparative  im- 
punity, and  why  purgatives,  unless  in  large  doses  and  in 
solution,  are  so  tardy  and  uncertain  in  their  eflects.  Several 
times  a  day,  for  about  an  hour  at  a  time,  in  animals  of  this 


ACTION    OF   MEDICINES    ON    DOGS    AND   PIGS  21 

class,  the  solid  food  is  returned  from  the  first  and  second 
stomachs  for  more  thorough  mastication  and  insalivation. 
Imperfect  and  suspended  rumination  is  the  chief  cause,  as 
well  as  a  common  effect  of  stomach  disorders  in  cattle.  Their 
kidneys  and  skin  are  less  easily  affected  than  the  corre- 
sponding organs  in  horses ;  and  their  dull,  phlegmatic  dis- 
position resists  the  action  of  both  stimulants  and  tonics. 
It  is  a  very  prevalent  notion  that  medicines,  when  poured 
slowly  doAvn  a  cow's  throat,  pass,  like  the  ruminated  food, 
direct  to  the  fourth  stomach.  From  observations  made 
at  the  slaughter-houses  on  both  cattle  and  sheep,  I  find, 
however,  that  neither  animal  can  be  induced  to  exert  this 
voluntary  effort  in  behalf  of  medicines,  which  in  all  cases, 
no  matter  how  slowly  they  are  administered,  fall  partly 
into  the  first  and  second  stomachs,  whence  they  shortly  pass 
onwards  through  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs,  especially 
if  given,  as  they  always  ought  to  be,  with  a  considerable 
quantity  of  fluid. 

Sheep  closely  resemble  cattle  in  the  way  in  which  they 
are  affected  by  most  medicines  ;  they  usually  require  about 
one-fourth  of  the  dose  suitable  for  cattle,  and  are  best 
drenched  by  being  backed  into  a  corner,  the  head  being 
steadied  between  the  operator's  knees,  while  the  medicine  is. 
cautiously  poured  over. 

On  Dogs  medicines  generally  operate  much  in  the  same 
way  as  on  man ;  but  to  this  rule  there  are  some  remarkable 
exceptions.  Dogs,  for  instance,  take  six  or  eight  times  the 
dose  of  aloes  usually  given  to  human  patients,  but  are 
seriously  injured  by  half  as  much  calomel  or  oil  of  turpentine 
as  is  prescribed  for  a  man.  The  opinion  generally  held, 
that  medicines  may  be  given  to  dogs  in  the  same  doses  as 
to  man,  cannot  therefore  be  safely  entertained  without  many 
reservations.  In  dogs,  while  the  stomach  is  relatively  large, 
the  alimentary  canal  is  short  and  straight,  and  purgatives 
consequently  act  with  greater  rapidity  than  in  other  veterinary 
patients.  Another  peculiarity  is  the  facility  with  which 
they  can  be  made  to  vomit.  Indeed,  vomition  in  dogs  is 
often  produced  by  their  eating  various  grasses,  by  their 
swallowing  nauseous   or   unpalatable   matters,  or   by  their 


22        CONDTTTONS   MODIFYING   MEDICINAL   ACTIONS 

overloading  the  stomach.  To  prevent  dogs  vomiting  their 
medicine,  it  is  well  to  keep  the  head  raised  for  an  hour  after 
its  administration ;  and  this  may  be  easily  effected  by  attach- 
ing a  chain  or  cord  to  the  collar,  and  fixing  it  to  any  object 
at  the  requisite  elevation.  The  kidneys  are  excited  with 
more  difficulty  than  in  horses  or  cattle.  On  Pigs  the  effects 
of  medicines  are  similar  to  their  action  on  men  and  dogs. 

Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  points  out  several  curious  differences 
in  the  action  of  drugs  on  several  of  the  lower  animals. 
Morphine  convulses  frogs,  but,  even  in  large  doses,  has  no 
effect  on  pigeons,  except  in  reducing  their  temperature. 
Belladonna  quickens  cardiac  action  in  man,  dogs,  and  horses, 
by  paralysing  the  vagus,  which  controls  or  restrains  heart 
action.  But  in  rabbits  the  vagus  has  hardly  any  appreciable 
effect  in  regulating  the  heart-beats,  and  these  animals 
accordingly  take  large  doses  without  having  the  rapidity  of 
the  circulation  increased.  The  rabbit's  heart  not  being 
controlled  by  the  vagus,  a  marked  difference  also  occurs  in 
the  action  of  amyl-nitrite  on  rabbits  as  compared  with  dogs. 
Such  observations  are  not  only  most  interesting  in  them- 
selves, but  greatly  further  the  understanding  of  the  actions 
of  drugs. 

The  action  of  medicines  is  influenced  by  the  age  of  the 
patient,  and  as  a  rule  very  young  animals  are  more  sus- 
ceptible than  adult  animals.  Kittens,  however,  seem  to  be 
able  to  withstand  larger  doses  of  morphine  than  fully  grown 
cats.  The  young  tolerate  chloroform  anaesthesia  better  than 
the  old,  and  poisons  such  as  strychnine  and  digitalis  may  be 
given  in  larger  doses  to  young  animals  than  to  adults. 

IV.  Climate  and  Temperature  modify  considerably  the 
actions  of  medicines.  Heat  increases  the  power  of  anti- 
septic solutions.  Narcotics  are  generally  believed  to  act 
more  powerfully  in  warm  than  in  cold  climates.  This  fact, 
as  well  as  other  differences  in  medicines  observed  in  hot  as 
compared  with  cold  climates,  may  depend  upon  slight  differ- 
ences in  animal  temperature,  and  in  the  varying  amount  of 
excretion  effected  by  the  skin  and  kidneys. 

Moderate  warmth  favours  chemical  reactions  and  proto- 
plasmic movements — two  conditions   intimately  connected 


HABIT   AND    IDIOSYNCRASIES  23 

with  the  actions  of  medicines.  'Alexander  von  Humboldt 
first  observed  that  warmth  not  only  acted  as  a  stimulant  to 
the  heart,  increasing  the  power  and  rapidity  of  its  contrac- 
tions, but  noticed  that  warmth  increased  the  rapidity  with 
which  alcohol  destroyed  the  irritability  of  a  nerve,  and 
potassium  sulphide  that  of  a  muscle.  .  .  .  Many,  if  not  all, 
muscular  poisons  act  more  quickly  with  increased  tempera- 
ture. .  .  .  Rabbits  poisoned  with  copper  or  potassium  salts 
also  die  more  quickly  when  placed  in  a  warm  chamber  than 
when  left  at  the  ordinary  temperature '  (Brunton).  On  the 
other  hand,  however,  narcotic  poisoning  by  alcohol  or  chloral 
is  retarded  when  the  animals  are  in  a  warm  atmosphere. 

Habit. — The  continued  use  of  a  medicine  sometimes  alters 
the  degree  of  its  action.  Caustics  and  irritants,  which  exer- 
cise only  topical  action,  exhibit,  on  their  repeated  application, 
gradually  increasing  activity.  But  many  medicines,  when 
continuously  administered,  have  their  ordinary  power  con- 
siderably diminished.  Thus,  arsenic-eaters  sometimes  use 
with  perfect  impunity  twelve  or  fifteen  grains  of  arsenic 
daily — a  quantity  sufficient  to  poison  three  or  four  unhabitu- 
ated  persons.  A  like  tolerance  is  observable  among  horses 
which  have  been  accustomed  to  receive  arsenic.  Opium, 
and  most  general  stimulants,  when  administered  for  some 
time,  gradually  lose  their  effects.  Virginian  deer,  from 
habit,  are  said  to  thrive  on  tobacco ;  some  monkeys,  feeding 
on  strychnine-containing  nuts,  are  stated  to  become  insus- 
ceptible to  strychnine  (Wood).  The  tolerance  thus  induced 
by  the  habitual  use  of  a  medicine  occasionally  depends  on 
retarded  absorption  or  quickened  secretion;  sometimes,  as 
in  the  case  of  many  alkaloids,  on  the  liver  acquiring  greater 
power  for  the  detention,  modification,  destruction  or  excre- 
tion of  the  drug,  while  frequently  the  tissues,  by  repeated 
contact,  become  progressively  accustomed  to  its  influence, 
and  more  or  less  resistant. 

Idiosyncrasies,  probably  the  result  of  reversion  to  ances- 
tral forms,  which  in  the  human  subject  render  some  poisons 
almost  innocuous,  and  some  simple  medicines  deadly  poisons, 
are  less  frequent  and  notable  among  the  lower  animals. 
Those  of  m.ost  frequent  occurrence  among  veterinary  patients 


24  ACTIONS    MODIFIED    BY   DISEASE 

are  cither  an  increased  or  a  diminished  susceptibility  to  the 
action  of  purgatives  and  diuretics.  Most  medicines  act  with 
greater  certainty  and  etfect  upon  well-bred  animals,  whether 
horses  or  dogs,  than  upon  coarsely-bred  mongrels.  The 
prescription  even  of  a  blister  or  a  colic  draught  demands  con- 
sideration of  the  temperament,  breeding,  and  condition  of 
the  patient. 

Diseases  modify  the  actions  of  many  medicines.  Altered 
structure  and  functions,  and  increased  temperature  occur- 
ring in  most  serious  disorders  are  important  modifying 
factors.  A  congested  or  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  or  even  an  overloaded  stomach,  retards 
absorption,  and  the  consequent  activity  of  medicines  given 
by  the  mouth.  Acute  fever,  on  account  of  increased  arterial 
pressure,  is  also  unfavourable  to  absorption.  When  excretion 
is  hindered,  medicines,  however,  are  usually  retained  longer 
in  the  system,  and  some  accordingly  act  more  powerfully. 
Conversely,  when  excretion  is  active,  as  in  diuresis,  diabetes, 
or  diarrhffia,  such  medicines  as  opium,  belladonna,  and 
alcohol,  being  rapidly  got  rid  of,  do  not  manifest  their  full 
activity.  Influenza,  low  fevers,  and  any  considerable  inflam- 
mation of  mucous  or  cutaneous  surfaces,  withstand  reducing 
remedies  badly,  and  require  for  their  successful  treatment 
the  early  exhibition  of  restoratives,  tonics,  and  stimulants. 
Even  the  comparatively  slight  and  temporary  requirements 
for  the  changing  of  the  coat  render  horses  in  spring  and 
autumn  notably  less  enduring  and  less  able  to  stand  lowering 
treatment.  Blood-letting  and  full  doses  of  sedative  medicines 
induce  less  depression  in  acute  inflammation  than  in  health ; 
large  quantities  of  opium  and  chloral  hydrate  have  compara- 
tively slight  ertcct  in  tetanus,  enteritis,  or  other  painful 
disease ;  while  excessive  doses  of  purgatives  and  stimulants 
are  well  borne  in  the  apoplectic  form  of  parturient  fever 
among  cattle,  and  in  other  cases  in  which  there  is  depression 
of  nervous  force. 

The  surroundings  of  the  patient  materially  alter  the 
action  of  remedies.  Diseases,  whether  in  horses,  cattle,  or 
dogs,  occurring  in  largo  towns,  and  in  fllthy,  overcrowded, 
and    badly-ventilated    premises,    are    notoriously   liable   to 


CURATIVE    SYSTEMS  25 

assume  chronic  and  untoward  forms,  and  are  apt  to  defy- 
even  skilfully  devised  curative  measures.  Medicines  can  only 
act  effectually  when  seconded  by  proper  sanitary  arrange- 
ments. Over-heated,  imperfectly  ventilated  stables  lower 
the  vitality  of  their  inmates,  by  retarding  excretion,  and 
favouring  absorption  of  noxious  exhalations.  Such  facts 
demand  consideration  alike  in  the  treatment  and  prevention 
of  disease.  Frequently  a  horse  with  influenza,  bronchitis,  or 
pneumonia,  is  thrown  back  for  days  by  being  senselessly 
stripped  and  taken  out  of  his  box  in  cold  weather.  One 
meal  of  coarse,  indigestible  food,  even  of  moderate  amount, 
sometimes  retards  recovery  from  gastric  derangements,  and, 
indeed,  from  most  debilitating  diseases.  Constipation  or 
torpidity  of  the  bowels  interferes  with  the  absorption,  and 
hence  with  the  satisfactory  operation  of  all  medicines. 
Exposure  to  cold  seriously  injures  patients  which  have 
received  full  aperient  doses  of  salts  or  of  turpentine,  or 
which  have  been  freely  dressed  with  mercurial  ointment. 
Foul  air  and  disordered  digestion  retard  the  healing  even  of 
simple  wounds.  On  the  other  hand,  gentle  exercise  en- 
courages the  action  of  most  eliminatives ;  quiet  favours 
the  effects  of  soothing  remedies ;  generous  diet  seconds 
powerfully  the  benefits  of  restoratives,  tonics,  and  stimulants. 
Inflammatory  disorders  usually  bear  more  prompt  and 
actively  depleting  treatment  in  winter  than  in  summer, 
in  the  country  than  in  the  town,  in  well-bred  animals  in 
good  condition  than  in  coarser  subjects  which  have  been 
indifferently  nourished. 


CURATIVE  SYSTEMS:  ALLOPATHY,  HOMCEOPATHY 
The  difiicult  question  is  frequently  asked  —  How  do 
medicines  cure  disease?  Endeavour  is  made,  guided  by 
biological  laws,  to  adjust  or  restore  to  harmony  any  irregu- 
larity or  deviation  from  health  which  may  have  affected 
the  organism  or  any  of  its  parts.  The  complex  composition 
and  diverse  functions  of  the  bodies  of  the  higher  animals 
are  liable,  however,  to  be  altered  and  disturbed  in  many 
different  ways,  and  such  alterations  or  aberrations  cannot 


2  6  ANTIPATHY — ALLOPATHY — HOMCEOPATH  Y 

be  restored  by  any  one  curative  system  or  formula.  As 
already  indicated,  medicines  have  special  actions  on  different 
organs  or  groups  of  cells,  and  affect  them  in  very  different 
ways,  and  hence  would  seem  to  produce  their  curative  effects, 
not  in  one,  but  iu  many  ways.  The  late  Professor  Headland 
taught  that '  the  only  general  explanation  we  can  give  of  the 
modus  operandi  of  medicines  in  the  cure  of  diseases  is  to 
say  that  they  operate  by  various  counteractions.'  Two  such 
systems  of  counteraction  have  been  propounded — (1)  the 
antipathic,  whereby  medicines  were  believed  to  overcome 
morbid  conditions  or  symptoms  by  a  superior  and  antago- 
nistic force ;  (2)  the  allopathic,  whereby  effects  are  produced 
which,  although  they  may  sometimes  be  unnatural,  overcome 
the  disease.  But  diseases,  it  has  been  affirmed,  may  not 
only  be  cured  by  counteractions,  but  by  similars.  Upon  the 
old  saying  that '  like  cures  like,'  Homoeopathy  ^  is  based,  and 
its  votaries  declare  that  diseases  are  to  be  treated  by  small 
doses  of  such  medicines  as  in  large  doses  produce  symptoms 

^  Homceopathy  (dfioios,  homoios,  like  or  similar ;  and  irdOo^,  pathos),  was 
propounded  by  the  German  physician  Hahnemann  in  his  Organon  der 
rationellen  Heilkunde,  published  in  1810.  This  system  teaches  that  the 
cure  of  a  disease  is  eCFected  by  infinitesimal  doses  of  such  medicines  as  would 
induce,  if  given  to  a  healthy  subject  in  large  quantity,  symptoms  similar  to 
the  disease.  Cinchona  is  declared  to  cure  such  fevers  as  ague  and  inter- 
mittcnts,  because  it  produces  some  such  febrile  symptoms  when  given  to 
healthy  individuals  in  considerable  doses  ;  aconite  is  regarded  as  the  appro- 
priate remedy  for  reducing  inflammatory  fevers,  because  in  large  doses  it 
produces  symptoms  which  are  thought,  by  homceopathists,  to  resemble  tliose 
of  inflammation ;  while  strychnine  is  selected  as  a  remedy  for  paralysis, 
because  in  largo  doses  it  appears  to  produce  paralytic  symptoms.  This 
doctrine,  if  sound,  would  stamp  most  disorders  as  hopelessly  incurable  ;  for 
it  is  only  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  that  any  similarity  can  be  detected 
between  the  symptoms  produced  by  large  doses  of  tlie  remedy  and  those  of 
the  disease  for  which  it  is  given.  No  known  medicines,  for  example,  are 
capable  of  developing  symptoms  such  as  those  of  thick-wind,  roaring, 
pleurisy,  strangles,  distemper,  or  rabies,  yet  fifteen  or  twenty  remedies  are 
prescribed  homoeopathically  for  each  of  these  diseases. 

Mr.  Dudgeon's  translation  of  the  Organon  of  Medicine  states  that,  '  the 
symptoms  of  each  individual  case  of  disease  must  be  the  sole  indication,  the 
sole  guide  to  direct  us  in  the  choice  of  a  curative  remedy.'  Now,  symptoms, 
although  sometimes  requiring  special  treatment,  are  but  the  visible  signs 
and  results  of  derangement  and  disease  ;  whilst  their  removal,  wliich  is  all 
that  is  ain-.ed  at  in  homoeopathic  treatment,  docs  not  always  ensure  the 
removal  of  the  conditions  on  which  they  depend.  Thus,  rheumatism,  pleurisy, 
enteritis,  worms,  and  many  other  disorders,  frequently  remain  unchecked 
after  their  symptoms  have  been  relieved.     Instead  of  thus  vainly  attempting 


DOES   LIKE  CURE   LIKE  ?  27 

similar  to  the  disease  to  be  cured.  The  pathological  con- 
ditions which  underlie  and  produce  the  symptoms,  and 
which  a  rational  cure  generally  aims  if  possible  at  removing, 
are  ignored.  The  homoeopathic  dictum  of  sirtiilia  similibus 
curantur  does  not  bear  investigation ;  at  best  it  is  only 
capable  of  narrow  and  occasional  acceptance.  The  symptoms 
of  ague  and  intermittent  fever  are  certainly  similar  to  those 
produced  by  cinchona  bark,  which  is  an  accepted  cure  for 
ague,  and  the  illustration  on  which  Hahnemann  founded  his 
system.  But  many  diseases  exhibit  no  symptoms  accurately 
similar,  as  the  homoeopathists  insist  they  should  be,  to  those 
produced  by  the  medicine  prescribed  for  their  cure.  Numer- 
ous drugs,  moreover,  cause  symptoms  wholly  unlike  those 
of  the  diseases  in  the  treatment  of  which  homoeopathists 
use  them. 

The    homoeopathic    selection    of    so  -  called    appropriate 

the  removal  of  symptoms,  it  were  therefore  more  rational  to  remove  at  once 
the  morbid  condition — the  source  of  the  evil.  No  curative  system  directing 
its  efforts,  as  homcEopathy  does,  merely  against  the  symptoms  of  disease, 
can  ever  rest  upon  a  safe  or  scientific  basis ;  for  it  is  notorious  that,  under 
varying  modifying  influences,  the  same  diseases  sometimes  induce  very 
dissimilar  symptoms,  and  would  consequently,  according  to  this  system, 
require  dissimilar  treatment.  On  the  other  hand,  diseases  essentially 
different  sometimes  manifest  similar  symptoms.  Thus,  stupor  and  vertigo 
result  sometimes  from  an  excessive  and  sometimes  from  a  deficient  quantity 
of  blood  sent  to  the  brain  ;  difficulty  of  breathing  from  too  much  as  well  as 
from  too  little  blood  circulating  through  the  lungs  ;  vomiting  from  irritation 
of  the  stomach,  or  from  irritation  of  the  vomiting  centre ;  diarrhoea  from 
crudities  in  the  alimentary  canal,  or  irritant  matters  in  the  blood. 

Not  only  are  the  principles  on  which  homoeopathy  is  said  to  be  based 
untenable,  but  the  details  of  the  system  are  inconsistent  and  ridiculous. 
The  homceopathic  doses  are  so  small  that  they  are  often  incapable  of  detection 
either  by  the  microscope  or  by  chemical  analysis,  and  are  sometimes  so 
inconceivably  minute  that  the  mind  can  form  no  idea  of  them.  It  is 
admitted,  even  by  homceopathists,  that  millions  of  such  doses  may  be 
swallowed  by  a  healthy  individual  without  inconvenience  :  but  in  disease 
the  body  is  stated  to  become  so  susceptible  to  their  action  that  much  risk 
is  incurred  by  their  insufficient  dilution  !  Medicines  such  as  charcoal,  sand, 
and  calcium  carbonate,  which,  in  doses  of  several  drachms,  have  only  slight 
mechanical  effects,  when  given  in  fractional  parts  of  a  grain  are  thought  to 
produce  very  powerful  effects,  and  cause  many  hundred  symptoms.  The 
extraordinary  powers  supposed  to  be  conferred  on  these  and  other  medicines, 
even  when  given  in  doses  of  inconceivable  minuteness,  are  chiefly  ascribed  to 
the  magic  influence  of  careful  and  continued  triturations  and  often-repeated 
shakings,  performed  according  to  most  precise  directions.  Some  homceo- 
pathic authorities  declare  that  there  is  little  difference  of  activity  between 


28  PROTOPLASM 

remedies,  on  the  presumption  that '  like  cures  like,'  is  based 
upon  a  fallacy,  while  the  minute,  finely  triturated,  and  sub- 
divided doses  are  too  attenuated  to  affect  veterinary  patients. 
The  practice  of  homoeopathy  has,  however,  developed  whole- 
some discussion,  has  suggested  some  useful  experiments  on 
the  actions  of  medicines,  has  helped  to  show  the  evils  of 
heroic  and  indiscriminate  drugging,  has  taught  the  advan- 
tage of  simple  prescriptions,  exemplified  the  power  of  nature 
to  cure,  when  not  too  much  interfered  with,  and  demonstrated 
the  powerful  influence  of  diet  and  regimen  in  the  successful 
treatment  of  disease. 

ACTION  OF  MEDICINAL  AGENTS  ON  PROTOPLASM, 
BLOOD,  AND  LOW  ORGANISMS 

ANTISEPTICS — DISINFECTANTS— DEODORISERS — PARASITICIDES 
— ANTIPERIODICS. 

Recent  studies  of  the  life  of  the  simplest  animal  struc- 
tures, and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  acted  upon  by 
medicinal    agents,    have    thrown    much    light    on    thera- 

(lifferent  dilutions  of  the  same  medicine  ;  and  it  is  said  that,  if  the  medicine 
be  well  selected,  it  matters  little  whether  the  tenth,  hundredth,  or  thou- 
sandth of  a  grain  be  used  (Guuther  and  Haycock).  There  is  probably  some 
truth  in  this  observation,  for,  with  most  medicines,  especially  when  ad- 
ministered to  the  lower  animals,  all  the  dilutions  mentioned  would  be  equally 
harmless.  But  homouopathists  assert  that,  in  spite  of  the  errors  which  their 
opponents  discover  in  the  system,  it  is  nevertheless  very  successful  in  the 
cure  of  disease.  In  judging,  however,  of  homoeopathy  as  a  system  of  prac- 
tical medicine,  it  must  be  regarded  as  made  up  of  two  distinct  parts  : — 1st, 
The  original  and  peculiar  part  of  the  system,  consisting  in  the  use  of  medi- 
cines selected  in  accordance  with  a  law  embodied  in  the  axiom  similia 
similihus  curantur,  and  administered  in  infinitesimal  doses,  usually  varying 
from  one  grain  to  one-millionth  of  a  grain,  and  carefully  prepared  according  to 
certain  precise  directions  ;  and  2nd,  Attention  to  diet  and  regimen — tlie  only 
effectual  and  rational  part  of  homaopathy,  the  true  source  of  all  its  boasted 
cures,  and  that  department  of  medical  treatment  which  has  always  been 
insisted  upon  by  rational  and  successful  practitioners,  of  human  and 
veterinary  medicine.  The  value  of  medicines  given  homoeopathically  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  shown,  and  never  can  be  until  two  series  of  cases, 
as  nearly  as  possible  alike,  be  treated  — the  one  in  tlie  iisual  homioopathic 
fashion,  tlie  other  with  the  same  attention  to  diet  and  regimen,  but  witliout 
the  globules.  In  comparative  experiments,  made  at  the  Edinburgh  Veter- 
inary College,  in  the  treatment  of  pleuro-pneumonia  and  other  diseases,  it 
appeared  that  those  cases  treated  by  diet  and  regimen  alone  were  as  speedily 
and  effectually  cured  as  those  treated  with  tlie  globules  in  addition,  so  long 
as  the  globules  were  given  only  in  homoeopathic  doses. 


PROTOPLASM    AND    BLOOD    CONSTITUENTS  29 

pen  tics  as  apiDlied  to  the  higher  animals.  The  complex 
albuminoid  material  termed  protoplasm,  which  is  the  ever- 
present  constituent  of  living  cells,  is  coagulated  and  pre- 
cipitated by  heat,  and  dissolved  by  alkalies.  It  is  precipitated 
by  small  quantity,  and  dissolved  by  excess,  of  most  mineral 
acids.  Organic  alkaloids  resemble  acids  in  lowering  the 
temperature  at  which  heat  coagulates  albumin.  Protoplasmic 
movements,  as  illustrated  in  the  amoeba,  are  retarded  or 
arrested  by  cold.  Heat,  slight  electric  shocks,  and  common 
salt,  even  in  diluted  solution,  first  quicken  them  ;  but  a  higher 
temperature,  a  stronger  electric  current,  or  prolonged  ex- 
posure to  a  saline  solution,  tetanises  them.  Protoplasm  has 
the  power  of  absorbing  and  storing  oxygen ;  and  the  chemical 
energy  developed  from  this  oxidation  is  capable  of  conversion 
into  mechanical  energy  and  movements.  Protoplasm  has 
also  the  power  of  carrying  and  transferring  oxygen  to  other 
substances,  and  appears  to  contribute  largely  to  the  diffusion 
of  oxygen,  and  interchange  of  gases,  constantly  occurring 
between  the  blood,  the  intercellular  fluid,  and  the  cells,  and 
constituting  what  is  termed  internal  respiration. 

Leucocytes  are  affected  in  much  the  same  way  as  amcebse. 
Their  movements  are,  besides,  notably  arrested  by  the  cin- 
chona alkaloids  and  beberine  sulphate.  Quinine  injected 
into  the  circulation  has  been  found  to  diminish  the  miofra- 
tion  of  leucocytes  from  the  blood-vessels. 

The  red  corpuscles  pass  out  of  the  vessels  when  an  excess 
of  sodium  chloride  is  introduced  into  the  blood,  while  still 
more  rapid  extravasation  is  produced  by  the  introduction  of 
rattlesnake  poison.  The  size  of  the  red  corpuscles  is  increased 
by  oxygen,  hydrocyanic  acid,  quinine,  and  cold,  and  dimin- 
ished by  carbonic  acid,  morphine,  and  warmth. 

The  important  blood  constituent  haemoglobin,  like  proto- 
plasm, has  great  capacity  for  taking  up  oxygen,  thus  becom- 
ing converted  into  oxyhsemoglobin,  which,  however,  holds  its 
added  ox}gen  loosely,  and  parts  with  it  readily,  as  it  slowly 
circulates  through  capillary  vessels.  The  haemoglobin  also 
combines  with  other  substances  as  well  as  with  oxygen — as 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  and  carbonic  mon-oxide,  forming 
tolerably  stable  compounds;  which,  however,  neither  take 


30  FERMENTS 

lip  oxygen  from  the  air  in  the  lungs,  nor  give  it  ofY  in  tlie 
tissues,  which  hence  become  asphyxiated.  Addition  to  the 
blood  of  such  drugs  as  alcohol,  chloroform,  quinine,  mor- 
phine, nicotine,  and  strychnine,  likewise,  in  various  degrees, 
diminish  the  amount  of  oxygen  absorbed,  and  of  carbonic 
acid  given  off  by  the  blood.  *  Uric  acid  and  snake-poison 
had  a  contrary  effect,  increasing  the  absorption  of  oxygen 
and  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid.  Curare  appeared  to 
lessen  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  but  increased  the  evolution  of 
carbonic  acid.  Mercuric  chloride  lessened  the  carbonic  acid, 
but  increased  the  absorption  of  oxygen  (Dr.  Lauder  Brunton). 

Infusoria  have  both  their  rhythmical  and  ciliary  move- 
ments increased  by  heat  and  diminished  by  cold.  Weak 
saline  solutions  increase  their  movements;  while  strong 
saline  solutions  alter  the  amount  of  water  they  contain,  and 
cause  them  first  to  shrivel,  and  subsequently  to  swell. 

Ferments  determine  the  healthy  nutrition  of  plants  and 
animals,  as  well  as  their  decay  and  many  of  their  diseases. 
They  are  exemplified  by  the  yeast  which  raises  bread  and 
converts  the  starch  and  sugar  of  barley  into  beer  or  spirit, 
the  rennet  which  coagulates  milk,  the  filamentous  fungus 
which  causes  ringworm,  and  the  bacillus  which  induces  the 
deadl3'^'anthrax.     Ferments  are  divisible  into  two  classes : — 

1.  Organic  ferments  or  enzymes  contain  carbon,  are 
hence  organic,  though  they  are  not  organised  or  living.  They 
are  exemplified  by  diastase,  which  causes  germination  in 
barley  and  other  seeds,  ptyalin  from  saliva,  pepsin  from  the 
stomach,  trypsin  from  the  pancreas,  with  histozyne,  a  recently 
discovered  ferment  present  in  blood,  and  believed  to  be  the 
chief  agent  in  the  reduction  of  albuminoids. 

2.  Organised  or  formed  ferments,  such  as  yeast,  mycoderma 
vini,  moulds,  and  bacteria,  arc  living  vegetable  organisms  of 
parasitic  habit. 

The  reduction  of  complex  carbon  compounds  into  simpler 
forms  is  the  work  of  both  classes  of  ferments.  Their  effects 
are  produced,  it  is  believed,  in  one  of  two  ways :— (1)  By 
abstraction  of  water,  as  in  the  conversion  of  starch  into 
sugar,  or  the  splitting  up  of  glucosides — changes  chiefly 
effected  by  enzymes,  and  analogous  to  the  effects  of  heat  in 


PATHOGENIC    AND    NON-PATHOGENIC   BACTERIA      31 

conjunction  with  diluted  mineral  acids  or  alkalies.  (2)  The 
breaking  up  of  the  fermentible  body  is  sometimes  effected 
by  transfer  of  oxygen  from  its  hydrogen  to  its  carbon,  as  in 
alcoholic  and  lactic  fermentations,  and  in  putrefactive 
processes — a  mode  of  reduction  usually  effected  by  the 
organised  ferments. 

The  organised  ferments,  which  are  the  causes  of  putrefac- 
tion and  of  various  diseases,  have  been  classified  as — 

1.  Yeasts,  or  sprouting  fungi,  which  consist  of  ovoid  cells, 
multiplying  by  budding,  and  represented  by  the  torula  cere- 
visise,  mycoderma  vini,  and,  according  to  most  authorities, 
also  include  the  aphthous  patches  of  thrush  found  in  the 
mouths  of  3^oung  animals. 

2.  Moulds,  or  filamentous  fungi,  occur  in  threads,  which 
are  agglomerated  into  masses  or  tufts,  multiplying  by 
budding  and  formation  of  spores,  and  exemplified  by  the 
common  moulds  which  appear  on  moist  objects,  and  by 
those  which  cause  such  skin  diseases  as  favus  and  tinea. 

3.  Bacteria,  Microbes,  or  Schizomycetes,  are  the  lowest 
forms  of  vegetable  life,  but  the  most  widely  distributed,  in  air, 
earth,  and  water.  They  consist  of  round,  oval,  or  cylindrical 
cells,  so  minute  that  they  can  only  be  examined  with  high 
powers  of  the  microscope.  They  multiply  chiefly  by  division, 
occasionally  by  spore  formation.  Their  multiplication  is 
effected  with  enormous  rapidity,  a  single  individual  cell 
sometimes  producing  a  million  in  twenty-four  hours.  Some 
are  fixed,  others  are  motile.  For  their  formation  and  growth 
they  require  organic  matter,  moisture,  salts,  and  a  moderate 
temperature ;  some,  further,  need  oxygen ;  some  thrive  with- 
out it.  They  speedily  exhaust  the  nutriment  obtainable  from 
the  substance  on  which  they  grow,  or  form  in  it  matters 
inimical  to  their  life ;  but  where  one  species  languishes  and 
perishes,  others  frequently  spring  up  and  flourish. 

Bacteria  are  divided  into  two  groups — (1)  Non-pathogenic 
or  saphrophytic.  Many  of  these  feed  and  live  on  dead  animal 
or  vegetable  matter,  and  their  great  function  is  the  conversion 
of  complex  into  simpler  forms.  They  are  exemplified  by  the 
bacillus  of  hay  infusion,  the  bacillus  termo  found  in  all  putrid 
fluids,  and  the  bacilli  developing  the  saccharine  and  lactic 


32  BACTERIAL   INVASION 

fermentations.  (2)  Pathogenic  or  parasitic  bacteria  live  on 
or  within  the  bodies  of  living  plants  or  animals,  and  Avhen  in 
large  numbers  interfere  with  nutrition  and  cause  disease. 
Their  pathogenic  power  is  proved  beyond  all  question  by 
taking  cultures  from  any  of  the  specific  disease  products, 
growing  them  in  suitable  media  for  several  generations,  and 
inoculating  these  on  living  subjects,  when  the  original 
disease  is  reproduced.  But  pathogenic  and  non-pathogenic 
arc  only  relative  terms.  The  organisms,  usually  harmless, 
under  certain  conditions  become  harmful ;  while  those  that 
are  pathogenic  by  cultivation  and  otherwise  sometimes  lose 
their  toxic  poAvcr,  and  live  and  reproduce  themselves 
amongst  dead  vegetable  and  animal  matter.  The  bacilli  of 
anthrax,  hog  cholera,  and  tetanus  illustrate  these  varying 
states  of  activity  and  change  of  habit.  Microbes  which  have 
had  their  activity  reduced  or  destroyed  may,  however,  under 
certain  conditions  regain  it. 

Both  pathogenic  and  non-pathogenic  bacteria  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  each  distinguished  by  the  form  assumed  : 
{a)  Micrococci  or  round  cells,  such  as  the  sarcina  found  in 
the  stomach,  or  the  cocci  which  arrange  themselves  in 
clusters  or  in  chains,  and  cause  strangles  in  horses,  rinder- 
pest in  cattle,  erysipelas  and  pus  formations  in  all  animals. 
(6)  Bacilli  or  rod-shaped  bacteria,  as  those  of  anthrax  and 
glanders,  as  well  as  the  short  ovoid  bacillus  of  pneumonia, 
(c)  Spirilli  or  thread-like  bacteria,  as  of  relapsing  fever  in 
man  and  the  comma-like  organisms  of  cholera. 

Dr.  T.  Lauder  Brunton  states :  '  It  is  probable  that  bacteria 
are  constantly  entering  the  organs  of  man  and  animals  from 
the  lungs  and  digestive  canal ;  but  unless  they  are  excessive 
in  number,  and  virulent  in  their  nature,  they  are  quickly 
destroyed.  When  only  a  small  number  of  pathogenic 
bacteria,  such  as  the  bacillus  anthracis,  is  injected  into  the 
blood  at  once,  they  are  destroyed  in  the  organism,  but  when 
they  are  in  larger  numbers  they  have  the  best  of  the  struggle, 
and  the  organism  itself  is  destroyed.'  Fortunately  in  healthy 
subjects,  under  favourable  conditions,  the  bacilli  and  their 
spores  are  attacked  and  destroyed  by  leucocytes,  connective 
tissue  cells,  and  probably  other  healthy  textures. 


BACTERIAL   PRODUCTS  33 

Both  organic  and  organised  ferments,  in  breaking  up 
complex  vegetable  and  animal  bodies,  frequently  produce 
substances  of  great  activity.  The  emulsin— the  ferment 
of  bitter  almonds — gives  rise  to  a  hj-drocyanated  oil.  The 
myrosin  of  mustard  seed  develops  the  acrid  mustard  oils. 
The  protoplasm  of  particular  plants  j)roduces  their  respective 
alkaloids,  some  of  Avhich  are  active  poisons.  Certain  mush- 
rooms produce  the  poisonous  alkaloid  muscarine ;  putrefy- 
ing yeast  yields  sepsin ;  from  putrefied  maize  is  obtained 
an  extract  which  contains  one  substance  which  tetanises, 
and  another  which  narcotises.  Animal  bodies  invaded  by 
bacteria  undergo  decomposition,  and  the  bacterial  cells, 
according  to  their  kind,  elaborate  their  respective  alkaloids, 
some  of  which  are  poisonous.  Under  healthy  conditions 
they  are  excreted,  but  if  retained  they  are  injurious.  In  the 
healthy  muscles  of  living  animals,  after  active  exertion,  there 
are  found  alkaloids  allied  to  xanthin  and  creatin.  During 
digestion  of  fibrin  by  pepsin  an  alkaloid  is  formed.  Bouchard 
has  stated  that  the  alkaloids  formed  in  the  intestines  of  a 
healthy  man  in  twenty-four  hours  would  suffice  to  kill  him 
if  they  were  all  absorbed  and  excretion  stopped. 

The  pathogenic,  like  the  putrefactive  bacteria,  when  they 
invade  the  bodies  of  higher  organisms,  act  as  ferments, 
cause  disintegration  of  living  tissues,  and  formation  of  alka- 
loidal  toxines,  and,  besides,  produce  globulins  or  albumoses, 
often  as  deadly  as  the  alkaloids.  Special  local  effects  are 
produced  by  the  action  of  these  poisons,  notably  congestion, 
inflammation,  and  necrosis ;  but  the  soluble  poisons  carried 
in  the  blood-stream  further  develop  general  effects.  Thus, 
the  anthrax  bacilli  cause  local  malignant  oedema  or  pustule, 
and  further  lead  to  nervous  collapse.  The  diphtheria 
bacillus  causes  special  throat  lesions,  Avhile  the  toxine  it 
develops,  circulating  widely,  impairs  the  functions  of  the 
great  nerve-centres. 

In  relation  to  the  prevention  and  cure  of  the  diseases 
depending  upon  bacteria,  it  must  be  noted  that  these  patho- 
genic organisms  have  their  activity  retarded  or  destroyed  by 
exposure  to  high  temperatures,  by  the  action  of  chemical 
solutions,  by  being  reproduced  for  several  generations  in  the 

C 


34  PROTECTIVE    VACCINES 

bodies  of  certain  animals,  and  in  other  ways.  Anthrax  virus 
is  thus  attenuated  by  heat ;  rabies  virus  by  being  grown  in 
the  bodies  of  rabbits.  These  attenuated  viruses  are  used  as 
protective  vaccines.  The  vaccine  of  anthrax  and  rabies,  as 
well  as  those  of  black  quarter,  swine  and  fowl  cholera,  when 
injected  into  the  bodies  of  animals  liable  to  these  disorders, 
render  the  vaccinated  subjects  immune.  This  is  demon- 
strated by  the  animals  operated  upon  suffering  no  harm 
when  subsequently  inoculated  with  doses  of  the  un- 
attenuated  bacterium  or  its  products,  which  would  destroy 
unprotected  animals.  One  class  of  these  micro-organisms 
frequently  modifies  or  arrests  the  action  of  others.  Thus, 
the  harmless  earth  bacillus  has  been  found  to  protect  mice 
and  rabbits  from  anthrax,  while  a  similar  power  is  exerted 
by  the  products  of  blue  pus.  These  important  protective 
powers  conferred  by  bacteria  and  their  products  appear  to 
depend  upon  their  exerting  metabolic  changes  on  the  blood 
and  tissues,  with  formation  of  special  chemical  agents.  This 
immunity,  like  that  produced  by  an  ordinary  attack  of 
specific  disease,  may  be  more  or  less  permanent.  It  may  be 
so  marked  as  to  be  hereditary.  In  some  cases  the  blood  of 
such  immunes  transfused  into  the  veins  of  susceptible 
animals  renders  them  also  immune.  Such  investigations 
appear  to  foreshadow  important  developments  in  practical 
medicine. 

Vaccines  exerting  a  curative  as  Avell  as  a  preventive  effect 
may  also  be  obtainable.  This  is  a  justifiable  expectation, 
for  human  patients  who  have  been  exposed  to  the  contagium 
of  smallpox,  if  promptly  vaccinated  Avitli  cow-pox  lymph, 
have  the  smallpox  attack  favourably  modified.  Perhaps 
still  more  to  the  point  are  Pasteur's  experiments  with  rabies. 
He  inoculated  dogs  and  rabbits  with  lethal  doses  of  rabies 
virus,  and  thereafter  Avith  repeated  doses  of  vaccine.  No 
serious  results  followed,  although  control  animals  inoculated 
with  rabies  virus,  but  not  Avith  the  vaccine,  died. 

Another  important  discovery  connected  Avith  bacteria  has 
recently  been  made.  Brieger  and  Fraenkel  have  found  that 
the  bacteria  of  diphtheria  produce  not  only  a  toxic,  but  also 
a   protective   substance.      J)rs.    Klemperer,   experimenting 


ANTIZYMOTICS  35 

with  pneumo-cocci,  have  obtained  a  pneumo-toxine  and  an 
anti-pneumo-toxine.  Koch's  investigations  with  tuberculin 
also  point  to  the  conclusion  that  both  a  pathogenic  poison 
and  its  antidote  are  formed  by  the  tubercle  bacillus.  Ex- 
periments may  show  that  others  of  these  pathogenic  bacteria 
also  develop  their  several  anti-toxines,  and  as  the  toxines 
have  been  isolated  and  cultivated,  so,  doubtless,  also  will  be 
the  respective  anti-toxines. 

The  general  method  of  fighting  these  pathogenic  bacteria 
at  present  at  our  command  consists  in  strict  isolation  of 
animals  aft'ected  by  such  specific  diseases,  and  fully  recognis- 
ing and  acting  on  the  fact  that  infected  subjects  and  their 
discharges  are  apt  to  distribute  the  virus.  Remedial  measures 
must  be  adopted  early — if  possible,  before  the  bacteria 
have  multiplied,  and  before  the  toxines  are  produced.  In 
such  cases  as  rabies,  which  have  a  long  incubation  stas^e, 
there  will  be  time  for  the  protective  operation  of  vaccines, 
which  appear  to  confer  on  the  tissues  a  tolerance  of  the 
bacteria,  and  enable  them  successfully  to  cope  with  the 
intruders  and  their  products.  Ever}'^  endeavour  must  be 
made  to  maintain  in  its  fullest  vigour  both  the  part  primarily 
attacked  and  the  system  generally,  with  the  view  that  the 
healthy  tissues  may,  if  practicable,  destroy  the  parasites  and 
their  products.  The  excreting  channels,  moreover,  will  be 
maintained  in  healthy  action,  in  order  that  waste  and  diseased 
materials,  as  well  as  the  organisms  themselves,  may  be  re- 
moved. Disinfectants  will  continue  to  be  used  so  that  the 
bacteria  and  their  spores  shall  be  destroyed,  and  the  spread 
of  the  disease  prevented. 

Many  agents  inhibit  or  retard  the  action  of  ferments,  and 
some  eftectually  destroy  them.  These  agents  have  been  de- 
signated : — 

Antizymotics  —  substances  which  arrest  fermentation. 
They  act  chiefly  in  two  ways: — (1)  Chemically,  by  direct  or 
indirect  oxidation.  Chlorine,  iodine,  bromine,  and  potassium 
permanganate  act  in  this  way.  (2)  Arresting  proHferation 
or  catalysis  of  ferments;  such  is  the  mode  of  action  of 
corrosive  sublimate  and  many  other  metallic  solutions,  of 
carbolic,  boric,  salicylic,  and  benzoic  acids,  and  of  tempera- 


36        ANTISEPTICS — DISINFECTANTS — DEODORISERS 

tnrcs  above  200°  Falir.  Antizymotics  include  antiseptics 
and  disinfectants,  and  nearly  allied  to  these  are  deodorants. 

Antiseptics  are  remedies  wliicli  arrest  putrefaction.  They 
kill  or  2)rcvent  the  development  of  those  bacteria  which  pro- 
duce septic  decomposition. 

Disinfectants  destroy  the  specific  poisons  of  communi- 
cable diseases.  Their  special  function  is  to  kill,  or  arrest 
the  development  of,  those  germs  or  bacteria  which  produce 
disease. 

Deodorisers  or  deodorants  destroy  smells.  Some  of  the 
most  disat^rccable  smells,  and  those  most  injurious  to  the 
higher  animals,  result  from  putrefaction,  hence  their  cause 
is  removed  by  effectual  antiseptics.  Smells  consisting  mainl}' 
of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  are  neutralised  by  chlorine ;  those 
from  ammoniacal  gases  by  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids. 
Noisome  odours  may  also  be  attracted  and  absorbed  by 
freshly-burnt  charcoal  or  dried  earth. 

Enzymes  or  separable  ferments  generally  have  their  action 
arrested  or  are  destroyed  more  readily  than  the  organised 
ferments,  amongst  which  there  is  much  difference  in  viability. 
Microzymes  are  more  sensitive  than  bacilli.  The  bacillus 
anthracis  is  more  easily  killed  than  some  others.  The  spores 
of  all  species  are  specially  resistant,  and  for  their  effectual 
destruction  require  prolonged  exposure  to  tolerably  strong 
solutions  of  potent  antiseptics. 

The  action  of  watery  solutions  of  various  drugs  on  the 
several  enzymes  has  been  carefully  examined  by  Wernitz, 
and  his  experiments  corroborated  and  quoted  by  Dr.  Lauder 
Brunton.  Corrosive  sublimate  stands  pre-eminent  in  the 
certainty  of  its  effects,  even  in  very  diluted  solution.  The 
action  of  emulsin  was  arrested  by  l-65,000th  part,  of  diastase 
by  1 -50,000th  part,  of  ptyalin  by  l-52,000th  part,  of  pan- 
creatin  by  l-21,G00th  part ;  but  it  took  1-I766th  part  to  arrest 
the  action  of  pepsin,  and  l-720th  part  to  arrest  that  of 
rennet.  -Minute  quantities  of  copper  sulj^hate,  chlorine, 
iodine,  and  bromine,  and  also  bleaching  powder  and  sul- 
phurous acid,  readily  destroy  these  organic  ferments. 
Salicylic  and  benzoic  acids  and  chlorinated  lime  arc  also 
effectual,  usually  in  proportions  of  about  1-lOOOth  part.  Borax 


RELATIVE   ACTIVITY   OF   VARIOUS   ANTISEPTICS       37 

is  effective  generally  with  1  to  100,  although  l-3580th  part 
arrests  the  action  of  the  intestinal  ferment  invertin.  Alumi- 
nium acetate,  carbolic  acid,  and  glycerin  in  the  order  men- 
tioned are  weaker  still.  Chloroform,  thymol,  eucalj'ptol,  and 
mustard  oils  have  little,  if  any,  action,  even  in  saturated 
solution.  A  temperature  over  125°  Fahr.  weakens  or  destroys 
the  enzymes. 

Drugs  act  differently  on  different  ferments.  While 
l-52,000th  part  of  corrosive  sublimate,  as  already  indicated, 
arrests  the  action  of  ptyalin,  1  part  in  720  is  needful  to 
arrest  the  action  of  rennet,  which  is,  however,  destroyed  by 
] -1000th  part  of  borax,  1  part  of  which  in  100  is  required  to 
destroy  ptyalin.  For  destruction  of  rennet,  bromine  and 
chlorinated  lime  are  specially  effective.  Creosote,  although 
it  has  small  effect  on  the  enzymes,  in  solution  of  1  part  to  500 
destroys  yeast  cells,  and,  in  solution  of  half  that  strength, 
kills  bacteria.  The  mould  fungi  are  destroyed  by  the  same 
agents  which  kill  yeast  and  bacteria. 

Bacteria  of  different  sorts  exhibit  some  differences  in 
their  susceptibility  to  different  antiseptics;  indeed,  the 
susceptibility  somewhat  varies  in  the  same  bacteria  when 
raised  in  different  media.  It  is  more  easy  to  prevent  than 
to  arrest  development  of  bacteria.  As  already  pointed  out, 
the  spores  have  much  greater  resisting  powers  than  the 
fully-developed  bacteria.  The  fully-developed  bacteria  are 
destroyed  by  exposure  for  an  hour  to  a  temperature  of  150° 
to  168°  Fahr.,  but  the  spores  require  more  prolonged  ex- 
posure at  212°  Fahr.  Moist  heat,  having  a  greater  power  of 
softening  and  penetrating  the  spore  envelope,  is  more 
effectual  than  dry  heat.  Milk  containing  the  bacillus  of 
tubercle  or  other  S23ecific  disorder  may  be  rendered  inno- 
cuous by  five  minutes'  boiling. 

Experiments  bearing  on  the  poAver  of  different  substances 
to  prevent  the  development  of  bacteria  in  various  stages 
and  solutions,  to  kill  them,  or  to  arrest  development  and 
reproduction  of  their  spores,  have  been  carried  out  b}'  many 
good  observers.  The  plan  of  procedure  has  generally  been 
to  add  to  carefully  prepared  sterilised  fluids  in  test  tubes, 
known  quantities  of  the  disinfectant  to  be  tested,  and  then 


38  KOCHS   EXPERIMENTS 

introduce  a  drop  of  liquid  containing  bacteria  or  their  spores. 
Such  experiments  show  that  the  agents  which  most  promptly 
and  effectually  arrest  the  action  of  enzymes  also  prove  the 
most  destructive  to  bacteria.  Of  corrosive  sublimate, 
l-5805th  part  kills  the  developed  parasite;  l-25,258th 
part  prevents  the  development  of  bacteria  taken  from 
meat  infusions;  but  it  requires  a  strength  of  1  in  252.5 
to  prevent  reproduction  of  spores  in  unboiled  meat  infusion, 
and  still  stronger  solutions  to  penetrate  and  kill  the  spores. 
Chlorine,  chlorinated  lime,  bromine,  iodine,  and  quinine 
stand  next  in  activity.  Sulpho-carbolates  and  strychnine 
follow  in  order.  Sodium  sulphite  is  about  1-lOth  the 
strength  of  quinine.  Compared  with  corrosive  sublimate, 
it  requires  twenty  times  the  amount  of  thymol,  salicylic 
acid,  or  potassium  permanganate  to  prevent  development 
of  bacteria,  and  sixty  times  the  amount  to  prevent  repro- 
duction of  spores.  Sodium  hyposulphite  has  very  little 
action.  Carbolic  acid  did  not  stand  so  high  as  expected. 
The  fresh  blood  of  an  animal  just  dead  from  anthrax 
must  be  mixed  with  its  own  bulk  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution 
in  order  to  destroy  the  bacilli,  and  enable  it,  without  harm, 
to  be  injected  into  another  animal.  A  half  per  cent,  solution 
fails  to  destroy  the  bacilli. 

Koch's  experiments  with  anthrax  spores  constitute  the 
most  recent,  extensive,  and  reliable  tests  of  the  value  of 
disinfectants.  Solutions  of  the  several  substances,  of  speci- 
fied strength,  were  placed  in  tubes,  their  mouths  stopped,  as 
is  generally  done,  by  cotton  wool;  and  threads  steeped  in 
fluids  containing  bacilli  and  their  spores  were  carefully 
introduced.  Some  of  these  threads  were  removed  from  day 
to  day,  and  subjected  to  microscopic  examination.  Even 
after  one  hundred  days'  exposure  to  the  antiseptic,  some 
threads  still  exhibited  bacilli.  Chlorine  water,  freshly  made, 
bromine  2  per  cent,  solution,  iodine  1  part  in  7000,  corrosive 
sublimate  1  per  cent,  in  water,  were  found  effectually  to 
destroy  these  anthrax  spores  with  Avhich  they  had  been  in 
contact  one  day.  Formic  acid,  specific  gravity  1 1 20,  destroyed 
all  spores  after  four  days'  exposure.  In  five  days  all  spores 
were  killed  by  5  per  cent,  watery  solutions  of  chlorinated 


lister's  principles  of  antiseptic  surgery     39 

lime  and  ferric  chloride.  One  per  cent,  of  arsenic  in  water, 
and  the  same  proportion  of  quinine  in  acidulated  watery 
sohition,  were  effective  in  ten  days.  Oil  of  turpentine  took 
five  days,  ether  thirty  days.  The  results  with  carbolic  acid 
were  disappointing;  a  1  per  cent,  solution  had  not  much 
effect  on  the  spores,  even  when  exposure  was  prolonged  for 
fifteen  days;  and  a  five  per  cent,  solution  was  required  to 
secure  their  destruction  in  one  day.  Like  salicylic,  boric, 
and  benzoic  acids,  sodium  chloride,  and  many  metallic 
solutions,  carbolic  acid  was  thoroughly  effectual  in  destroy- 
ing microzymes  which  had  not  formed  spores,  and  from  its 
volatility  it  is  frequently  more  serviceable  than  fixed  anti- 
septics. The  infected  threads,  subjected  to  the  influence  of 
even  the  least  active  of  those  antiseptics,  produced  only 
scanty  and  retarded  crops  of  bacilli.  Such  reliable  anti- 
septics as  corrosive  sublimate,  bromine,  and  iodine,  when 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  ether,  or  oil,  were  not  nearly  so  effectual 
as  when  dissolved  in  water. 

The  uses  of  antiseptics. — In  surgery,  zinc  and  iron 
chlorides,  pitch  and  tar,  tinctures  of  myrrh,  benzoin,  and 
other  balsams  have  long  been  used  empirically  both  in 
human  and  veterinary  practice.  But  Lord  Lister  has 
explained  and  systematised  the  antiseptic  treatment,  and 
rendered  it  both  certain  and  successful.  He  studied  fer- 
mentative processes,  and  the  analogous  actions  of  micro- 
organisms on  living  tissues;  and  in  1867  inaugurated  the 
aseptic  treatment  of  wounds.  Two  conditions,  he  insists, 
are  essential  in  dealing  with  wounds,  whether  accidental  or 
made  by  the  surgeon:  (1)  Nothing  septic  must  be  left  in 
them;  and  (2)  Nothing  septic  must  be  allowed  to  get 
into  them.  Acting  on  these  principles,  wounds  which  for 
an  hour  or  two  have  remained  exposed,  and  into  which  the 
ubiquitous  dust-particles  and  organisms  have  been  intro- 
duced, should  first  be  thoroughly  cleansed  of  mechanical 
irritants,  and  then  washed,  and,  if  need  be,  syringed  with  a 
watery  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  zinc  chloride,  or 
carbolic  acid.  The  Avound  thus  rendered  aseptic,  and  the 
removal  of  discharges,  if  need  be,  provided  for,  it  is  to  be 
protected  from  ingress  of  organisms  by  antiseptic  dressing's 


40  PRINCIPLES    OF    ANTISEPTIC   SURGERY 

Wounds  become  septic  not  so  much  from  the  germs  found 
in  the  atmosphere  as  from  those  found  on  the  hands  of  tlie 
operator. — (Lord  Lister.) 

Any  wound  from  a  clean  knife,  or  howsoever  produced,  if 
it  is  perfectly  aseptic,  is  as  quickly  as  possible  covered  Avith 
the  dressing.  This  consists  of  lint,  tow,  oakum,  or  other  such 
absorbent  substance,  saturated  with  an  effectual  germicide 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  which  has  the  advantage  of  being 
volatile,  of  perchloride  or  biniodide  of  mercury,  or  of  boric 
or  salicylic  acids.  These  dressings  are  removed  daily,  or  as 
required,  and  are  continued  till  healthy  granulations  cover 
and  protect  the  wound.  Further,  to  prevent  wounds  from 
being  inoculated  by  septic  germs,  the  knives,  probes, 
ligatures,  sponges,  drainage  tubes,  and  other  appliances 
used  in  connection  with  them,  should  lie  in  an  antiseptic 
solution  until  required,  while  the  operator,  whose  hands 
should  be  most  scrupulously  clean,  must  repeatedly  moisten 
his  hands  with  a  similar  solution. 

Wounds  kept  strictly  aseptic  heal  quickly ;  if  otherwise 
properly  treated  inflammation  rarely  appears,  inasmuch  as 
the  conditions  determining  irritation  are  avoided ;  pain  con- 
sequently is  slight  and  of  brief  duration ;  suppuration  does 
not  occur,  its  organismal  causes  being  excluded ;  blood-clots 
are  preserved  from  harmful  decomposition,  and  are  gradually 
replaced  by  new  tissue ;  portions  of  damaged  structure 
without  hurt  are  removed ;  septica3mia  and  pyjiemia  cannot 
occur  when  micro-organisms  and  their  products  have  been 
destroyed  or  prevented  from  entering  the  protected  wound. 
Serious  operations,  such  as  opening  the  chest  or  abdomen, 
exposing  joints  and  tendon  sheaths,  can  be  undertaken  with 
greatly  diminished  risk  when  proper  antiseptic  precautions 
are  adopted. 

Carbolic  acid  is  the  antiseptic  most  frequently  used  in 
veterinary  surgery.  Its  volatility  carries  it  into  the  recesses 
of  wounds,  and  thus  in  many  cases  increases  its  efficacy.  It  is 
applied,  according  to  circumstances,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
part  dissolved  in  twenty  to  forty  of  water ;  but  besides  watery 
solutions,  liniments  and  antiseptic  lints  are  used.  It  is  em- 
ployed  alone  or  in  conjunction  with   corrosive  sublimate. 


ANTISEPTICS    FOR   INTERNAL    USE  4l 

As  an  effectual  non-poisonous  antiseptic  and  parasiticide, 
Professor  Frolmer  and  other  German  authorities  strongly 
recommend  Jeyes'  creolin,  which  is  a  derivative  of  coal- 
tar.  Salicylic  acid  destroys  some  ferments,  but  is  not 
volatile ;  it  is  used  especially  for  the  dressing  of  ulcers  and 
eczema.  Boric  acid  is  non- volatile,  non-irritant,  and  is  often 
serviceable  for  superficial  wounds,  where  frequent  dressings 
are  unnecessary,  where  the  more  active  carbolic  acid  has  for 
some  time  been  persevered  with,  and  where  granulations  and 
growth  of  skin  require  encouragement.  The  watery  solution 
of  sulphurous  acid  is  cheap  and  effectual.  Chlorinated  soda 
solution  is  sometimes  used.  'Sanitas,'  which  consists  of 
camphoraceous  bodies  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  is  a  non- 
poisonous  and  valuable  antiseptic.  Iodoform  readily  parts 
with  its  90  per  cent,  of  iodine,  conjoins  antiseptic  and  local 
ana3sthetic  actions,  and  stimulates  granulation.  It  is  applied 
to  ulcers  and  chronic  foul  wounds.  Such  poisonous  dressings 
require,  however,  to  be  used  with  some  care  for  dogs,  as  they 
are  liable  to  lick  them.  Iodine  tincture  undiluted  or  diluted 
according  to  requirements,  proves  a  useful  stimulant  and 
antiseptic ;  zinc  chloride,  chinosol,  lysol,  Izal,  Formaldehyde, 
Naphthol,  and  Thymol  are  also  employed. 

Antiseptics  used  internally  are  neither  so  certain  nor  so 
effective  as  when  used  externally.  Bacteria  within  the  living 
body  are  not  easily  reached  or  destroyed;  and,  moreover, 
medicines  such  as  corrosive  sublimate  and  carbolic  acid, 
which  readily  destroy  the  micro-organisms,  are  also  liable  to 
poison  the  patient.  Dr.  Cash,  however,  has  found  that  the 
continued  administration  of  minute  doses  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate render  animals  capable  of  resisting  the  deadly  effects 
of  the  subsequent  inoculation  of  anthrax.  Professor  Poll!  of 
Milan  found  that  dogs,  which  for  five  days  previously  had 
received  daily  doses  of  sodium  sulphite,  suffered  compara- 
tively little  inconvenience  from  the  inoculation  of  foetid  pus, 
which  destroyed,  with  gangrene  and  typhoid  symptoms, 
dogs  not  previously  protected  by  the  antiseptic.  Mr.  Crookes 
{Cattle  Plague  ComTnission,  1866)  injected  into  the  veins  of 
a  cow  affected  with  cattle  plague  105  grains  of  carbolic  acid, 
dissolved  in  6  ounces    of  glycerin  and  water.      Not  only 


42  METHODS   OF   DISINFECTION" 

were  no  bad  effects  produced,  but  the  cow  steadily  improved 
and  recovered.  But  even  more  to  the  purpose,  as  showing 
the  efficacy  of  the  administration  of  antiseptics,  is  the  ob- 
servation that  cattle  in  plague-infected  buildings  receiving 
daily  an  ounce  of  carbolic  acid  along  with  their  food,  and 
having  carbolic  and  sulphurous  acid  fumes  frequently 
liberated  in  their  sheds,  did  not  contract  the  disease. 
Researches  in  this  direction  will  probably  lead  to  important 
results. 

To  prevent  decomposition  of  the  contents  of  the  digestive 
canal,  allay  irritation  and  vomiting,  and  relieve  diarrhaa 
and  dysentery,  such  antiseptics  as  salol,  dermatol,  naph- 
thol,  tannalbin,  lysol,  creolin,  creosote,  carbolic,  salicylic, 
and  sulphurous  acids  are  administered.  Alcohol,  ether-oils, 
and  other  members  of  the  fatty  series  of  carbon  compounds, 
are  prescribed.  Most  of  the  bodies  of  the  aromatic 
series  are  also  antiseptics;  but  carbolic  and  salicylic  acids 
are  more  active  than  salol,  exalgin,  thallin,  and  resorcin. 
Creolin  and  lysol  are  the  antiseptics  most  frequently  pre- 
scribed in  Germany.  The  notable  efficacy  of  mercurials  in 
many  gastro-intestinal  disorders  depends  upon  their  anti- 
septic properties.  In  the  treatment  of  phthisis  in  human 
patients,  inhalation  of  spray,  containing  very  minute  quan- 
tities of  corrosive  sublimate,  has  been  used  with  some 
success. 

The  uses  of  disinfectants. — Perfect  cleanliness  of  the 
animals  and  their  surroundings,  with  sunlight  and  abundance 
of  pure  air  and  water,  are  the  chief  purifying  agents  re- 
quisite, so  long  as  animals  are  in  perfect  health.  When, 
however,  contagious  or  zymotic  disease  occurs,  it  is  necessary 
to  destroy  the  specific  micro  -  organisms  produced,  and 
prevent  their  diffusing  and  attacking  healthy  subjects. 
Pure  air  dilutes,  but  it  also  diffuses,  and  does  not  destroy 
these  contagious  organisms. 

Water,  like  air,  mechanically  dilutes  noxious  matters,  and 
hastens  their  oxidation.  Sewage  freely  mixed  with  running 
water  is  hence  rapidly  decomposed  and  robbed  of  injurious 
properties.  Decomposing  organic  and  contagious  matters, 
insufficiently  diluted  with  water,  instead,  however,  of  being 


EFFICACY  OF   DISINFECTANTS  43 

deprived  of  their  activity,  are  apt  to  get  distributed,  and  are 
liable  to  assume  more  dangerous  forms.  Hence,  in  purifying 
foul  or  infected  places,  solid  accumulations  should  be  mixed 
with  some  fitting  antiseptic,  and  removed  without  the  addi- 
tion of  water.  Infected  stables,  sheds,  market-stances,  trucks, 
and  ships  should  be  swept  out,  and,  if  need  be,  scraped  ;  and 
dry  or  semi-solid  filth,  which  proves  so  ready  an  absorbent 
of  contagious  virus,  should  be  mixed  with  disinfectants,  and 
cleared  away.  The  partially  cleansed  surfaces  should  then 
be  weU  washed  with  carbolic  soap  and  Avater,  or  corrosive 
sublimate  solution;  brickwork  subsequently  lime-washed, 
and  woodwork  sprinkled  with  carbolic  acid  in  the  proportion 
of  two  ounces  to  the  gallon  of  water. 

It  is  of  paramount  importance  to  attack  the  infecting 
micro-organisms  as  soon  as  they  are  produced,  and  before 
they  have  opportunity  for  distribution.  Animals  affected 
with  contagious  diseases  should  accordingly  be  immediately 
isolated,  provided  with  attendants  who  shall  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  healthy  stock,  their  droppings  at  once  dis- 
infected, their  skin  and  feet  washed  daily  with  some 
disinfectant,  whilst  antiseptic  medicine  should  be  given 
internally. 

Sheds  or  stables  occupied  by  infected  animals  should  be 
fumigated  with  chlorine  or  sulphurous  acid.  The  former  is 
the  more  effectual,  and  is  evolved  gradually  by  treating 
bleaching  powder  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  or  more  freely 
by  mixing  common  salt  and  black  oxide  of  manganese  with 
sulphuric  acid.  Half-a-pound  of  sulphur,  mixed  with  about 
one-fourth  part  of  charcoal,  and  placed  in  a  chauffer  or  on  a 
shovel  of  hot  cinders,  fumigates  a  shed  about  100  feet  long 
and  20  feet  in  breadth  and  height.  Neither  chlorine  nor 
sulphurous  gas,  properly  managed,  should  cause  pulmonary 
irritation,  either  to  the  animals  or  their  attendants.  Carbolic 
acid  in  its  impure  liquid  form  is  conveniently  applied  with 
a  brush  over  the  doors,  walls,  and  mangers;  and  carbolic 
powder  should  be  scattered  daily  over  the  floors  and  manure 
heaps.  Rugs  or  sacks,  wetted  with  a  strong  solution  of  the 
volatile  carbolic  acid,  should  be  hung  about  the  premises. 

The  reporters  to  the  Cattle  Plague  Commission  adduced 


44  EFFICACY    OF   DISINFECTANTS 

many  striking  cases  showing  the  efficacy  of  disinfectants. 
Mr.  William  Crookes  and  others  used  carbolic  and  sulphurous 
acids  on  many  farms  during  the  prevalence  of  cattle  plague, 
and  these  herds,  although  within  centres  of  contagion, 
escaped.  Nay,  more,  individual  animals  breathing  an 
atmosphere  of  carbolic  acid,  and  receiving  daily  doses  of 
the  acid  with  their  food,  resisted  the  disease  for  weeks, 
although  plague-stricken  subjects  were  dying  in  adjoining 
standings.  One  herd  of  seventy-three  animals  in  Cheshire 
was  for  months  surrounded  by  cattle  plague.  The  virus  was 
eventually  conveyed  to  them  by  one  of  the  milkmen.  Four 
of  the  cows  milked  by  him  sickened  and  died  :  twenty-eight 
younger  animals,  unprotected  by  disinfection,  also  perished ; 
but  disinfection,  continuously  applied,  effectually  arrested 
further  spread  of  the  disease.  From  the  end  of  February 
until  the  middle  of  April  no  new  cases  occurred.  The 
disease  abating  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  forty-one  surviving 
cows  were  turned  out  to  grass  ;  within,  however,  a  few  days 
of  their  removal  from  the  protecting  influence  of  the  dis- 
infectants, they  were,  one  after  another,  struck  down  by 
plague,  and  all  died.  Carbolic  acid  sprinkled  about  the 
boxes,  sheds,  and  enclosures  of  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation, 
in  Paris,  proved  successful  in  preventing  the  spread  of  cattle 
plague  in  1865.  Similar  treatment  has  secured  the  like 
immunity  from  attacks  of  contagious  pleuro- pneumonia  and 
foot-and-mouth  disease.  Repeated  instances  have  come 
under  my  notice  where  foot-and-mouth  disease  has  been 
arrested,  after  a  portion  of  the  herd  has  been  attacked,  by 
washing  twice  a  week  the  walls,  floors,  doors,  and  other 
woodwork  of  the  infected  premises  with  carbolic  acid,  con- 
tining  the  animals  for  several  weeks  to  their  sheds  or  boxes, 
and  keeping  them  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  abounding 
in  the  tar  acids,  freshly  evolved  by  sprinkling  IVl'DougalTs 
powder  daily  over  the  floors  and  the  manure.  By  similar 
disinfection,  the  progress  of  influenza  and  of  strangles  in 
large  studs  has  frequently  been  arrested.  Professor  Nocard 
has  shown  that,  when  a  cow  aborts,  whether  from  mechanical 
and  accidental  causes,  or  from  virus  introduced  from  subjects 
which  have  previously  aborted,  further  cases  of  the  mishap 


SPREAD   OF   CONTAGION  45 

may  be  prevented  by  corrosive  sublimate  injections  into  the 
vagina,  washing  the  external  organs  with  a  siniilar  solution, 
and  disinfecting  and  burying  or  burning  the  aborted  calf 
and  membranes.  Incalvers  standing  with  those  aborting 
should  have  the  external  organs  and  tail  washed  daily  with 
an  antiseptic  solution. 

Burning  is  the  only  absolutely  safe  method  of  dealing 
with  the  bodies  of  anthrax  subjects,  from  which  removal  of 
the  hides  is  dangerous  to  persons  employed  or,  it  may  be, 
to  other  animals.  Cattle  plague  and  swine  fever  subjects 
should  be  either  burned  or  deeply  buried ;  Avhile  for  the 
diseased  organs  of  tuberculous  patients  the  furnace  is  the 
only  safe  tomb. 

A  high  temperature,  as  already  indicated,  destroys  infec- 
tive particles.  Koch,  as  above  stated,  found  that  the  bacilli 
of  anthrax  and  swine  fever,  even  when  bearing  spores,  were 
deprived  of  pathogenic  power  when  exposed  for  four  hours 
to  a  temperature  of  216"  to  220°  Fahr. ;  while  exposure  for 
five  minutes  to  boiling  water,  or,  better  still,  to  steam  heat, 
is  equally  effective.  The  power  of  steam  depends — (1)  on 
its  latent  heat ;  (2)  on  its  moistening ;  (3)  on  its  condensing ; 
(4)  on  its  penetrating.  It  is  most  effective  when  employed 
under  pressure,  and  when  its  entrance  into  the  chamber  is 
occasionally  interrupted,  so  that  cold  air  in  the  interstices 
of  bulky  and  non-conducting  bodies  may  be  displaced.  Dr. 
Russell,  Glasgow,  exposed  all  infected  washable  articles,  for 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  a  chamber,  to  steam  heat,  along 
with  soap  and  soda,  and  found  that  this  treatment  destroyed 
bacilli  of  anthrax  and  swine  fever,  tuberculous  pus,  and  also 
the  ova  of  lice.  This  method  should,  where  practicable,  be 
adopted  in  the  case  of  rugs  and  other  articles  used  by 
infected  animals. 

Conveyance  of  contagium  by  attendants  is  prevented 
by  sprinkling  their  clothes  with  weak  carbolic  solutions. 
After  handling  animals  affected  by  contagious  disease, 
or  making  post-mortem  examinations  of  such  subjects, 
the  hands  should  be  cleansed  first  with  soap  and  water, 
and  then  washed  with  a  4  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  or  with  a  solution  of  12-15  grains  corrosive  sublimate 


4*G  DISINFECTANTS    FOR    DIFFERENT    PURPOSES 

to   a   quart  of  water,  which   very   effectually   destroys  any 
adhering  bacilli. 

So  soon  as  the  premises  in  which  animals  affected  with 
contagious  disease  have  lived  can  be  emptied,  more  thorough 
disinfection  should  be  carried  out.  To  this  end,  doors  and 
windows  having  been  closed,  chlorine  or  sulphurous  acid 
should  be  freely  evolved,  and  the  place  kept  shut  for  several 
hours.  Walls,  floors,  and  woodwork  should  subsequently  be 
scraped,  and  washed  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution  or 
other  disinfectant. 

Different  disinfectants  are  suitable  for  different  pur- 
poses. For  putrefying  or  contagious  matters  mixed  with 
water,  the  best  are  mineral  salts,  of  which  the  most  effective 
and  cheapest  are  corrosive  sublimate ;  zinc  chloride,  in  the 
familiar  form  of  Burnet's  fluid ;  and  iron  chloride,  the  active 
constituent  of  Ellerman's  deodorising  fluid.  For  sewage 
disinfection,  or  where  there  is  much  water,  aluminium  sul- 
phate, followed  by  lime,  can  be  recommended.  Sulphites 
promptly  remove  smells,  and  are  most  effectual  when  con- 
joined with  the  tar  acids.  The  mixture  of  sodium  sulphite 
and  carbolic  or  cresylic  acid,  although  effectual  for  deodoris- 
ing, has  a  feeble  power  in  preventing  the  putrefaction  of 
night  soil,  for  Avhich  Condy's  fluid  is  most  useful.  Common 
salt,  although  ineffectual  in  checking,  decay  Avhen  once 
established,  or  in  neutralising  bad  smells,  is  a  cheap  pre- 
server of  many  animal  substances.  It  preserves  and  disinfects 
skins.  For  conserving  for  manure  meat  seized  as  unfit  for 
human  food.  Cooper's  salts,  consisting  of  refuse  commercial 
chlorides,  are  cheap  and  effectual.  Iodine  is  volatile  and 
penetrating.  It  is  used  in  many  sick-rooms  and  hospitals, 
conveniently  dissolved  in  the  light  diffusible  pentane.  The 
solution  contains  20  grains  to  the  ounce ;  an  ounce  suffices 
for  four  cubic  feet  of  space ;  distributed  by  a  spray  producer, 
it  volatilises  rapidly ;  it  leaves,  when  freely  used,  a  film  of 
iodine,  and  effectually  destroys  smells  and  noxious  organic 
matter.  Its  expense,  however,  precludes  its  general  use  in 
veterinary  practice. 

The  uses  of  deodorisers. — Bad  smells,  however  unpleasant, 
are  not  necessarily  prejudicial  to  health,  and,  although  some- 


DEODORISERS  i7 

times  associated  with,  are  perfectly  distinct  from,  the  micro- 
organisms of  zymotic  or  contagious  diseases.  Objectionable 
smells  are  largely  made  up  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  phos- 
phuretted  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  gases,  with  sulphurous  and 
ammoniacal  compounds.  Still  more  injurious  are  the  noisome 
exhalations  from  the  skin  and  lungs  of  animals.  Some 
popular  deodorisers  only  cloak  and  overpower,  instead  of 
neutralising  or  destroying  offensive  smells.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion are  fumigations  with  aromatic  and  balsamic  substances, 
such  as  camphor,  cascarilla,  and  lavender,  the  burning  of 
brown  paper,  the  sprinkling  of  scents  and  essences.  Odours 
depending  upon  gases  are  readily  removed  by  effectual 
chemical  neutralisers :  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  by  chlorine ; 
ammoniacal  emanations,  by  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids. 
Smells  from  decomposing  organic  matters  are  usually  most 
effectually  got  rid  of  by  arresting  decomposition  by  suitable 
antiseptics.  Noisome  odours  already  floating  in  the  air  may 
be  attracted  and  absorbed  by  freshly-burned  charcoal,  dried 
earth,  or  cotton  wool;  or  altered  and  broken  up  by  such 
gases  as  chlorine  and  sulphurous  acid.  For  destroying  the 
intolerable  smell  from  cochineal  dye-works,  no  deodoriser 
has  been  found  so  satisfactory  as  sulphurous  acid.  For 
deodorising  the  contents  of  privies,  without  detracting  from 
the  manurial  value,  a  iliixture  of  common  salt  and  carbolic 
acid,  or  eight  parts  of  calcined  dolomite  mixed  Avith  two  of 
peat  or  of  wood  charcoal,  can  be  recommended. 

Powerful  mineral  antiseptics,  such  as  the  zinc  and  iron 
chlorides,  especially  when  used  in  concentrated  solution,  are 
not  good  deodorisers.  They  are  apt  to  evolve  disagreeable 
fatty  acids.  Not  being  volatile,  they  can  only  destroy  the 
odorous  particles  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  them. 
Iodine,  dissolved  in  spirit,  although  an  expensive,  is  an 
elegant  and  effective  deodoriser.  Cresylic  and  carbolic  acids 
are  good  deodorisers,  and  are  volatile,  but  have  the  dis- 
advantage, when  used  in  concentrated  form  and  in  presence 
of  much  water,  of  evolving  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  A  mix- 
ture of  dry  sodium  sulphite  with  carbolic  acid  is  effectual, 
and  moderate  in  cost,  and  should  be  placed  in  vessels  about 
the  premises.     M'Dougall's  disinfecting  powder  is  also  good. 


48  PARASITICIDES    AND   ANTIPERIODICS 

especially  when  charged  Avith  an  extra  quantity  of"  carbolic 
acid;  animals  appear  to  have  no  dislike  to  the  tar-like 
odour,  and  nothing  answers  better  for  removing  the  smell 
and  arresting  the  decomposition  of  stable  or  other  manure. 
Jeyes'  Fluid — one  part  in  80  to  100  of  water — is  largely  used 
as  a  deodorant  for  cattle-sheds,  stables,  piggeries,  and  kennels. 
Chlorinated  lime,  in  the  familiar  form  of  bleaching  powder, 
although  possessed  of  small  antiseptic  power,  is  a  prompt 
and  effectual  deodoriser,  can  be  employed  either  for  solid  or 
liquid  impurities,  gives  off'  chlorine,  and  never  causes  any 
disagreeable  combinations ;  but  breaking  up  instead  of  pre- 
serving organic  matters,  it  diminishes  the  value  of  manure 
with  which  it  is  mixed.  It  is  applied  as  powder,  or  in 
solution  containing  from  2  to  5  per  cent.,  to  the  walls,  wood- 
work, and  floors  of  the  places  requiring  purification,  or  sheets 
soaked  in  the  solution  are  suspended  about  the  premises. 

Parasiticides  are  killers  of  parasites,  whether  animal  or 
vegetable.  The  group  includes  germicides,  or  killers  of 
micro-organisms  (p.  31),  and  vermicides,  which  will  be  sub- 
sequently noticed.  They  are  referred  to  here  as  they  mainly 
consist  of  antiseptics.  The  two  varieties  of  ringworm  pro- 
duced by  fungi  are  destroyed  by  antiseptic  solutions,  by 
phenol  oils,  and  tincture  of  iodine.  Scab  and  mange  caused 
by  various  acari  are  treated  by  sulphur  ointments,  solutions 
of  carbolic  acid,  creolin,  or  arsenic,  or  by  tobacco  infusion. 
The  strongylides  invading  the  bronchial  tubes  of  young 
cattle  and  sheep,  and  causing  hoose  or  husk,  are  destroyed 
by  inhalation  of  diluted  sulphurous  acid,  or  chlorine,  or 
by  turpentine,  chloroform,  or  terebene,  given  intratracheally. 

Antiperiodics  are  medicines  which  mitigate  or  prevent 
intermittent  intensity  of  the  symptoms  of  certain  diseases. 
Such  periodical  recrudescence  is  less  marked  in  the  lower 
annuals  than  in  man,  but  is  sometimes  observable  in  the 
pyrexia  of  influenza  in  horses  and  distemper  in  dogs.  These 
exacerbations  usually  occur  in  specific  disorders,  and  are 
believed  to  result  from  the  recurring  development  of  fresh 
crops  of  micro-organisms  or  their  products.  Cinchona, 
quinine,  iodine,  arsenic,  and  salicin,  arc  the  most  effective 
antiperiodics. 


COUNTER-IRRITANTS  49 


REMEDIES  ACTING  ON  THE  SURFACE  OF 
THE  BODY 

RUBEFACIENTS — VESICANTS — PUSTULANTS — CAUSTICS— SETONS 
— THE  ACTUAL  CAUTERY — ASTRINGENTS — DEMULCENTS — 
EMOLLIENTS  — DILUENTS 

Irritants,  or  Counter-irritants,  applied  to  the  skin,  produce 
nervous  and  vascular  reaction,  and  reflexly  induce  certain 
remote  effects.  They  relieve  or  remove  congestion  and  pain, 
and,  by  stimulating  functional  activity,  promote  repair.  It 
is  not  always  easy,  however,  to  explain  how  these  curative 
results  are  produced. 

Heat  and  cold  both  relieve  tension,  and  hence  pain ;  but 
they  produce  their  effects  in  different  ways.  Cold  reflexly 
contracts  arteries,  and  hence  lessens  the  quantity  of  blood 
flowing  to  an  inflamed  part.  Warmth  dilates  capillaries 
adjacent  to  the  seat  of  inflammation,  and  hence  slows  the 
blood  current.  Cold  lessens  the  amoeboid  movements  of 
the  white  corpuscles,  but  to  be  effective  it  must  be  used  in 
the  earlier  stages  of  inflammation,  and  continuously  for  a 
considerable  time. 

Irritation  or  inflammation  of  the  skin  surface,  as  indicated, 
frequently  relieves  or  removes  congestion  or  inflammation, 
and  pain  of  adjacent  or  deeper-seated  parts.  To  effect  such 
purposes  blisters  are  applied,  in  most  animals,  in  sore  throat, 
bronchitis,  pleurisy,  inflamed  joints,  etc.  Their  curative 
actions  are  thus  explained :  When  the  chest  walls  are  blistered 
in  a  case  of  pleuro-pneumonia,  so  soon  as  the  skin  becomes 
hot  and  tender,  a  stimulus  is  conveyed  by  the  afferent  nerves 
to  the  vaso-motor  medullary  centres,  and  thence  is  reflected 
by  the  vaso-motor  nerves,  causing  the  lung  and  pleural 
capillaries  to  dilate,  and  thus  diminishing  tension  and  pain. 
Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  mentions  that  when  '  cantharides  collo- 
dion was  painted  repeatedly  over  the  back  of  a  rabbit  for 
fourteen  days,  the  vessels  underneath  the  skin  and  the 
superficial  layers  of  muscles  were  congested.  The  deeper 
layers  of  the  muscles,  the  thoracic  wall,  and  even  the  lung 
itself,  were  much  paler  and  more  ansemic  than  those  of  the 

D 


50  RUBEFACIENTS — VESICANTS 

other  side.'  A  blister  is  thus  believed  to  act  in  the  same 
way  as  a  warm  poultice,  viz.,  it  dilates  the  congested  or 
inflamed  capillary  network.  Counter-irritants  may  occa- 
sionally, however,  act  reflexly,  as  cold  does,  and  by  contract- 
ing arterial  vessels,  relieve  congestion,  inflammation,  and 
pain.  But  whether  a  blister  dilates  or  contracts  the  capil- 
laries of  affected  parts,  it  certainly  increases  circulation 
through  them,  promoting  cell  growth  and  hastening  absorp- 
tion. It  thus  restores  healthy  action  in  most  inflamed 
organs,  in  swollen  glands  and  joints. 

The  several  classes  of  irritants  used  externally  difl'er 
materially  in  the  intensity  and  duration  of  their  effects. 

Rubefacients  produce  slight  redness  and  vascular  dilata- 
tion or  congestion,  and  are  represented  by  ammonia  solu- 
tion, iodine,  mild  preparations  of  cantharides,  and  arnica ;  by 
alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform,  if  evaporation  be  prevented 
by  oiled  silk  or  other  means ;  by  turpentine  and  other  volatile 
oils,  as  well  as  by  smart  friction  and  moderate  heat.  The 
laundress's  smoothing-iron  heated  and  pressed  equably  over 
the  skin,  either  bare  or  covered  with  brown  paper  or  flannel, 
proves  a  useful  rubefacient  in  rheumatism  and  enlarged 
joints  in  delicate  young  animals.  Owing  to  the  colour  of 
the  skin  and  abundance  of  hair,  reddening  in  veterinary 
patients  is,  however,  less  obvious  than  in  man.  Massage  or 
friction  with  pressure,  as  in  kneading  or  shampooing,  exerts 
many  of  the  effects  of  counter-irritants,  and,  moreover,  assists 
in  mechanically  relieving  overloaded  lymph  vessels  and 
veins.  In  this  way  hand-rubbing  reduces  the  swollen  legs 
and  joints  of  hard- worked  horses. 

Vesicants  are  more  active;  cause  exudation  of  plasma, 
which,  collecting  under  the  epidermis,  raises  vesicles  or 
blisters.  Vesicles  contain  a  fluid  consisting  of  about  78 
parts  of  water,  18  of  albumin,  with  a  little  fibrin,  and  4  of 
salts.  Steam  and  boiling  water  rapidly  produce  a  large 
amount  of  effusion.  Blisters,  by  whatsoever  agent  raised, 
after  some  da3^s  generally  dry  up,  protecting  the  parts  until 
the  new  epidermis  forms.  Cantharides,  mustard,  acetic 
acid,  turpentine,  and  strong  ammonia,  are  the  vesicants 
commonly  used  in  veterinary  practice. 


PUSTULANTS    AND   CAUSTICS  51 

PusTULANTS  inflame  tlio  deep-seated  cutaneous  tissues, 
especially  the  orifices  of  the  sweat  glands,  cause  exudation 
of  leucocytes  and  raise  pustules.  These  arc  the  effects  or 
euphorbium,  croton  oil,  tartar  emetic,  mercury  biniodide; 
and  also  of  cantharides,  mustard,  and  other  active  vesicants, 
when  applied  with  sufficient  friction. 

Caustics  combine  with  the  water  and  albumin  of  the 
tissues,  w^ith  wdiich  they  arc  brought  into  contact,  and  cause 
the  separation  of  a  slough.  Those  producing  extensive 
sloughing  receive  the  title  of  escharotics.  Caustics  are 
exemplified  by  the  concentrated  mineral  acids,  glacial  acetic, 
carbolic,  and  chromic  acids,  concentrated  alkalies,  antimony 
chloride,  arsenic,  bromine,  and  the  soluble  salts  of  the  heavy 
metals. 

Caustics  are  used  to  destroy  parasites  or  virus  in  Avounds, 
and  for  this  purpose  penetrating  fluid  caustics  are  some- 
times preferable  to  solid.  They  are  employed  for  opening 
abscesses,  and  for  removing  warts  and  other  growths,  especi- 
ally when  so  deep-seated  and  vascular  that  they  cannot  be 
safely  extirpated  by  the  knife.  When  emj^loyed  to  arrest 
hsemorrhage  from  accidental  or  surgical  wounds,  they  receive 
the  special  title  of  styptics.  When  thus  used,  the  blood  is 
removed  by  a  piece  of  lint  or  a  sponge,  and  the  part  lightly 
pressed,  so  that  the  blood-vessels  may  be  more  readily  seen, 
and  the  caustic  applied  to  them  with  precision,  and  with  as 
little  destruction  as  possible  of  surrounding  textures.  The 
effect  of  the  styptic  may  be  seconded  by  equable  pressure 
and  application  of  cold.     {See  Astringents  and  Styptics.) 

But  besides  these  more  direct  and  mainly  chemical  actions, 
they  develop  more  complex  and  vital  reparative  effects. 
Applied,  for  example,  to  indolent  or  callous  ulcers,  they 
stimulate  the  trophic  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  promote 
healthy  nutrition,  and  thus  hasten  healing.  Lightly  used, 
they  condense  soft,  spongy,  exuberant  granulations,  and 
hasten  the  cicatrisation  of  sinuses.  These  beneficial  effects 
on  morbid  processes  probably  result,  not  only  from  direct 
action  on  the  diseased  tissues,  but  also  from  indirect  reflex 
action  on  surrounding  parts  ;  in  other  words,  from  counter- 
irritation. 


52  THE   ACTUAL   CAUTERY 

Setons  are  sbmetiines  substituted  for  blisters  or  firing,  and 
are  frequently  preferred  to  firing  on  account  of  their  being 
less  apt  to  blemish.  The  seton  consists  of  a  piece  of  tape 
or  cord,  and  is  usually  inserted  by  means  of  a  seton  needle. 
To  prevent  slipping  out,  its  ends  are  tied  together,  or 
knotted.  It  is  usually  moved  daily ;  and  if  severe  effects  are 
desired,  it  is  smeared  with  blistering  ointment.  Setons  act 
chiefly  on  the  comparatively  insensitive  subcutaneous  cellular 
tissues.  They  are  serviceable  in  combating  chronic  inflam- 
mation of  joints,  and  in  relieving  some  forms  of  lameness. 
Placed  in  the  dewlap,  they  have  also  been  used  as  preventives 
for  black-quarter  in  calves  and  young  cattle ;  and  the  effects 
ascribed  to  them  may  result  from  their  increasing  the  phago- 
cytes which  destroy  the  specific  bacilli. 

A  rowel  acts  in  much  the  same  manner  as  a  seton.  A 
wound  is  made  in  the  skin  with  a  bistoury  or  rowel  scissors, 
and  is  kept  open  by  the  insertion  of  a  pledget  of  tow,  or  a 
disc  of  leather,  which,  to  increase  counter-irritation,  is 
smeared  with  blisterinsf  ointment. 

Acupuncture  is  effected  by  needles  three  to  six  inches  in 
length,  introduced  into  fleshy  parts,  with  a  rotary  movement. 
Occasionally  anodynes  are  deeply  injected  into  muscles  for 
the  relief  of  rheumatic  pain. 

The  Actual  Cautery  is  still  much  used  in  veterinary  practice 
as  a  counter-irritant.  It  is  generally  applied  at  a  full  red 
heat,  and  the  higher  the  temperature,  the  less  the  pain 
attending  its  application.  It  is  employed  for  some  of  the 
purposes  of  active  vesicants,  and  also  of  caustics.  In  the 
treatment  of  chronic  inflammation  of  bones,  joints,  ligaments, 
and  tendons,  for  which  it  is  chiefly  used,  it  modifies  the 
nutrition  of  the  diseased  part.  Deep  cauterisation  with 
penetration,  as  in  pyropuncturing  exostoses,  increases  the 
activity  of  the  inflammatory  process  and  hastens  consolida- 
tion. Moderate  cauterisation,  as  in  linear  or  transcurrent 
firing,  acts  as  a  revulsive,  and  promotes  absorption  of  exudate 
and  resolution.  The  fired  skin  does  not,  as  was  once  believed, 
form  a  permanent  bandage  around  the  parts;  for  a  short 
time  indeed  after  the  operation  the  skin  is  corrugated  and 
tightened,  but  it  soon  resumes  its  natural  elasticity,  and  does 


USES    OF    COUNTER-IRRITANTS  63 

not  embrace  the  subjacent  parts  more  firmly  tlian  in  health. 
The  firing  of  healthy  limbs,  with  the  popular  idea  of 
strengthening  and  bracing  them  up,  is  now  deservedly  dis- 
countenanced, and  any  benefits  apparently  accruing  really 
result  from  the  rest  which  the  operation  necessitates.  In 
nervous,  excitable  horses,  firing  occasionally  produces  irri- 
tative fever,  especially  if  several  parts  are  fired  at  the  same 
time. 

Dry  Cupping  is  occasionally  employed  as  a  derivant  or 
irritant  in  the  human  subject,  and  is  equally  serviceable  in 
the  lower  animals. 

The  uses  of  counter-irritants. — In  influenza,  bronchitis, 
and  other  depressing  disorders  of  horses,  in  order  to  rouse 
the  action  of  the  heart  and  avert  lunsr  consrestion,  rube- 
facients,  such  as  soap  liniments  or  mustard  paste,  are  some- 
times rubbed  into  the  chest,  abdomen,  or  legs,  and  when  the 
surface  is  warmed,  as  it  generally  will  be  in  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes,  the  dressing  is  washed  off.  Counter-irritants  are  in 
common  use  in  certain  stages  of  inflammation  of  the  joints, 
air  passages,  intestines,  and  their  investing  membranes.  They 
are  more  beneficial  in  laryngitis  and  bronchitis  aftecting  the 
larger  tubes,  and  in  pleuris}^  than  in  pneumonia.  In  the 
outset  of  inflammatory  attacks,  by  reflex  action,  they  lessen 
hyperemia,  chiefly  by  stimulating  the  dilated  paralysed  capil- 
laries, thus  favouring  resolution.  In  more  acute  stages, 
when  blood-plasma  and  red  and  white  corpuscles  are  escaping 
through  the  walls  of  the  distended  vessels,  fomentations  and 
poultices  are  generally  more  suitable  than  irritants.  ^Vhen 
the  urgency  of  the  febrile  symptoms  has  somewhat  abated, 
counter-irritants  are,  however,  agam  useful  in  promoting 
absorption  of  inflammatory  products,  and  they  frequently 
invigorate  enfeebled,  over-distended  capillaries,  and  sub- 
stitute higher  formative  for  lower  debased  action. 

Blisters  act  more  powerfully  on  horses  than  on  cattle,  and 
require  to  be  used  with  special  caution  on  dogs,  which  are 
apt  to  bite  and  rub  the  blistered  parts,  and  thus  induce 
sloughing.  For  general  purposes  in  canine  practice,  iodine 
is  a  most  useful  counter-irritant.  The  action  of  turpentine 
on  the  skin  of  horses  is  peculiar.     Applied  over  a  consider- 


54  CHOICE   OF   COUNTER-IRRITANTS 

able  surface,  it  produces  such  intense  irritation  that  some 
animals  for  a  short  time  become  unmanageable,  a  result  the 
more  remarkable  as  turpentine  acts  but  slightly  on  the  more 
delicate  human  skin. 

The  choice  of  a  counter-irritant  and  the  mode  of  using 
it  are  determined  by  various  conditions.  Promptly  to 
produce  general  revulsion,  as  in  combating  chill,  rousing 
nervous  dej)ression,  or  overcoming  such  functional  disturb- 
ance as  occasions  colic,  mustard  and  other  rubefacients  are 
specially  indicated.  To  act  more  permanently  on  parts  in 
which  nutrition  has  been  more  seriously  impaired,  cantha- 
rides  is  the  appropriate  counter-irritant.  Where  bone, 
cartilage,  or  ligament  has  been  chronically  affected,  still 
more  profound  and  permanent  effects  result  from  the  use 
of  mercuric  biniodide  ointment,  the  hot  needle-iron,  or  setons. 

In  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  chest  in  horses  mustard 
is  preferable  to  cantharides.  In  well-bred  sensitive  animals 
a  pound  of  mustard  flour  made  into  a  paste  with  Avater  is 
rubbed  into  the  sides  and  washed  off  in  half-an-hour.  In 
the  heavier  less  sensitive  breeds  paper  is  laid  over  the 
mustard  dressing,  and  the  body-sweater  loosely  applied. 
Some  horses  show  considerable  restiveness,  and  even  pain. 
So  soon,  however,  as  tenderness  and  swelling  are  notable 
externally,  as  they  usually  are  in  a  few  hours,  the  chest 
symptoms  abate.  No  other  remedy  aftbrds  such  prompt 
and  effectual  relief  in  these  cases.  Indeed,  when  mustard 
fails  to  produce  its  external  irritant  results,  the  patient's 
chances  of  recovery  are  small.  Professor  Williams,  how- 
ever, disapproves  of  the  use  of  all  blisters  in  chest  diseases, 
urging  that,  besides  causing  needless  pain,  they  aggravate 
he  inflanmiation.  He  further  states  that  they  increase  the 
liability  to  hydrothorax,  while,  when  used  in  diseases  of 
joints,  he  declares  that  the  superficial  inflammation  they 
produce  extends  to  the  subcutaneous  tissues,  including  even 
the  periosteum  and  bones. 

These  charges  are  inconsistent  with  physiological  obser, 
vations,  and  are  effectually  disproved  by  the  five  following 
experiments,  undertaken  by  Professor  M'Call  in  1891 : — 

1.  Post-mortem    examination    of  the  chest   of  a  horset 


PROFESSOR   M'CALL's   EXPERIMENTS  55 

which,  three  days  prior  to  slaughter,  had  mustard  as  a 
counter-irritant  appHed.  Inflammatory  congestion  of  the 
skin  and  subcutaneous  celhilar  tissue,  with  effusion  very 
pronounced,  but  periosteum,  ribs,  and  other  tissues  unaltered 
in  colour  or  consistency. 

2.  Post-mortem  examination  of  a  chronically  diseased 
hock-joint  which  had  been  pyropunctured,  and  thereafter 
blistered,  about  one  Aveek  prior  to  slaughter.  Inflammatory 
action  produced  in  the  skin,  and  markedl}^  at  the  points  of 
puncture  on  the  superficial  layer  of  subcutaneous  tissue; 
but  all  structures  deeper  placed  not  in  the  least  affected  or 
altered  in  appearance. 

3.  Post-mortem  examination  of  chronically  enlarged  fore 
fetlock  joints  of  a  horse,  which,  three  days  prior  to  slaughter, 
had  been  blistered  with  cantharides  ointment.  Inflammatory 
action  and  effusion  confined  to  skin  and  subcutaneous  cellular 
tissue. 

4.  Post-mortem  examination  of  a  lady-toed  worn  harness 
horse,  having  a  large  splint  or  bony  growth  on  the  inside  of 
each  fore  limb,  with  considerable  thickening  of  the  skin  from 
brushing,  and  to  which  diseased  parts  cantharides  blisters 
had  been  applied  three  days  prior  to  slaughter.  Inflam- 
matory action  marked  upon  skin  and  cellular  tissue,  but  no 
deeper. 

5.  Post-mortem  examination  of  a  horse  which  had  a  con- 
siderable growth  of  bone,  involving  the  last  row  of  small 
bones  of  hock,  and  head  of  large  metatarsal  bone  on  the 
outside,  and  which  had  been  line  fired,  and  thereafter 
blistered  with  cantharides  ointment,  three  days  prior  to 
slaughter.  Evidences  of  the  effect  of  counter-irritation  well 
marked,  but  confined,  as  in  all  the  previous  cases,  to  the 
skin  and  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue,  and  leaving  the 
periosteum,  bones,  and  deeper  structures  to  the  unaided  eye 
unaffected  and  unchanged  in  colour. 

Before  a  blister  is  applied,  the  skin  should  be  well 
washed  with  soap  and  water,  and  the  hair,  when  long  or 
thick,  removed  Avith  scissors  or  razor.  The  effect  of  the 
blister  may  be  hastened  and  increased  by  subjecting  the 
part  to  smart  friction,  or  the  action  of  hot  water,  and  by 


5G  ASTRINGENTS    CONDENSE    LIVING    TISSUES 

rubbing  the  agent  well  in,  taking  care  to  spread  it  over  the 
surface  of  the  part  diseased.  Violent,  deep-seated  action  is 
seldom  desirable.  Better  curative  results  are  usually  attained 
by  moderate  and  continuous  effects  kept  up  by  repeated 
applications. 

Counter-irritants  may  generally  be  applied  directly  over 
the  inflamed  area,  when  removal  of  fluid  or  inflammatory 
products  is  desired;  but  should  seldom  be  applied  to  ex- 
tensive acutely  inflamed  parts,  or  to  tissues  immediately 
continuous  with  them.  An  inflamed  joint  is  sometimes  better 
treated  by  placing  the  blister  above  and  around  rather  than 
upon  the  acutely  painful  spot.  According  to  the  late 
Dr.  Anstie,  the  irritant,  if  applied  over  the  spinal  nerve 
trunk,  from  which  the  irritated  nerve-branch  issues,  often 
produces  reflex  effects  of  a  beneficial  character. 

When  vitality  is  low,  or  the  skin  irritable,  blisters  are  apt 
to  cause  slousrhing'.  When  inordinate  local  irritation  has 
been  produced,  it  may  be  abated  by  fomentations,  while 
undue  constitutional  excitement  is  removed  by  opiates, 
diluents,  a  mash  diet,  and  salines.  On  the  next  or  second 
day  after  a  blister  has  been  applied,  the  part  should  be 
dressed  with  zinc  ointment,  lard,  vaseline,  oil,  glycerin,  or 
acetate  of  lead  lotion. 

Astringents  condense  the  living  tissues.  Many  pro- 
duce their  effects  by  coagulating  or  precipitating  albumin. 
These  comprise  alum,  chalk,  salts  of  the  heavier  metals, 
acids,  and  alcohol,  with  tannic  acid,  and  such  tannin-con- 
taining substances  as  oak-bark  and  catechu.  All  caustics 
used  in  small  quantity,  or  diluted  solution,  are  astringent. 
Agents,  such  as  ergot,  digitalis,  turpentine  and  other  volatile 
oils,  and  eucalyptus  gum,  have  no  coagulant  power  on 
albumin,  but  constringe  the  tissues,  in  virtue  of  their  action 
on  the  walls  of  the  nutrient  arterioles.  Gallic  acid  has 
hitherto  been  regarded  as  an  astringent,  but  experiments 
made  by  Dr.  Stockman  (British  Medical  Journal,  1886) 
show  that  it  has  no  claim  to  any  special  coagulant  action 
nor  any  effect  in  lessening,  like  ergot,  the  calibre  of  blood- 
vessels, cither  by  peripheral  or  central  action.  Like  all 
other  acids,  although  in  less  degree,  it  possesses,  however. 


STYPTICS  67 

the  power  of  diminishing  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood, 
hence  increasing  its  tendency  to  coagulate.  The  remote 
effects  of  vegetable,  and  probably  of  other  astringents,  have 
been  over-estimated.  So  soon  as  their  chemical  affinities 
have  been  satisfied  by  union  with  a  base  or  with  albumin, 
they  must  evidently  lose  their  power  of  coagulating  or  pre- 
cipitating albumin ;  and  it  is  therefore  difficult  to  compre- 
hend how  they  can  exert  astringent  effects  upon  either  the 
respiratory  or  the  urinary  mucous  membrane. 

Astringents  are  used  to  diminish  excessive,  and  modify 
faulty,  secretion,  to  combat  congestion  of  cutaneous  and 
mucous  surfaces,  and  to  arrest  limited  recent  superficial 
inflammation.  These  results  appear  to  be  obtained  in  several 
ways.  Heinz  has  shown  that  they  prevent  exudation  of 
leucocytes.  But,  howsoever  acting,  some  change  is  effected 
in  the  vascular  walls,  not  always,  however,  by  narrowing  the 
vessels,  for  such  notable  astringents  as  alum  and  tannic  acid 
dilate  vessels ;  while  silver  nitrate  acts  on  the  cement  sub- 
stance of  the  endothelium.  Their  efficacy  is  often  well  seen 
in  circumscribed  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva  or  fauces. 
Solutions  of  tannin,  eucalyptus  gum,  or  alum,  in  spray  or 
gargle,  or  inhalations  of  turpentine  vapour,  mixed  with  air, 
arrest  the  inordinate  secretion,  and  relieve  the  congestion  of 
sore  throat  and  bronchitis.  Their  application  in  disorders 
of  the  digestive  organs  will  receive  special  notice  under  that 
heading.  As  injections  and  suppositories,  they  are  used  in 
irritable  and  inflamed  conditions  of  the  vagina  and  uterus. 
The  uterus  and  rectum,  when  prolapsed,  are  washed  with 
astringent  antiseptics,  in  order  to  diminish  their  irritability 
and  swelling,  and  to  facilitate  their  safe  return.  They  con- 
dense exuberant  granulations,  lessen  and  amend  discharges 
from  wounds  and  ulcers,  which  they  usually  coat  with  a  pro- 
tective film  of  albumin. 

Styptics  are  astringents  specially  used  to  arrest  bleeding. 
Some,  like  matico,  tow,  lint,  or  pressure,  mechanically  check 
blood-flow  from  superficial  vessels ;  others,  like  most  astrin- 
gents and  caustics,  coagulate  albumin,  and  thus  plug  the 
leaking  vessels ;  others,  like  ergot,  digitalis,  ice,  ether  spray, 
and   antipyrine  in  tannic  acid   solution,  contract  capillary 


58  DEMULCENTS — EMOLLIENTS 

vessels,  while  lead  acetate  probably  acts  in  a  twofold  way, 
increasing  coagulability  of  the  blood,  and  also  contracting 
arterioles.  In  serious  internal  lucniorrhage,  it  is  further 
desirable  that  the  patient  be  kept  quiet,  and  that  his  food 
be  given  cold. 

Demulcents  soothe  and  protect  parts  with  which  they 
come  into  contact,  act  chiefly  mechanically,  and  closely 
resemble  emollients.  They  include  gums,  mucilage,  linseed, 
cotton-wool  and  collodion,  fuller's  earth,  starch,  treacle, 
gelatin,  albumin,  fats,  oils,  glycerin,  and  milk,  Tliey  take 
the  place  of  mucus  and  other  natural  demulcents,  where 
these  are  deficient  or  wanting.  They  lubricate  or  defend 
abraded  or  irritable  parts  from  external  injur}',  acrid  dis- 
charges, and  poisonous  matters.  When  absorbed,  they 
exert,  although  in  modified  degree,  remote  demulcent 
effects.  They  are  employed  in  solution,  spray,  draught, 
or  enema,  to  relieve  dry,  irritable  conditions  of  the  skin, 
respiratory,  digestive,  and  urino-genital  membranes. 

Emollients  soften,  soothe,  and  relax  the  parts  to  which 
they  are  applied.  They  resemble  demulcents,  and  include 
many  of  the  articles  specified  in  that  class,  as  well  as  those 
substances  which  absorb  and  retain  heat  and  moisture. 
They  are  represented  by  fomentations,  poultices,  and 
spongio-piline,  and  by  folds  of  lint,  flannel,  or  woollen 
cloth,  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  covered  with  water- 
proofing. (See  Poultices  and  Fomentations.)  Fats,  oils, 
lanoline,  vaseline,  paraffin,  with  soap  and  other  liniments, 
are  also  emollients.  Fatty  emollients  rubbed  into  the 
skin  soften  and  supple  it;  and  when  applied  with  smart 
and  continued  friction,  they  also  increase  tissue  changes, 
and  hasten  removal  of  deposits.  In  the  form  of  watery 
vapour,  simple  or  medicated  emollients  relieve  irritability 
and  congestion  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane.  Not 
only  do  they  reduce  tension  and  relax  tissues  to  which 
they  are  immediately  applied,  but,  acting  on  adjacent 
vaso-motor  centres,  they  dilate  collateral  blood-vessels; 
and  mainly  in  this  way  fomentations  and  poultices  relieve 
irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  throat,  lungs,  and  other 
deep-seated  organs.     In  the  earlier  stages  of  inflammation 


MUSCULAR   STIMULANTS  59 

they  promote  resolution;  and  in  all  stages  they  relieve 
heat,  tension,  pain,  and  spasm.  Although  serviceable  for 
softening  and  cleansing  "wounds,  they  should  not  be  used 
for  Avounds  in  process  of  healing  by  first  intention  or 
adhesion. 

Diluents  are  allied  to  demulcents  and  emollients,  are 
liquid  or  solid  substances  used  along  with  more  active 
agents  in  order  to  diminish  their  activity.  Water  is 
generally  their  basis,  and  the}'  include  most  demulcent 
drugs.  They  promote  the  action  of  diaphoretics,  diuretics, 
and  cathartics. 


MEDICINES    ACTING    ON    MUSCLES 
MUSCULAR  POISONS — MUSCULAR  STIMULANTS 

Muscles  possess  extensibility  and  retractility.  Heat 
renders  muscles  less  extensible  and  more  retractile ;  cold, 
and  section  of  an  important  nerve,  have  the  opposite  effects. 
Fatigue  and  acids,  notably  lactic  acid,  one  of  the  products  of 
muscular  waste,  increase  extensibility.  Very  dilute  alkalies 
diminish  extensibility.  Irritability  is  increased  by  heat  and 
physostigmine ;  while  it  is  diminished  by  cold,  curare,  and 
other  substances  which  cause  muscular  paralj^sis.  Con- 
traction and  relaxation  of  muscles,  possibly  consisting,  like 
other  forms  of  motion,  in  waves  of  vibration,  appear  to  be 
connected  with  chemical  changes  in  the  muscle  resembling 
oxidation ;  oxygen  is  used  up,  while  sarco-lactic  and  sub- 
sequently carbonic  acids  are  formed.  These  products,  and 
the  accompanying  fatigue  consequent  on  repeated  violent 
contractions  are  removed  experimentally  by  washing  out 
the  muscle  with  a  current  of  blood.  A  saline  solution, 
notably  potassium  permanganate,  by  ready  oxidation,  causes 
similar  results,  which  likewise  follow  the  use  of  a  mere  trace 
of  veratrine.  In  practice,  removal  of  these  waste  products 
is  hastened  by  shampooing  the  muscles  or  massage,  the 
effects  of  which,  in  overcoming  fatigue,  are  fully  recognised. 
In   like   manner   thorough   grooming   and    diligent    hand- 


60  MUSCULAR   POISONS 

rubbing  of  the  limbs  of  horses  after  hard  work  lessen 
fatigue,  and  prevent  subsequent  stiffness  and  swelling  of 
joints. 

Spasm  consists  of  irregular  purposeless  contractions  of 
voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles,  usually  depending  on 
faulty  action  of  the  higher  co-ordinating  centres.  Spasm 
of  involuntary  muscles,  as  illustrated  by  that  of  the 
heart,  blood-vessels,  bronchi,  or  intestines,  is  antagonised 
by  nitrites,  such  as  amyl-nitrite  and  nitrous  ether  {see 
Antispasmodics). 

'  Rapid  alternation  of  contraction  and  relaxation,  or  tremor, 
may  affect  either — {a)  a  few  bundles  of  muscular  fibres; 
(6)  a  single  muscle;  or  (c)  groups  of  muscles'  (Brunton). 
Such  tremor  may  occur  when  the  muscle  is  at  rest,  or 
when  it  is  in  motion.  This  form  of  insubordination  may 
probably  result  from  the  number  of  stimuli  from  the  nerve- 
centre  being  either  too  few  or  too  many.  If  the  stimuli 
are  insufficiently  rapid,  veratrine  or  calcium  salts,  which 
increase  the  duration  of  each  individual  contraction,  are 
recommended.  AVhen  a  muscle,  or  its  motor  nerve,  receives 
an  abnormal  number  of  vibrations,  or  is  over-stimulated, 
instead  of  contraction  being  followed  by  relaxation,  per- 
manent contraction  or  tetanus  ensues. 

Muscular  Poisons  are  divided  by  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  into 
the  following  six  groups  : — 

1.  Leaves  the  irritability  of  the  muscle   unaffected,  but 

diminishes  the  total  amount  of  work  it  is  able  to  do. 
This  group  contains  apomorphine,  saponin,  salts  of 
copper,  zinc,  and  other  emetics.  Antimony,  arsenic, 
and  large  doses  of  iron  have  somewhat  similar  but 
weaker  effects. 

2.  Diminishes  the  excitability  of  the  muscle,  as  well  as 

its  capacity  for  work.  This  group  contains  salts  of 
potassium,  lithium,  and  ammonium,  the  cinchona 
alkaloids,  chloroform,  and  alcohol,  in  large  doses. 

3.  Diminishes  the  capacity  for  work,  and  produces  marked 

irregularity  in  its  excitability,  and  contains  lead, 
emetine,  and  cocaine.  Similar  effects  are  also  pro- 
duced by  ptomaines. 


MUSCULAR   POISONS  61 

4.  Alters  the  form  of  the  muscular  curve,  as  exhibited  by 

veratrine,  and  to  a  similar,  although  less  extent,  by 
strontium  and  calcium  salts. 

5.  Increases  the  excitability,  as  is  notably  done  by  physo- 

stigmine. 

6.  Increases  the  capacity  for  work.     The  agents  belonging 

to  this  group  cause  rapid  restoration  of  the  muscle 
after  fatigue,  and  are  represented  by  creatin,  hypo- 
xanthin,  caffeine,  and  glycogen.  These  substances 
must  hence  be  regarded,  not  only  as  nerve  stimulants, 
but  as  direct  muscular  restoratives. 
Voluntary  muscles  differ  from  involuntary,  not  only  in 
structure,  but  in  other  particulars.  Their  contraction  and 
relaxation  are  more  rapid.  The  nerves  in  voluntary  muscles 
terminate  in  end- plates,  while  the  terminal  twigs  in  involun- 
tary muscles  form  a  plexus  round  the  fibres.  Small  doses 
of  curare  paralyse  the  motor  nerves  of  voluntary  muscles, 
but  much  larger  doses  are  required  to  paralyse  the  nerves 
of  involuntary  muscles.  On  the  other  hand,  small  doses  of 
atropine  paralyse  involuntary  muscles,  while  much  larger 
quantities  must  be  used  to  affect  voluntary  muscles.  Striking 
illustrations  of  the  diff'erent  effects  on  striated  and  unstriated 
muscle  are  recorded  by  'Szpilman  and  Luchsinger,  who 
found  that  atropine  produces  paralysis  of  the  motor  fibres 
of  the  vagi  supplying  the  oesophagus,  only  in  those  parts  of 
it  where  involuntary  muscular  fibre  is  present.  Thus,  the 
oesophagus  of  the  frog  and  the  crop  of  birds  consist  of  in- 
voluntary muscular  fibre,  and  atropine  destroys  the  motor 
power  of  the  vagus  over  them.  The  oesophagus  of  the  dog 
and  rabbit  contains  striated  muscular  fibre,  and  atropine 
does  not  paralyse  the  motor  nerves.  The  oesophagus  of  the 
cat  contains  striated  muscular  fibres  in  its  upper  three- 
fourths,  and  non-striated  in  its  lower  fourth;  atropine 
destroys  the  motor  action  of  the  vagus  upon  the  lower 
fourth,  but  not  upon  the  upper  part'  (Brunton).  The 
paralysing  effects  of  drugs  upon  muscles  are  believed  to 
result  from  their  disturbing  the  relations  between  the  nerves 
and  the  muscular  fibres  which  they  excite. 


63        MEDICINES    ACTING    UN    THE    NERVOUS   SYSTEM 


MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

On  the  Brain.— cerebral  stimulants  —  exhilarants  — 
cerebral  depressants  —  soporifics  —  narcotics  — 
anodynes — antispasmodics — anesthetics. 

On  the  Spinal  Cord. — spinal  stoiulants  and  depressants. 

On  Motor  Nerves. — stimulants — paralysers. 

On  Sensory  Nerves. — stimulants — local  sedatives — local 
anesthetics — electricity. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  higher  animals  comprises : — 

I.  The  brain,  which  takes  cognisance  of  external  im- 

pressions, co-ordinates  movements,  and  originates 
mental  or  psychical  ideas.  Relatively  to  other 
parts  of  the  nervous  system,  the  brain  of  man 
is  more  highly  developed  than  that  of  animals, 
and  most  drugs,  accordingly,  act  upon  it  more 
powerfully  than  upon  the  less-developed  brain  of 
the  horse,  ox,  or  dog.  The  cerebellum  is  chicHy 
concerned  in  the  maintenance  of  equilibrium. 

II.  The  spinal  cord  conveys  sensory  impulses   to  the 

brain  and  medulla,  and  transmits  motor  impulses 
to  muscles  and  glands.  The  cord,  moreover,  in 
several  ways,  transmits  and  regulates  reflex  move- 
ments. That  part  of  the  cord,  or,  indeed,  of  the 
nervous  system,  most  essential  to  life,  is  the  medulla 
in  which  are  situated  the  respiratory,  cardiac,  and 
other  vital  centres. 

III.  Nerves  of  sensation,  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the 

body,  convey  impressions  to  the  brain  or  cord. 

IV.  From    the   cerebro-spinal   axis    arise   nerves   which 

give  motion  to  muscles,  and  convey  other  efferent 

impulses  to  glands. 
Concerning  the  functions  and  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system  much  has  still  to  be  discovered,  while  the  ejects 
of  medicines  acting  upon  the  brain  and  cord  have  only 
recently  been  thoroughly  examined,  and  still  require  much 
invcstieration. 


CEREBRAL   STIMULANTS  63 


ACTION  OP  MEDICINES  ON  THE  BRAIN 

Medicines  affecting  the  brain  act  either  directly  on  the 
nerve- cells  or  on  the  general  circulation.  Blood  flowing 
freel}^  through  the  brain  increases  its  excitability;  insufficient 
circulation  diminishes  excitability.  Many  medicines,  such 
as  alcohol  and  ether,  act  both  directly  on  the  nerve-cells 
and  on  the  general  circulation.  They  stimulate  nerve-cells, 
wherever  found,  act  on  most  of  the  brain  centres,  and, 
according  to  the  dose  in  Avhich  they  are  given,  are  stimulants 
or  depressants.  Full  doses  very  frequently  exert  primary 
stimulant,  and  secondary  depressant,  effects.  Such  medi- 
cines as  opium,  alcohol,  and  ether,  according  to  dose,  are 
stimulant,  narcotic,  soporific,  or  ansesthetic ;  and  accordingly 
have  the  disadvantage  of  affecting  functions  which  it  may 
be  undesirable  to  disturb. 

The  cerebro-motor  centres  have  their  excitability  lowered 
by  alcohol,  chloral,  and  cold.  The  depression  caused  by  cold, 
unless  extreme,  or  applied  for  a  long  period,  is  followed,  how- 
ever, by  reaction.  Bromides  of  potassium  and  ammonium, 
without  disturbing  the  relations  of  one  centre  to  another, 
appear  to  have  a  marked  effect  in  lowering  general  brain 
activity.  Still  more  prompt  and  powerful  are  anaesthetics 
which  abolish  all  motor  action.  Atropine  in  small  doses 
increases,  but  in  large  doses  diminishes,  motor  excitability. 

The  motor  centres  have  their  excitability  increased  by 
mechanical  irritation,  as  by  the  point  of  a  needle,  which  pro- 
duces epileptic  convulsions.  But  similar  convulsions  also 
ensue  when  the  vessels  of  the  brain  are  surcharged  with 
venous  blood,  as  in  asphyxia.  Camphor  causes  excitement 
and  constant  movements,  succeeded,  after  large  doses,  by 
clonic  convulsions  and  death.  The  active  principles  of 
coculus  indicus,  cicuta  virosa,  and  oenantha  crocata,  as  well 
as  cinchonidine  and  quinine,  have  similar  convulsant  effects. 
The  action  of  these  agents  is  not  confined  to  the  brain  motor 
centres,  but  also  extends  to  those  in  the  medulla. 

Cerebral  Stimulants. — The  functions  of  the  brain  gener- 
ally are  stimulated  by  a  large  group  of  agents,  sometimes 


64  SOPORIFICS 

termed  brain  stimulants  or  exhilarants,  and  exemplified 
by  alcohols,  ethers,  and  oil  of  turpentine.  A  moderate  dose 
of  alcohol,  in  a  somewhat  concentrated  state,  by  stimulating 
the  sensory  nerves  of  the  mouth,  throat,  and  stomach, 
promptly  exerts  a  reflex  action  on  the  vessels  of  the  brain. 
Further,  but  less  direct  and  powerful,  brain  stimulation 
ensues  when  the  spirit  enters  the  circulation  and  increases 
cardiac  action.  When  a  large  dose  has  been  administered, 
the  cerebral  exhilaration  is  not,  however,  long  continued ; 
the  normal  relations  between  one  centre  and  another  are 
disturbed,  delirium  ensues,  followed  by  impaired  action  and 
depression.  Ammonia  vapour,  liquor,  or  carbonate,  applied 
to  the  nostrils,  reflexly  stimulates  the  cerebral  vessels,  and 
then  acting  upon  the  vaso-motor  centres,  also  increases 
general  blood  circulation  and  pressure.  Brisk  exercise  has 
much  the  same  stimulating  effect  on  the  cerebral  as  on 
other  arteries  and  capillaries.  Mastication  and  sucking  in 
young  animals  have  been  shown  by  experiment  to  increase 
circulation  in  the  carotids  and  cerebral  arteries.  Chewing 
tobacco,  betel-nut,  or,  indeed,  anything  else,  smoking,  sipping 
stimulants,  or  even  tea,  coffee,  or  cold  water,  have  similar 
effects  in  dilating  the  human  cerebral  arteries.  Placing  the 
head  on  a  lower  level  than  the  rest  of  the  body  favours  brain 
circulation,  and  hence  wards  off'  syncope. 

The  functional  activity  of  the  brain  is  lowered  by  large 
or  repeated  doses  of  stimulants,  such  as  alcohol,  which,  after 
exhilaration,  and,  it  may  be,  delirium,  produce  narcosis, 
sleep,  and  sometimes  death.  Bromides  of  potassium  and 
ammonium,  without  preliminary  excitement  or  disturbed 
function,  diminish  brain  activity.  Accumulation  of  lactic 
acid,  and  probably  other  elements  of  tissue  waste,  appears  to 
have  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the  bromides  in  lowering  the 
activity  of  the  nerve-cells. 

Soporifics  or  Hypnotics  are  agents  which  induce  sleep. 
Many  hypnotics  lessen  functional  activity  of  the  nerve-cells 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  while  others  impede  the  im- 
pressions transmitted  through  the  nerves  and  special  sense 
organs  to  the  cerebrum.  Full  doses  further  depress  the 
functions  of  the  respiratory  and  vaso-motor  centres  in  the 


HYPNOTICS  65 

medulla,  as  evidenced  by  slower  respiration,  dilatation  of 
surface- vessels,  and  lowering  of  arterial  tension.  During 
sleep,  certain  parts  remaining  in  a  state  of  partial  unregu- 
lated activity,  induce  the  phenomena  of  dreams,  which  occur 
in  the  domesticated  animals  as  well  as  in  man. 

A  perfect  hypnotic  has  not  yet  been  found  even  for 
human  patients.  Those  prescribed  are  liable  to  be  uncertain, 
and  injuriously  disturb  motor,  organic  and  trophic  functions. 
Hypnotics  act  still  less  satisfactoril}^  on  the  lower  animals. 
Their  effects  do  not  appear  to  be  so  notably  concentrated 
on  the  brain.  Dogs  and  pigs  are,  however,  brought  under 
their  influence  more  readily  than  horses  or  ruminants.  Those 
most  trusted  are  opium  and  morphine,  chloral  hydrate, 
croton  chloral,  hyoscyamus,  cannabis  indica,  and  bromides. 
Opium  and  morphine  prove  of  special  value,  not  only  in 
depressing  cerebral  functional  activity,  but  also  in  antagonis- 
ing pain  and  irritation  which  interfere  with  sleep.  Bromides 
diminish  conduction  of  impressions,  and  hence  notably  quiet 
cerebral  excitement.  Chloral  is  a  powerful  hypnotic,  but  in 
large  doses  it  is  irritant,  and  sometimes  produces  dangerous 
delirium  and  convulsions.  It  induces  sleep  mainly  by  its 
action  on  the  brain,  and  by  dilating  vessels  generally. 
Chloralamide  is  prescribed  for  human  patients  as  a  safe  and 
effectual  hypnotic.  Some  recently  discovered  substances  of 
the  fatty  carbon  series  possess  marked  hypnotic  action. 
Paraldehyde,  even  in  full  doses,  has  none  of  the  disadvan- 
tageous secondary  effects  of  opium  or  chloral,  causes  quiet 
sleep  in  dogs,  but  is  rather  nauseous,  and  not  one-third  of 
the  strength  of  chloral.  Sulphonal  is  more  active,  but  being 
insoluble,  hypnosis  is  slowly  established.  It  has  been  used 
especially  in  cases  of  motor  unrest.  Large  doses  diminish 
excitability  of  the  reflex  functions  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  also 
of  peripheral  sensations.  Trional  is  allied  to  sulphonal,  but 
is  more  soluble  and  active ;  and  in  experiments  on  dogs  it  pro- 
duced sleep  more  rapidly.  Hypnone,  urethane,  and  amylene 
hydrate,  recently  brought  into  notice,  are  feeble  hypnotics. 
Warmth  to  the  body  and  legs,  and  comforting  warm  drinks 
withdraw  blood  from  the  brain,  and  hence  favour  the  anaemia 
which  occurs  in  sleep. 

E 


66  NARCOTICS   AND   ANODYNES 

Narcotics  are  drugs  wliicli  disturb  the  relation  of  the 
mental  faculties  with  the  external  world.  This  disturbing 
effect  is  produced  by  full  doses  ol  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform, 
and  most  stimulants.  After  a  variable  amount  of  excite- 
ment, locomotor  inco-ordination  ensues,  and  the  animal 
staggers  in  its  gait.  Where  the  effect  is  still  further 
developed,  fatal  paralysis  of  the  respiratory  centre  occurs. 
Opium  and  Indian  hemp  produce  little  vascular  excitement, 
and  their  narcotic  effects  are  stated  to  be  due  chiefly  to 
alterations  in  the  relative  functions  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  brain.  Belladonna  and  its  analogues  produce  active 
delirium,  perpetual  movements  associated  with  debility,  and 
depending.  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  states,  on  the  combined 
stimulant  action  of  these  drugs  on  the  nerve-centres  in  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  their  paralysing  action  on  the 
peripheral  ends  of  the  motor  nerves. 

Anodynes  or  analgesics  are  agents  which  relieve  pain  by 
diminishing  excitability  of  nerves  or  nerve-centres.  Pain 
may  originate  in  the  hippocampal  region,  which  Professor 
Ferrier  regards  as  the  central  seat  of  sensation,  and  some 
abnormal  excitement  of  these  nerve  ganglia  is  believed  to 
occur  in  hysteria.  It  may  depend  upon  stimulation  of  the 
grey  matter  of  the  cord,  through  which  painful  impressions 
are  conveyed.  It  may  begin  in  the  trunk  of  a  nerve,  but 
frequently  its  origin  is  in  the  peripheral  endings  of  the 
sensory  nerves. 

Pain,  thus  produced  in  various  ways,  requires  diverse 
treatment.  Its  cause  should,  if  possible,  be  discovered  and 
removed.  When  merely  local,  it  is  combated  by  local 
anodynes,  such  as  opium  and  belladonna,  with  their  alkal- 
oids ;  by  cocaine,  veratrine,  carbolic  acid  and  other  phenols ; 
by  menthol  and  thymol,  local  blood-letting,  heat  and  mois- 
ture as  by  poultices  and  fomentations,  and  by  cold,  in  the 
form  of  ice  or  cold  water.  Counter-irritants  also  act  reflexly 
as  analgesics. 

When  pain  is  not  localised,  general  anoydnes  are  adminis- 
tered, either  by  the  mouth  or  hypodermically.  Many  act 
mainly  as  sedatives  or  paral3^sants  of  the  hippocampal 
centres.     Chloral  hydrate,  Indian  hemp,  hemlock,  bromides, 


ANTISPASMODICS  67 

and  aiiiBsthetics  are  types  of  this  class.  But  others,  with 
less  marked  action  on  the  brain,  more  notably  diminish  the 
conductivity  of  the  sensory  nerves,  and  are  exemplified  by 
atropine,  cocaine,  aconite,  and  veratrine.  Opium  and 
morphine,  and  indeed  most  effective  anodynes,  produce, 
however,  their  paralysant  effects  on  all  nerve-cells  Avith 
which  they  come  into  contact,  and  hence  act  in  both  ways. 
Several  of  the  newly-discovered  bodies  of  the  benzol  or 
aromatic  series  conjoin  antiseptic  and  anodyne  properties. 
Such  are  salol,  a  salicylate  of  ]3henol;  antifebrin,  which 
controls  many  varieties  of  pain ;  while  exalgin  is  still  more 
generally  effectual.  SalicyUc  acid  and  salicylates  have  a 
special  power  of  controlling  the  pain  of  acute  rheumatism. 
Electricity  applied  along  the  course  of  the  stimulated 
nerves,  and,  in  acute  rheumatism,  nerve-stretching,  are 
sometimes  tried.  Dividing  the  nerves  supplying  the  seat  of 
injury,  as  is  done  in  navicular  and  some  other  diseases  of  the 
feet,  prevents  the  feeling  of  pain,  but  of  course  does  not 
arrest  local  inflammation  or  other  mischief.  In  horses,  as 
in  other  animals,  a  dose  of  physic  is  often  an  effectual 
anodyne,  probably  owing  to  its  relieving  irritability  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  centres. 

Antispasmodics  are  agents  which  prevent  or  remove  spasm, 
which  is  an  irregular  painful  contraction  of  voluntary  or 
involuntary  muscles.  In  the  medulla  oblongata,  wdiere  it 
joins  the  pons,  is  a  centre  which,  when  stimulated,  causes 
general  spasms.  These  are  excited  by  direct  irritation  of  the 
centre  with  chemicals,  by  contact  action  of  such  poisons  as 
strychnine,  nicotine,  picrotoxine,  and  ammonia,  by  rabies 
and  other  animal  toxines,  as  well  as-  by  the  altered  condition 
of  the  blood  in  asphyxia,  and  hy  sudden  ansemia  of  the 
medulla  from  copious  blood-letting.  This  spasm  centre 
appears  to  be  m  an  abnormal  state  in  epilepsy,  when  its 
inordinate  action  is  directly  controlled  by  bromides.  The 
tonic  spasms  of  tetanus,  and  strychnine -poisoning,  are 
relieved  by  bromides,  chloral  hydrate,  and  nicotine. 

But  spasms  are  more  frequently  local  than  general.  They 
are  defined  by  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  as  a  kind  of  insubordina- 
tion, in  which  the  individual  muscles  or  nerve-centres  act 


68  TREATMENT   OF   SPASM 

for  themselves,  without  reference  to  those  higher  centres 
which  ought  to  co-ordinate  their  action  for  the  general  good 
of  the  organism.  Spasm  may  be  due,  therefore,  to  an  excess 
of  action  in  the  muscles  or  local  centres,  or  diminished 
power  of  the  higher  co-ordinating  centres.  As  a  rule,  it  is 
due  to  diminished  action  of  the  co-ordinating  or  inhibitory 
centres,  rather  than  to  excess  of  action  in  the  motor 
centres.  It  is,  therefore,  a  disease  rather  of  debility  and 
deficient  co-ordination  than  of  excessive  strength.  Local 
irritation  is  frequently  the  cause  of  spasm. 

Excessive  exertion  develops  in  the  muscles  of  locomotion, 
especially  when  employed  in  unwonted  work,  waste  products, 
which  produce  spasm  or  cramp.  Both  cause  and  effect  are 
frequently  removed  by  smart  friction.  In  the  intestine, 
cramp  may  be  due  to  the  presence  of  a  local  irritant,  which 
ought,  in  the  normal  condition,  to  produce  increased  peri- 
stalsis, and  thus  ensure  the  speedy  removal  of  the  offending 
substance,  '  From  some  abnormal  conditions,  the  muscular 
fibres  around  the  irritant  contract  excessively,  and  do  not 
pass  on  the  stimulus  to  those  adjoining.  From  this  want  of 
co-ordination,  painful  and  useless  spasm  occurs.  In  order 
to  remove  it  we  apply  warmth  to  the  abdomen,  so  as  to 
increase  the  functional  activity  both  of  the  muscular  fibres 
and  of  the  ganglia  of  the  intestine.  Peristalsis  then  occur- 
ring instead  of  cramp,  the  pain  disappears,  and  the  offending 
body  is  passed  onwards  and  removed.  Or  we  give,  inter- 
nally, aromatic  oils,  which  have  a  tendency  to  increase  the 
ordinary  peristalsis ;  or,  3'^et  again,  we  may  give  opium  for 
the  purpose  of  lessening  the  sensibility  of  the  irritated 
part,  and  thus  again  bringing  it  into  relationship  with  other 
parts  of  the  body '  (Brunton).  In  the  treatment  of  colic  in 
horses,  these  several  modes  of  attack  are  usually  conjoined. 
A  diffusible  stimulant  such  as  ether  or  alcohol  is  given  to 
increase  the  powers  of  the  higher  nerve-centres,  and  thus 
bring  the  disturbed  lower  centres  and  the  muscles  into 
subordination ;  an  opiate  is  associated  to  lessen  local  excit- 
ability; while  a  purgative  is,  besides,  administered  in  order 
to  remove  the  indigestible  food,  which  is  usually  the  cause 
of  the  mischief. 


ANTISPASMODICS  69 

The  convulsions  of  epilepsy,  as  already  mentioned,  are 
warded  off  by  bromides,  while  endeavour  is  also  made  to 
remove  the  conditions  which  produce  them  by  the  adminis- 
tration of  salts  of  arsenic,  silver,  zinc,  and  copper.  Chorea, 
depending  probably  upon  some  lesion  of  the  sensori-motor 
ganglia  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  is  treated  by  arsenic  and 
copper  salts,  and  when  the  patient  is  ana?mic  by  iron  and  a 
generous  oleaginous  diet.  Spasm  affecting  the  heart  is 
usually  controlled  by  the  judicious  use  of  alcohol,  ether, 
digitalis,  or  nitrites.  These  nitrites,  exemplified  by  amyl- 
nitrite,  nitro-glycerine,  and  nitrous  ether,  are  pre-eminently 
relaxers  of  spasm  of  involuntary  muscles.  They  relieve 
the  heart  and  blood-vessels  in  angina  pectoris  of  human 
patients,  and  the  dyspnoea  of  bronchitis,  as  well  as  intestinal 
cramp  in  all  animals.  In  overcoming  spasm  of  particular 
parts,  it  is,  as  already  indicated,  important  to  exalt  the 
power  of  the  controlling  centres  of  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord  by  such  stimulants  as  alcohol,  ether,  camphor,  and 
bromo  -  camphor,  and  thus  regulate  or  co  -  ordinate  the 
lower  disturbed  centres.  This  twofold  stimulation  of  the 
higher  central  and  lower  topical  centres  is  also  exerted 
by  valerian,  asafcetida,  musk,  and  volatile  oils.  Other 
antispasmodics  as  borneol  and  menthol,  instead  of  exalting 
nervous  excitability,  lessen  irritability,  and  paralyse  motor, 
sensory,  and  reflex  centres  of  the  brain  and  cord,  and  thus 
often  relieve  spasm.  In  the  successful  treatment  of  spas- 
modic diseases  which  generally  depend,  as  already  indicated, 
on  deficient  and  imperfect  nervous  power,  restoratives, 
tonics,  and  good  hygiene  are  essential  factors. 

Anesthetics  are  substances  that  produce  insensibility  to 
pain,  diminish  muscular  action  and  other  phenomena. 
They  are  allied  to  anodynes,  but  act  more  promptly  and 
powerfully.  A  state  of  brief  and  imperfect  ana?sthesia  may 
be  induced  by  checking  or  arresting  circulation  of  blood 
through  the  brain  and  higher  centres,  as  by  copious  blood- 
letting, pressure  on  the  carotids,  or  by  inhalation  of  charcoal 
fumes,  or  other  suffocating  vapours.  It  may  be  produced 
locally  by  firm  pressure,  or  ligature  impairing  circulation  in 
the  part.     These   methods,  however,  cannot  safely  induce 


70  ANESTHETICS 

such  profound  or  prolonged  unconsciousness  as  is  requisite 
for  the  performance  of  surgical  operations.  But  certain 
volatile  drugs,  brought  into  contact  with  the  nerve-cells, 
reduce  or  arrest  for  considerable  periods  their  functional 
activity,  probably  in  virtue  of  chemical  action. 

Local  anaesthetics  produce  paralysis  of  the  peripheral 
endings  of  sensory  nerves.  They  include  cocaine,  eucaine, 
holocaine,  ethyl-chloride,  methyl-chloride,  carbolic  acid, 
antipyrine,  iodoform,  extreme  cold,  and  aconite.  Cocaine  is 
generally  preferred.  The  part  is  painted  or  injected  with  a 
solution  of  the  hydrochloride,  until  the  requisite  insensibility 
is  secured.  Cocaine  proves  particularly  serviceable  in  di- 
minishing irritability,  and  facilitating  examinations  of  the 
eye  and  larynx,  as  well  as  for  the  performance  of  minor 
operations.  Iodoform  conjoins  anaesthetic  and  antiseptic 
etfccts,  and  is  used  for  operations  connected  with  the  rectum 
and  vagina. 

General  anaesthetics,  when  inhaled,  are  carried  by  the 
blood-stream  to  the  centres  of  the  brain  and  cord,  which 
they  paralyse.  They  comprise  nitrous  oxide  gas,  chloroform, 
ether,  and  other  substitution  compounds  of  the  methane 
(CHJ  and  ethane  (C.^Hg)  series.  Nitrous  oxide  produces  its 
effects  rapidly,  induces  a  venous  condition  of  the  blood,  with 
contraction  of  arterioles  and  rise  of  blood-pressure,  and  there 
is  hence  no  risk  of  its  causing  syncope.  In  human  practice, 
anesthesia  is  sometimes  induced  by  nitrous  oxide,  and  sub- 
sequently maintained  by  chloroform  or  ether.  Chloroform 
is  generally  used  both  in  human  and  veterinary  practice.  It 
is  the  most  effectual  and,  rightly  used,  the  safest  known 
anjcsthetic.  It  acts  in  smaller  quantity,  more  rapidly,  and 
with  less  excitement  than  ether.  Ether,  first  employed  in 
America,  is  preferred  by  many  English  practitioners,  on  the 
jDlea  that  it  is  less  apt  than  chloroform  to  impair  cardiac 
action.  But  it  has  the  disadvantage  of  causing  more  irrita- 
tion and  excitement  than  chloroform,  while  its  administration 
requires  the  use  of  an  inhaler. 

The  A.  C.  E.  Mixture  consists  of  one  part  of  absolute 
alcohol,  two  of  chloroform,  and  three  of  pure  ether.  It  is 
much  used  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  stated  to  be 


THE   FOUR   STAGES    OF   ANESTHESIA  71 

more  stimulant  than  chloroform,  and  less  likely  to  depress 
heart  action.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ether  and  chloro- 
form is  used  in  various  parts  of  France  and  Germany.  The 
Austrian  Government  has  advised  one  part  of  chloroform 
Avith  six  of  ether  in  winter,  and  with  eight  of  ether  in 
summer.  Chloral  hydrate  is  given  by  the  mouth  or  rectum, 
or  by  intravenous  injection.  It  depresses  the  heart  and  vaso- 
motor centres,  and  consequently  the  vessels  dilate  and  blood 
pressure  falls.  Methylene  (CH2CI2),  containing  an  atom 
more  of  hydrogen  and  an  atom  less  of  chlorine  than  chloro- 
form, causes  more  rapid  anaesthesia,  but  requires  to  be  used 
in  larger  amount.  The  pure  drug  has  also  the  disadvantage 
of  being  costly,  and  that  usually  sold  is  stated  to  be  a 
mixture  of  chloroform  and  alcohol.  Methylal  which  has 
also  been  used,  acts  quickly  and  effectually  on  dogs  without 
apparent  injurious  after-effects,  and  is  also  serviceable  for 
local  anaesthesia. 

Anaesthesia  is  generally  divided  into  four  stages — I.  Sti- 
mulant ;  II.  Narcotic ;  III.  Anaesthetic ;  IV.  Paralytic. 

I.  The  stimulant  stage  is  characterised  by  symptoms  of 
inebriation,  more  marked  in  the  case  of  ether  than  of  chloro- 
form ;  excitation  of  cerebral  and  cardiac  functions  ;  vigorous 
animals  struggle ;  the  special  senses  and  general  sensibility 
are  blunted.  This  stage  usually  continues  from  one  to  three 
minutes,  but  is  shortened  when  the  drug  is  given  quickly  in 
full  doses. 

II.  The  narcotic  stage  is  marked  by  paralysis  of  the 
motor  centres,  the  voluntary  muscular  system  gradually 
becomes  relaxed,  the  force  and  volume  of  the  pulse  are 
lowered,  the  functions  of  the  higher  brain  centres  are  im- 
paired, but  reflex  functions  are  slightly  if  at  all  affected. 
This  stage,  usually  reached  in  less  than  five  minutes,  is  that 
suitable  for  anodyne  and  antispasmodic  effects,  and  for 
moderating  violent  and  irregular  labour  pains. 

III.  The  anaesthetic  stage  exhibits  complete  muscular 
relaxation,  unconsciousness,  and  insensibility ;  the  frequency 
and  force  of  the  pulse  are  increased,  the  functions  of  the 
cerebrum  and  spinal  cord  are  paralysed,  the  oculo-palj^ebral 
reflex   is   impaired   or   abolished,   but   the   centres    of    the 


72         THE   HYDERABAD    CHLOROFORM   EXPERIMENTS 

medulla  presiding  over  respiration  and  heart  action  are  only 
slightly  affected.  This  full  insensibility  may  be  safely  main- 
tained for  an  hour  or  two  by  small  doses  of  the  anaesthetic, 
and  is  the  condition  requisite  for  the  performance  of  serious 
surgical  operations. 

IV.  The  paralytic  stage  occurs  when  the  functions  of  the 
medullary  centres  are  abolished.  It  includes  two  distinct 
phases — suspension  of  respiration,  and  subsequently  suspen- 
sion of  cardiac  action.  Implication  of  the  respiratory  centre 
is  indicated  in  animals  by  irregular  sighing  or  shallow 
breathing,  with  long  pauses  between  the  respiratory  move- 
ments. Up  to  this  point  the  animal  is  in  no  serious  danger. 
But  if  anaesthesia  is  further  pushed,  the  heart  centre  is 
paralysed,  the  pulse  beats  very  quickly  then  stops,  and 
usually  within  two  minutes  heart  action  also  ceases. 

The  action  of  anaesthetics  has  been  very  fully  elucidated 
by  two  series  of  investigations  undertaken  at  the  instance  of 
the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad,  The  first,  made  in  the  spring  of 
1888,  under  the  supervision  of  Surgeon-Major  LaAvrie,  com- 
prised 141  experiments,  chiefly  on  dogs ;  while  the  second, 
made  in  the  later  months  of  1889,  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  Lauder  Brunton,  included  571  experiments  on  dogs, 
monkeys,  horses,  goats,  cats,  and  rabbits.  Chloroform,  ether, 
and  the  A.  C.  E.  Mixture  were  used.  The  investigations  demon- 
strate that  the  action  of  these  anaesthetics  is  the  same  on 
man  and  on  the  animals  mentioned;  that  lethal  doses,  of 
chloroform  or  ether,  whether  poisoning  be  slow  or  rapid, 
arrest  the  respiratory  before  the  cardiac  action;  that  the 
heart  is  never  primarily  or  directly  affected,  but  in  uncom- 
plicated cases  stops  two  to  six  minutes  after  respiration. 
Consequently,  as  was  taught  by  Simpson  and  Syme,  the 
careful  observation  of  the  respiration  is  the  safeguard  in  the 
administration  of  anaesthetics.  Although  the  patient  is  safe 
so  long  as  the  anaesthetic  vapour  continues  to  be  eliminated 
by  respiration,  whenever  the  heart  stops,  unless  artificial 
respiration  is  had  recourse  to,  the  chances  of  resuscitating 
the  animal  are  small.  This  important  practical  point  was 
established  by  numerous  experiments. 

In  the  use  of  chloroform,  and  indeed  of  all  anaesthetics, 


RESPIRATORY    PRECEDES    HEART    FAILURE  7.3 

in  animals,  these  investigations  emphasise  the  necessity  of 
constantly  watching  the  breathing,  and,  moreover,  ensuring 
that  nothing  shall  in  any  way  interfere  with  it.  The  animal 
should  be  in  the  recumbent  position — the  head  placed  so  that 
air  passes  directly  into  the  lungs ;  no  girths,  straps,  or  pres- 
sure must  interfere  with  respiratory  movements.  Monkeys, 
encased  in  plaster  of  Paris,  or  bound  with  abdominal 
bandages,  died  quickly.  The  paralysed  tongue,  dropping 
back  upon  the  larynx  of  the  unconscious  patient,  may  cause 
suffocation.  Respiratory  failure  is  also  hastened  by  having 
the  limbs  of  the  subject  firmly  bound;  while  struggling,  or 
shallow,  gasping  breathing,  by  filling  the  lungs  with  the 
volatile  vapour,  intensifies  its  effects.  Respiratory  arrest  was 
accelerated,  and  heart  failure  followed  rapidly,  when  chloro- 
form administration  was  slow  and  prolonged,  and  when  one- 
third  of  a  grain  of  atropine  was  injected  subcutaneously 
before  inhalation.  That  chloroform  has  no  direct  paralysant 
effect  on  the  heart  was  further  demonstrated  by  the  injection 
in  some  cases  of  ten,  in  others  of  twenty  minims  into  the 
jugular  vein,  when  only  ordinary  and  safe  anaesthesia  was 
induced. 

Deaths  occurring  during  anaesthesia,  both  in  men  and 
animals,  have  been  ascribed  to  syncope,  or  surgical  shock, 
and  in  order  to  elucidate  this  matter  numerous  experiments 
were  made  on  dogs  and  monkeys.  When  full  anaesthesia 
was  produced,  teeth  were  extracted,  nails  evoluted,  incisions 
made  into  the  abdomen,  portions  of  intestine  ligatured,  and 
the  testicles  sharply  struck ;  but  in  no  case  was  any  marked 
effect  produced  on  the  heart  action.  To  test  the  effect  of 
chloroform  on  animals  with  enfeebled  heart,  dogs  and 
monkeys  were  fasted,  others  were  freely  bled,  while  others 
were  given  grain  doses  of  phosphorus  during  several  days, 
in  order  to  produce  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  muscle. 
But  neither  syncope  nor  heart-shock  was  observable  when 
these  subjects  were  deeply  chloroformed  ;  respiratory  failure 
invariably  preceded  cardiac  failure ;  and  when  breathing  was 
stopped  by  full  doses,  the  animals,  like  others  in  perfect 
health,  were  restored  by  artificial  respiration.  Occasionally, 
however,  death   occurs   suddenly  through  paralysis  of  the 


74  USE   OB"   AN/ESTHETICS 

heart;  and  experiments  prove  that  healthy  horses  can  be 
killed  in  a  few  minutes  by  rapid  administration  of  concen- 
trated chloroform  vapour. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  of  animals  dying  under 
amesthesia  consist  in  general  congestion  of  the  lungs,  liver, 
kidneys,  and  spleen,  which  is  also  puckered,  and  two  or 
three  times  larger  than  usual.  The  left  heart  may  be  empty 
and  the  right  heart  distended  with  blood. 

Anesthetics  are  used  in  painful,  delicate,  or  protracted 
operations,  as  in  castration,  neurectomy,  excision  of  portions 
of  the  hoof,  and  other  operations  on  the  foot ;  reduction  of 
hernia),  and  removal  of  tumours ;  extraction  of  firmly-fixed 
teeth,  especially  in  dogs  and  cats ;  in  tetanus,  and  strychnine 
poisoning ;  in  difficult  parturition,  especially  in  the  mare ; 
and  in  destroying  injured,  useless,  or  old  animals. 

Administration  to  horses  may  be  made  while  the  animal 
is  standing,  but  more  safely  and  effectually  when  he  is  cast 
and  secured.  A  sponge  or  piece  of  lint,  saturated  with  the 
anaisthetic,  is  placed  in  a  tolerably  close-fitting  nose-bag, 
which  is  adjusted  to  the  head.  Inhalers,  bags  or  muzzles 
for  the  purpose  have  been  designed  by  Mr.  Roalfe  Cox, 
Messrs.  Carlisle  &  Bell,  Mr.  Gresswell,  Mr.  Dowell,  and  other 
veterinary  surgeons.  Many  practitioners,  when  the  horse 
is  cast,  place  the  lint,  moistened  with  chloroform,  over  one 
nostril,  that  on  the  upper  side  being  preferable,  while,  to 
prevent  undue  evaporation,  a  napkin  is  laid  over  both 
nostrils.  Endeavour  is  sometimes  made  to  dilute  the  chloro- 
form vapour  with  about  ten  volumes  of  air.  But  as  far  as 
possible  air  sliould  be  excluded,  as  diluted  chloroform  vapour 
acts  slowly,  and  the  stage  of  excitement  is  prolonged.  Un- 
due excitement  and  struggling  can  be  overcome  by  giving 
the  anesthetic  freely  or  by  previous  subcutaneous  injection 
of  morphine.  But  chloroform  anesthesia  can  be  most  satis- 
factorily induced  in  horses  by  slow  administration.  Be- 
ginning with  half  an  ounce  poured  on  a  warm  sponge  and 
adding  a  drachm  or  two  at  short  intervals  until  the  requisite 
degree  of  insensibility  is  reached,  which  is  ascertained  by 
testing  the  conjunctival  reflex.  Small  quantities  of  the 
drug  suffice  to  maintain  insensibility  safely  for  an  hour  or 
more,  provided  a  careful  watch,  as  already  stated,  is  kept 


TREATMENT    OF    AN^STBE.slA   NARCOSIS  75 

on  the  respiration.  Au  ounce  and  a  half  to  three  ounces  of 
chloroform  properly  given,  without  waste,  will  fully  anaes- 
thetize an  aTerage  horse  or  ox  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes. 
Four  times  the  quantity  of  ether  is  required.  Young  animals 
are  more  readily  anaesthetized  than  old  ones. 

Dogs  are  very  susceptible  to  the  action  of  anaesthetics,  but, 
with  rational  precautions,  may  be  kept  under  their  influence 
for  an  hour  or  longer.  It  has  frequently  been  stated  that 
chloroform  is  not  so  safe  as  ether ;  but  the  Hyderabad  ex- 
periments seem  to  disprove  this.  The  dog  should  be  fasted 
for  two  or  three  hours.  The  drug  may  be  placed  on  a 
sponge,  or  on  lint,  in  a  wire  muzzle  covered  with  a  towel; 
or  it  may  be  given  through  an  inhaler.  During  anaesthesia 
free  respiration  by  the  mouth  should  be  ensured  by  separating 
the  jaws  with  a  piece  of  wood.  Savage  dogs  are  coaxed  into 
a  kennel,  or  covered  with  a  packing  case,  and  pieces  of  cotton 
waste  or  blotting  paper,  saturated  with  the  drug,  are  then  intro- 
duced. Small  dogs,  cats,  rabbits,  etc.,  are  speedily  and  safely 
anaesthetized  when  placed  under  a  bell  jar  or  tin  pail  enclosing 
cotton  wool  saturated  with  chloroform.  In  dogs  the  last 
reflex  is  furnished  by  the  upper  incisor  gum,  which  when 
irritated  induces  quick  elevation  of  the  lower  lip.  This 
reflex  is  abolished  in  complete  anaesthesia. 

The  aspect  of  an  animal  perfectly  anaesthetized  is  that 
of  an  inert  body,  in  which  movements  of  the  thorax  and 
heart  alone  show  that  life  is  not  yet  extinct  (Guinard). 
When  anaesthesia  has  been  pushed  too  far,  inhalation 
of  the  drug  must  immediately  be  stopped,  and  any  im- 
pediment to  breathing  of  fresh  air  removed.  The  mouth 
should  be  widely  opened  and  the  tongue  pulled  forward; 
if  breathing  has  ceased,  artificial  respiration  must  at 
once  be  adopted.  But  unless  the  lungs  are  surcharged 
with  the  anaesthetic,  as  when  it  has  been  given  in  large 
quantity  and  for  some  considerable  time,  artificial  respira- 
tion, properly  employed  within  thirty  seconds  after  natural 
breathing  has  ceased,  will  revive  most  animals  in  two  or 
three  minutes.  In  the  Hyderabad  experiments  some  animals 
were  recovered  fifty,  but  none  sixty,  seconds  after  natural 
breathing  had  stopped.  In  narcosis  occurring  in  ordinary 
practice,  recovery,  however,  need  not  be  despaired  of  so  long 


7d  SPINAL    DErHESSANTS 

as  cardiac  movements  continue.  Artificial  respiration  should 
be  persisted  with  for  at  least  half  an  hour  after  natural 
breathing  has  ceased.  Insufflation  of  air  through  a  tube 
inserted  in  the  trachea  may  be  tried.  Hypodermic  injec- 
tion of  ether,  strychnine,  or  hot  brandy,  and  a  continuous 
galvanic  current,  the  positive  pole  being  placed  in  the  rectum, 
and  the  negative  moved  rapidly  over  the  chest  wall,  are  recom- 
mended in  the  hope  of  stimulating  the  arrested  respiratory 
movements;  and  bleeding  from  the  jugular  is  enjoined  to 
relieve  the  right  heart. 

ACTION    OF   DRUGS   ON   THE   SPINAL   CORD 
SPINAL   DEPRESSANTS — SPINAL   STIMULANTS 

On  the  spinal  cord  different  drugs  act  in  various  ways. 
Caffeine,  injected  into  the  circulation,  was  found  by  Dr. 
Hughes  Bennett  to  paralyse  the  sensory  columns  of  the 
cord,  while  morphine  and  chloral  diminish  its  conducting 
power.  Antagonising  these  are  strychnine  and  other 
convulsant  poisons,  which  so  increase  excitability  that 
slighter  stimulants  cause  increased  effects.  Reflex  action 
is  diminished  by  chloral  and  morphine,  and  is  increased 
by  strychnine  and  such  other  convulsants  as  nicotine  and 
ammonia. 

Spinal  Depressants  such  as  methyl-conine,  directly  para- 
lyse ;  and  others,  as  aconite  and  digitalis,  produce  paralysis 
indirectly,  by  impeding  circulation.  Pharm  acologists  classify 
spinal  depressants  as  (1)  those  which  depress  without 
marked  previous  excitement,  including  hydrocyanic  acid, 
mcthyl-conino,  saponin,  physostigmine,  turpentine,  the 
alcohol  group,  ergot,  emetine,  salts  of  antimony,  zinc, 
and  silver;  (2)  those  which  excite  first  and  afterwards 
paralyse,  comprising  the  morphine  group,  ammonia,  cam- 
phor, carbolic  acid,  chloral,  nicotine,  veratrine,  arsenic,  and 
mercury.  Sulphonal,  with  hypnotic  effects,  also  diminishes 
activity  of  the  reflex  functions,  and  is  given  in  motor 
unrest. 

Spinal  depressants  are  prescribed  to  lessen  increased 
excitability  of  the  cord,  as  in  tetanus,  chorea,  and  some 


VIBRATORY   THEORY    OF    NERVE   STIMULATION      77 

forms  of  paralysis.  By  diminishing  the  conducting  power 
of  the  grey  matter  of  the  cord,  they  impede  the  trans- 
mission of  painful  impressions.  It  is  often,  however,  difficult 
to  determine  how  the  curative  effects  of  agents  like  mor- 
phine and  chloral  are  produced,  inasmuch  as  they  act  in 
various  ways  on  different  parts  of  the  nervous  system, 
sometimes  dejjressing,  sometimes  stimulating. 

Some  of  these  ditfering  results  are  believed  to  depend  on 
the  inhibitory  or  restraining  power  which  certain  of  the 
nervous  centres  exert  on  other  centres.  But  Dr.  Lauder 
Brunton  propounds  a  more  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
nature  of  inhibition.  He  believes  that  nervous  stimuli 
consist  in  vibrations  in  nerve-tibres  or  nerve-cells,  analogous 
to  the  vibrations  of  light  or  sound.  When  two  waves  of 
light  or  sound  fall  upon  each  other  so  that  their  crests 
coincide :  the  intensity  of  the  light  or  sound  is  increased ; 
but  when  they  fall  so  that  the  crest  of  one  wave  occupies 
the  trough  between  the  two  preceding  or  succeeding  waves, 
such  two  waves  of  light  cause  darkness,  or  two  such  waves 
of  sound  cause  silence.  Moving  the  one  wave  forward  or 
backward  upon  the  other  intensifies  or  diminishes  the 
vibrations  of  light  or  sound.  '  Supposing  nervous  stimuli 
to  consist  of  vibrations  like  those  of  light  and  sound,  the 
action  which  any  nerve -cell  would  have  upon  the  others 
connected  with  it  would  be  stimulant  or  inhibitory  accord- 
ing to  its  position  in  relation  to  them.'  If  nerve-force,  as 
believed,  consists  of  vibrations  similar  to  those  of  liofht  or 
sound,  the  relative  position  of  nerve-cells  in  action  will 
often  determine  a  stimulant  or  inhibitory  result.  If  one 
nerve-current  meets  another  in  such  a  way  that  the  waves 
of  which  they  consist  coincide,  the  nervous  action  will  be 
doubled,  but  if  they  interfere  the  nervous  action  will  be 
abolished.  If  they  meet  so  as  neither  completel}'  to  coin- 
cide nor  to  interfere,  the  nervous  action  will  be  somewhat 
increased,  or  somewhat  diminished,  accordingf  to  the  deo-ree 
of  coincidence  or  interference  between  the  crests  of  the 
waves.  The  relation  of  these  waves  to  one  another  may 
be  affected  by  the  distance  each  travels  and  the  rate  of 
transmission. 


78  SPINAL    STIMULANTS 

This  liypo thesis  seems  to  explain  why  different  doses  of 
poisons  sometimes  produce  very  different  results.  The 
phenomena  of  strychnine  poisoning  thus  appear  to  depend 
upon  the  nervous  vibrations  being  thrust  crest  upon  crest, 
when  intense  convulsions  occur;  while,  from  one  or  another 
wave  dropping  half  a  length  behind,  the  interval  of  rest  or 
relaxation  follows.  In  like  manner  may  be  explained  the 
similar  effects  of  cold  and  heat.  Cold  retards,  while 
heat  accelerates,  transmission  of  vibrations,  and  either 
agent  may  thus  alter  one  of  the  waves,  causing  coin- 
cidence and  consequent  stimulation,  or  separation  by  a 
half  or  a  quarter  of  a  wave  and  consequent  inhibition 
or  restraint. 

Spinal  Stimulants  increase  the  functional  activity  of  the 
cord.  They  apparently  act  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
mechanical  irritation  or  electricity.  They  seem  to  increase 
conductivity  through  the  nerve-cells.  Small  doses  heighten 
reflex  excitability ;  large  doses  cause  tetanic  convulsions ; 
but  such  convulsions,  as  already  indicated,  also  result  from 
large  doses  of  drugs  which  exert  a  sedative  or  paralysing 
action,  as  opium,  morphine,  and  belladonna.  Spinal  stimu- 
lants include  strychnine,  brucine,  and  thebaine,  as  well  as 
nicotine,  calabarine,  caffeine,  absinthe,  and  ammonia.  They 
are  used  in  cases  of  general  debility,  in  paralysis  unaccom- 
panied by  inflammation,  and  to  rouse  sluggish  action,  as  of 
the  bowels. 

ACTION  OP  DRUGS  ON  THE  NERVES 
PARALYSERS — STIMULANTS — ELECTRICITY 

Nerves  may  be  acted  upon  in  various  parts  of  their  course ; 
in  the  nerve  centres  in  which  they  originate ;  in  their  cords 
or  trunks ;  or  in  their  minute  endings  distributed  in  muscles 
or  glands.  Motor  nerves  have  their  excitability  more  readily 
disturbed  or  destroyed  than  sensory  nerves.  Injuries  of 
compound  nerves  frequently  arrest  motor  function,  but  leave 
the  sensory  function  slightly,  or  only  temporarily,  impaired. 
The  nerve  trunks  are  much  less  susceptible  than  the  end 
plates,  and  are  only  acted  upon  by  strong  solutions  directly 


PARALYSERS    OF   MOTOR  AND    SENSORY    NERVES        79 

applied  to  tliciu.  Many  medicines,  acting  on  the  terminal 
nerve  iibrils,  also  act  on  other  parts  of  the  nervous  system. 
It  is  always,  however,  important  to  realise  the  order  in 
which  different  parts  are  affected,  inasmuch  as  the  primary 
action  frequently  modifies  those  which  may  be  subsequently 
produced.  Dift'orent  effects  are  often  caused  by  the  same 
drug  when  given  in  different  doses,  and  many  medicines, 
such  as  alcohol  and  ether,  first  increase  and  subsequently 
diminish  nervous  irritability. 

Paralysers  of  motor  nerves  have  their  most  powerful 
representative  in  curare,  which  seems  to  destroy  the  con- 
ducting power  of  the  minute  nerve  fibrils  by  acting  on  their 
cement  substance  at  Ranvier's  nodes.  Numerous  other  agents 
also  paralyse  motor  nerves,  of  which  the  best  known  are 
Conine,  ammonium  cyanide,  and  iodide,  and  the  ammonium 
iodide  compounds  of  ethyl,  methyl,  amyl,  and  phenyl. 

Increased  excitability  of  motor  nerves  is  more  difficult  to 
measure  than  paralysis ;  but,  like  the  latter,  it  occurs  in  the 
nerve-endings,  and  is  produced  by  aconite,  camphor,  nicotine, 
pilocarpine,  and  pyridine,  and  in  warm-blooded  animals  by 
physostigmine.  Alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform,  applied 
directly  to  nerves,  first  increase  and  then  diminish  their 
irritability.  Atropine  applied  in  like  manner  diminishes 
irritability  of  the  intra-muscular  endings,  and  afterwards  of 
the  trunks  (Brunton). 

Sensory  nerves  are  readily  affected  by  many  drugs ;  their 
local  effects  are  comparatively  easy  to  determine  ;  but  when 
the  drug  enters  the  circulation  many  structures  are  liable 
to  be  affected,  and  definite  results  are  difficult  to  obtain. 
Much  trustworthy  information  has,  however,  been  got  by 
experiments  on  frogs,  chiefly  by  ligaturing  the  sciatic  artery 
of  one  leg,  injecting  into  another  part  of  the  body  the  drug 
to  be  tested,  and  by  pinching,  pricking,  heat,  or  electricity, 
noting  the  difference  in  sensation  between  the  poisoned  limb 
and  the  ligatured  unpoisoned  limb.  By  these  and  other  ex- 
periments it  has  been  demonstrated  that  nervous  sensibility 
is  diminished  by  aconite;  belladonna  and  atropine,  carbolic 
acid,  chloroform  and  chloral,  veratrine,  with  opium  and 
morphine.   Hydrocyanic  acid  exerts  topical  paralysing  effects 


80  ELECTRICITY 

on  sensory  nerves.  Notable  reduction  of  the  sensibility  of 
sensory  nerves  is  likewise  effected  by  several  members  of 
the  aromatic  series  of  carbon  compounds,  such  as  exalgin 
(methyl-acetanilide),  antifebrin  (acetanilide),  and  antipyrine 
(phenazone).  Diminishing  excitability  of  sensory  nerves, 
such  agents  relieve  pain,  and  are  accordingly  anodynes. 
Some  exert  marked  paral3'sing  effects  on  the  terminals  of 
cutaneous  nerves,  temporarily  destroy  sensibiUty,  and  hence 
are  useful  local  anaesthetics.  Amongst  these  are  cocaine, 
other  spray,  cold,  in  the  form  of  ice  or  freezing  mixtures, 
and  carbolic  acid. 

The  irritability  of  sensory  nerves  is  increased  by  topical 
irritants.  Aconite,  whether  applied  locally,  or  carried  through 
the  circulation,  produces  peculiar  numbness  and  tingling  of 
the  tongue  and  lips,  and  indeed  of  all  parts  supplied  by  the 
fifth  nerve.  Veratrine  causes  similar  sensations  in  the  joints 
and  extremities. 

Electricity  in  the  form  of  galvanism  or  faradism,  is  used 
in  medical,  and  in  veterinary  practice.  Faradism  as  a 
galvanic  current  momentarily  interrupted  is  most  generally 
employed.  Batteries,  coils,  and  appliances  for  veterinary 
purposes  are  now  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Arnold,  West 
Smithfield,  London.  Slight  electric  currents  stimulate  both 
motor  and  sensory  nerves  and  muscles;  more  powerful  or 
long-continued  currents  exhaust,  paralyse,  or  tetanise. 

Like  nux  vomica  and  other  excito-motors,  electricity  stimu- 
lates depressed  nervous  action,  controls  disordered  action, 
and  hence  improves  impaired  nutrition.  For  strains  of 
muscles  and  ligaments,  after  the  primary  inflammation  and 
effusion  arc  relieved  by  fomentations  and  rest,  faradism  over 
the  seat  of  injury  lessens  pain  and  stiffness.  A  current 
of  suitable  strength  applied  for  six  or  eight  minutes,  and 
rejieated  if  needful  twice  daily,  frequently  benefits  and  some- 
times removes  muscular  rheumatism,  and  is  also  serviceable 
in  chronic  articular  rheumatism,  which  has  resisted  other 
treatment. 

Paralysis  depends  upon  various  conditions,  functional  and 
molecular,  and  hence  demands  very  different  methods  of 
treatment.      Electricity,  however,  is   often  useful   alike  in, 


ELECTROLYSIS  8 1 

diagnosing  its  exact  seat  and  extent,  and  also  in  abating  or 
removing  the  depressed  or  disordered  conditions  on  which 
it  depends.  Torpidity  of  the  bowels,  resulting  from  im- 
perfect intestinal  peristalsis,  is  sometimes  overcome  by  fara- 
disation. To  stimulate  contractions  in  muscular  atrophy  one 
electrode  is  placed  over  the  principal  local  nerve-centre,  or 
nerve  of  the  wasted  part ;  while  the  other  is  moved  over  the 
altered  muscles,  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  twice  daily.  Cases 
of  roaring  have  thus  been  treated.  One  electrode  is  applied 
to  the  jugular  furrow  above  the  larynx,  while  the  other  is 
moved  over  the  surface  of  the  larynx  and  down  the  trachea. 
Only  gentle,  occasionally  interrupted  currents  should  be  used. 
The  application  is  continued  for  five  to  fifteen  minutes,  and 
repeated  twice  daily. 

Clonic  spasms,  represented  according  to  their  cause  or 
site  by  trifling  tremors  or  violent  convulsions,  are  some- 
times treated  by  electricity.  The  current  may  be  directed 
to  the  faulty  centre  in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  to  the  nerve 
trunk,  the  conductivity  of  which  is  morbidly  affected,  or  to 
the  local  centres  which  are  acting  abnormally.  Chorea  in 
dogs,  especially  when  of  the  chronic  paralytic  type,  has  been 
benefited  by  electric  treatment. 

When  insulated  needles  are  placed  in  the  tissues,  and 
traversed  by  a  galvanic  current,  decomposition  ensues,  and 
this  process  of  electrolysis  is  occasionally  employed  for  the 
removal  of  tumours.  Cauterisation  is  sometimes  effected  by 
heating  a  platinum  wire  by  a  current,  now  conveniently 
derived  from  one  of  Faure's  portable  accumulators. 

Electro-therapeutics  as  applied  to  the  domestic  animals 
deserves  more  extended  practical  study.  The  primary  con- 
ditions for  its  rational  and  safe  employment  consist  in  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  instruments  used,  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  strength  of  currents  and  their  proper 
distribution  to  the  parts  to  be  influenced. 


82  MYDRIATICS    AND   MYOTICS 


ACTION  OF  MEDICINES  ON  THE  EYE 

In  the  local  treatment  of  the  cornea  and  conjunctiva  the 
fitting  astringents  are  zinc  sulphate  and  silver  nitrate. 
When  the  surface  of  the  cornea  is  abraded,  lead  salts  are 
unsuitable,  as  they  form  an  insoluble  albuminate,  which  may 
cause  opacity ;  while  alum  and  potassium  permanganate  are 
undesirable,  on  account  of  their  tendency  to  dissolve  the 
corneal  cement.  The  antiseptics  generally  used  are  mer- 
curic chloride  and  boric  acid,  the  latter  frequently  conjoined 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  sodium  sulpho-carbolate.  The 
sedatives  preferred  are  aqueous  solution  of  opium,  morphine, 
atropine,  cocaine  and  eucaine.  The  sensitiveness  of  the  eye 
is  increased  by  strychnine.  It  is  diminished,  and  local 
anaesthesia  produced,  by  cocaine,  which,  accordingly,  is 
serviceable  in  some  examinations,  as  well  as  in  operations 
on  the  eyes.  The  lachrymal  secretion  is  increased  by  such 
volatile  oils  as  mustard  and  onion,  and  by  physostigmine. 
It  is  diminished  by  atropine. 

The  pupil  is  dilated  by  belladonna,  atropine,  homatropine, 
cocaine,  daturine,  and  hyoscyamine.  Such  dilators  are 
termed  mydriatics ;  they  paralyse  the  ends  of  the  third  nerve. 
The  pupil  is  contracted  by  calabar  bean,  eserine,  opium, 
morphine,  pilocarpine,  and  nicotine.  They  are  termed 
myotics.  AniEsthetics,  and  some  narcotics  in  full  doses,  first 
contract,  and  afterwards  from  circulation  of  venous  blood 
dilate,  the  pupil.  The  action  of  most  mydriatics  and 
myotics  is  purely  local.  Stimulation  of  the  third  nerve 
causes  contraction  of  the  pupil,  while  section  of  it  causes 
the  pupil  to  dilate.  Stimulation  of  the  sympathetic  dilates, 
and  its  section  contracts,  the  pupil. 

Mydriatics  are  used  to  allay  irritation,  inflammation,  and 
pain,  and  in  iritis  to  prevent  adhesions.  Dilating  the  pupil, 
they  facilitate  examination  of  the  lens  for  cataract  and  of 
the  retina.  Myotics  arc  used  alternately  with  mydriatics  to 
discover  adhesions  of  the  iris,  and  to  break  them  down,  to 
restrict  the  passage  of  light  in  painful  diseases  of  the  e3'e; 
and  in  the  earlier  stages  of  glaucoma  to  lessen  intra-ocular 
tension. 


THE   RESriRATORY   FUNCTIONS  83 

ACTION  OP  MEDICINES  ON  RESPIRATION 

ERRHINES   AND   EXPECTORANTS 

Respiration  consists  in  tlie  alternate  enlargement  and 
diminution  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  whereby  air  is  alter- 
nately inspired  and  expired.  These  movements,  so  essential 
to  the  life  of  all  the  higher  animals,  are  chiefly  presided  over 
by  a  nerve-centre  or  group  of  ganglionic  cells,  situated  in  the 
medulla,  posterior  to  the  vomiting  centre,  and  extending  into 
the  anterior  part  of  the  spinal  cord.  This  centre  is  normally 
stimulated  by  venous  blood,  and  inspiratory  movements  are 
thence  co-ordinated.  The  diaphragm  is  drawn  back,  the 
intercostal,  scaleni,  and  other  muscles  raise  the  ribs,  and  air 
enters  the  lungs,  distending  the  elastic  walls  of  the  air-cells. 
In  ordinary  circumstances,  almost  passively,  the  chest,  with 
little  muscular  exertion  then  contracts,  and  air  is  expired. 
Expiratory  effort,  although  scarcely  realised  in  ordinary 
breathing,  is,  however,  evoked  in  coughing  and  sneezing,  as 
well  as  in  producing  vocal  sounds.  Inspiration  and  expira- 
tion thus  alternate,  in  healthy  adult  horses  at  perfect  rest 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  times,  in  cattle  about  fifteen  to  twenty 
times,  in  sheep  from  thirteen  to  eighteen  times,  and  in  dogs 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  times  per  minute. 

The  respiratory  centre  is  stimulated  by  heat,  and  by 
strychnine,  ammonia,  atropine,  thebaine,  apomorphine,  sub- 
stances of  the  digitalis  group,  and  salts  of  zinc  and  copper.  It 
is  first  excited  and  then  depressed  by  caffeine,  nicotine,  chloro- 
form, ether,  alcohol,  quinine,  and  saponin.  Its  activity  is 
diminished,  with  consequent  slow  and  shallow  respiration,  by 
cold,  opium,  physostigmine,  and  aconite.  The  vagus  branches 
distributed  to  the  lung  (and,  when  slightly  stimulated,  all 
sensory  nerves),  are  mainly  nerves  of  inspiration,  and  when 
stimulated  cause  quickened  shallower  respiration.  The 
expiratory  nerves  are  the  nasal  branches  of  the  fifth,  the 
laryngeal,  and  the  cutaneous  nerves,  particularly  of  the  chest 
and  belly.  When  these  are  stimulated,  the  respiratory 
movements  become  slower  and  deeper.     When  respiration 


84  ERRIIINES 

is  paralysed,  as  in  narcotic  poisoninj^,  subcutaneous  injection 
of  stryclminc  is  sonictinics  useful. 

Errhines  or  sternutatories,  when  applied  to  the  nostrils, 
cause  irritation,  sneezing,  and  increased  secretion.  They 
include  tobacco  in  a  finely  divided  state,  hellebore,  ipeca- 
cuanha, euphorbium,  and  saponin.  Errhines,  although  now 
seldom  used,  Avere  formerly  prescribed  to  cause  counter- 
irritation  in  diseases  of  the  eye  and  head,  and  to  expel,  by 
inducing  sneezing,  foreign  substances  lodged  in  the  nostrils, 
facial  sinuses,  and  respiratory  passages. 

Expectorants  facilitate  the  removal  of  secretions  from 
the  air-passages.  The  healthy  respiratory  mucous  mem- 
brane is  moistened  and  protected  by  a  thin,  slightly  adhesive 
solution  of  nuicin,  which  is  gradually  moved  outwards  by 
the  cilia.  Cold  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  dust  and 
foreign  particles,  and  microbes,  as  in  cases  of  influenza, 
readily  excite  irritation  of  the  respiratory  tract,  and  alter 
the  amount  and  character  of  the  mucus. 

While  the  irritated  membrane  is  dry  and  vascular,  as  in 
the  earlier  stages  of  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  the  breathing  of 
warm,  moist  air,  diflfused  from  a  steam  kettle,  or  nose-bag 
containing  steamed  hay,  beneficially  dilates  the  congested 
vessels,  and  promotes  secretion.  In  such  cases,  and  notably 
in  laryngitis,  heat  and  moisture  should  also  be  applied 
externally  by  means  of  poultices,  or  flannel  or  woollen 
waste  wrung  out  of  boiling  water,  covered  Avith  thin  water- 
proofing, and  kept  in  place  by  a  properly  adjusted  hood. 
Further  counter-irritation  may  subsequently  be  needful. 
In  the  dry  stage  of  inflannnation  of  the  respiratory  mem- 
brane, expectorants  of  a  depressant  type,  lessening  blood- 
pressure  and  increasing  secretion,  are  indicated,  such  as 
antimonials,  alkalies  in  small  doses,  ipecacuanha,  lobelia, 
jaborandi,  apomorphine,  and  potassium  iodide,  the  last  of 
which,  moreover,  increases  and  liquifies  many  other  secre- 
tions. Frequently  in  chronic  bronchitis,  when  the  respiratory 
membrane  is  congested  and  blood  stagnates  in  the  lungs, 
good  results  follow  the  combination  of  depressant  expector- 
ants with  digitalis. 

The  bronchial  mucus,  when  superabundant,  is  diminished 


DEPRESSANT   AND   STIMULANT   EXPECTORANTS       85 

by  belladonna,  opium,  turpentine,  and  many  volatile  oils. 
When  the  secretion  becomes  thick  and  adhesive,  and  irri- 
tating cough  is  hence  provoked,  stimulating  expectorants, 
which  increase  blood-pressure  and  diminish  secretion,  are 
indicated.  The  most  trusted  of  these  are  acids,  ammonium 
salts,  nux  vomica,  senega,  squill,  balsams,  terebinthinates, 
sulphur,  sulphur  oils,  and  saccharines.  Terpine,  oil  of 
turpentine  in  a  vaporised  state,  or  the  old  popular  remedy  of 
the  fumes  of  burning  tar,  prove  eti'ectual  in  moderating 
vascular  congestion  and  profuse  secretion  in  many  cases  of 
bronchitis.  A  relaxed  throat  generally  indicates  the  exist- 
ence of  a  similar  condition  throughout  the  respiratory  tract. 
An  appropriate  remedy  is  a  combination  of  terebene  and  an 
acid  given  as  an  electuary,  which  exerts  beneficial  effects 
both  topically  and  generall}-. 

Expulsion  of  the  respiratory  secretions  is  produced  by 
increased  activity  of  the  cilia,  which  are  believed  to  be 
stimulated  by  ammonia  solutions,  and  by  increased  activity 
of  the  respiratory  centre,  which,  as  already  stated,  is  also 
stimulated  by  ammonia  salts,  as  well  as  by  ipecacuanha, 
belladonna,  and  senega. 

Influenza  colds,  so  common  amongst  horses,  and  notori- 
ously infectious,  very  probably  depend  upon  specific  micro- 
organisms, which  attack  the  upper,  sometimes  the  lower 
air-passages,  and  not  infrequently  also  induce  gastro-intestinal 
catarrh,  and  other  complications.  Occasionally  such  seizures 
may  be  checked  or  mitigated  in  their  early  stages  b}" 
moistening  the  parts  first  affected  with  solution  of  carbolic 
or  sulphurous  acid  or  eucalyptus  oil,  applied  in  the  form 
of  spray,  gargle,  or  inhalation.  Similar  treatment  proves 
beneficial  in  the  later  stages,  by  lessening  congestion  or 
by  exerting  antiseptic  effects.  The  washing  out  of  the 
nostrils  is  conveniently  done  by  an  ordinar}-  syringe,  by 
Higginson's  enema  apparatus  or  b}'  Key's  nasal  funnel. 

Cough  is  a  modified,  usually  involuntary,  respiratory  act, 
whereby  gaseous,  liquid  and  solid  substances  are  forcibly 
removed  from  the  air-passages.  This  sudden  expulsive 
expiratory  effort  is  brought  about  by  faulty  mucus  or  other 
irritant,  lodged  in  the  pharynx  or  larynx,  by  irritation  of  the 


86  THE   TREATMENT    OF   COUGH 

lower  air-passages,  and  refloxly,  by  impressions  produced  on 
surfaces  other  than  the  respiratory  mucous  tract,  as  by  cold 
applied  to  the  skin,  or  by  nasal,  buccal,  pleural,  gastric,  or 
hepatic  irritation. 

Soothing  gargles  and  electuaries,  even  if  they  do  not 
actually  reach  the  seat  of  irritation,  frequently  abate  cough. 
Mechanically  acting  mucilaginous  or  saccharine  substances 
may  be  rendered  more  effectual  by  combination  with  mor- 
phine, which  diminishes  irritability  of  the  respiratory  centre, 
and  decreases  secretion  of  mucus.  The  latter  result  is  still 
more  notably  effected  by  atropine.  A  combination  of  these 
alkaloids  is  hence  specially  valuable  where  there  is  trouble- 
some cough  and  profuse  secretion  of  mucus.  A  somewhat 
different  effect  is  obtained  by  conjoining  morphine  and 
apomorphine,  which,  with  diminished  excitability  of  the 
respiratory  centre,  produce  increased  bronchial  secretion, 
and  are  hence  serviceable  where  there  is  cough,  and  the 
membrane  is  dry,  or  coated  with  thick,  sticky  mucus. 

A  comfortable  loose  box,  with  abundance  of  pure  fresh 
air,  at  a  temperature  of  about  60°  Falir.,  in  several  ways 
benefits  the  patient  suffering  with  respiratory  disease.  More 
perfect  aeration  of  blood  is  secured,  while  the  cool,  pure  air, 
moreover,  contracts  dilated  vessels,  combats  congestion,  and 
hence  will  often  remove  cough,  especially  when  depending 
upon  irritation  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  or  larger  bronchi. 
But  while  in  many  stages  of  respiratory  disease  the  breath- 
ing of  cool  air  is  grateful  and  beneficial,  draughts  and  cold 
must  be  scrupulously  guarded  against,  and  the  body  and  legs 
of  the  patient  kept  comfortably  warm,  with  extra  covering, 
in  order  to  promote  free  circulation  in  the  superficial 
vessels,  and  thus  antagonise  congestion  of  the  internal 
organs.  Experiments  on  small  healthy  animals  show  that 
ice  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  belly  immediately  induces 
paleness  of  the  respiratory  membrane,  speedily  followed  by 
congestion,  and  gradually  developing  venous  lividity,  accom- 
panied by  increased  secretion  of  mucus.  Kemoval  of  the 
ice  and  substitution  of  a  hot  poultice  gradually  restore  the 
parts  to  their  normal  state,  and  this  acute  congestion  and 
gradual  return  to  health  may  thus  be  alternately  demon- 


HEART    STIMULANTS  87 

strated.  These  effects  of  cold  and  heat  strikingly  illustrate 
the  causation  of  congestion  of  the  respiratory  organs,  and 
also  an  effectual  manner  of  relieving  the  hyperemia. 

Cough  depending  upon  gastric  derangement,  not  un- 
common in  young  animals,  is  often  relieved  by  antacids. 
Cough  resulting  from  bronchial  filarise  is  abated  by  the 
usual  soothing  remedies,  and  sometimes  removed  by  tur- 
pentine administered  in  drench  or  intratracheally,  or  by 
inhalation  of  diluted  chlorine  or  sulphurous  acid,  which  is 
rendered  still  more  effectual  for  destruction  of  the  parasites 
Avhen  conjoined  with  carbolic  vapour. 

In  dogs  with  bronchitis  or  pneumonia,  when  the  breathing 
is  difficult,  relief  is  often  obtained  by  giving  an  emetic  of 
ipecacuanha  and  squill.  Venous  congestion  is  overcome, 
and  the  state  of  the  bronchial  secretions  improved.  These 
good  effects  may  often  be  maintained  by  the  subsequent  use 
of  frequently  repeated  doses  of  ammonium  carbonate,  which 
is  also  serviceable  earlier,  or  when  the  patient  is  too  weak  to 
justify  the  use  of  an  emetic.  In  dogs  recovering  from  acute 
attacks,  or  suffering  from  chronic  bronchitis,  cod  liver  oil 
is  often  useful,  possibly  on  account  of  its  furnishing  readily 
assimilable  nourishment  for  the  delicate  epithelial  cells. 


ACTION  OP  MEDICINES  ON  THE  CIRCULATION 
STIMULANTS — TONICS — SEDATIVES 

Many  agents  act  in  various  ways  on  one  or  more  portions 
of  the  circulatory  system.  An  able  authority  on  the  subject 
— Dr.  Lauder  Brunton — divides  them  into  agents  acting  on 
the  heart  and  on  the  vessels,  and  again  subdivides  these  two 
groups  into  three  classes  of  stimulants,  tonics,  and  sedatives. 

Heart  Stimulants  increase  the  force  and  frequency  of 
the  pulse  in  conditions  of  depression.  The  most  important 
are  ammonia  and  its  carbonate,  alcoholic  solutions,  ether, 
chloroform,  camphor,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  other  volatile 
and  aromatic  oils,  with  heat  and  counter-irritants  to  the 
chest.  They  exert  their  effects  in  somewhat  different  ways. 
The    alcohol  group  mainly   stimulate   the  motor    ganglia 


88  HEART   STIMULANTS 

Strychnine,  physostigmine,  and  camphor  are  believed  to 
act  chiefly  on  the  heart  muscle,  exciting  it  to  pulsate  rhyth- 
mically. Strychnine  stimulates  the  cardiac  excito-motor 
apparatus  (Habershon).  Ammonium  carbonate  and  sal 
volatile,  with  turpentine  and  other  volatile  oils,  chiefly 
stimulate  the  vaso-motor  centres.  Alcoholic,  etherous,  and 
ammoniacal  solutions,  especially  Avhen  given  in  tolerably 
concentrated  form,  immediately  stimulate  the  mouth,  throat, 
stomach,  and  other  parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact, 
and  thus  their  effects  often  anticipate  and  increase  the 
stimulation  resulting  from  their  actual  conveyance  in  the 
blood  stream  to  the  heart  and  other  organs. 

Cardiac  stimulants  are  used  to  counteract  failure  of  the 
heart's  action  from  shock,  physical  injury,  overwork,  or 
depression  dependent  on  disease.  Stimulants,  when  acting 
favourably,  produce  a  more  vigorous  heart-beat — the  pulse, 
previously  slow,  is  accelerated ;  or  if  quick,  unequal,  or  weak, 
it  becomes  slower,  stronger,  and  more  regular.  The  heart 
pulsating  more  quickly,  and  propelling  at  each  contraction 
a  larger  volume  of  blood,  arterial  pressure  is  increased.  A 
combination  of  two  stimulants,  acting  as  indicated  in  more 
ways  than  one,  is  often  more  eftectual  than  any  single  drug. 
Hence  alcohol  is  frequently  conjoined  with  ether,  annnonia, 
or  aromatic  volatile  oils.  Strychnine  is  prescribed  with 
caffeine;  and  in  serious  cases  hypodermic  injections  may  be 
needful.  Heat  used  in  the  form  of  warm  drinks,  and  also 
externally,  as  warm  rugs,  fomentations,  or  poultices,  is  a 
heart  stimulant,  especially  when  the  applications  are  made 
to  the  chest. 

Vascular  Stimulants  dilate  the  peripheral  vessels,  and 
thus  accelerate  the  blood-flow  through  them.  They  do  not 
increase  the  action  of  the  vaso-motor  centre,  nor  the  con- 
tractility of  the  vessels,  but,  on  the  contrary,  diminish  their 
contractility  and  cause  their  dilatation.  Prominent  amongst 
remedies  acting  in  this  Avay  are  alcoholic  solutions,  ether, 
nitrous  ether,  amyl  nitrite,  nitro-glycerine,  and  nitrites,  which, 
by  dilating  peripheral  vessels,  lower  blood  pressure.  Alco- 
holic solutions,  combining  the  twofold  action  of  stinuilating 
the  heart  and  dilating  arterial  and  capillary  vessels,  usefully 


HEART   TONICS  89 

combat  chill,  equalise  circulation,  and  prevent  or  relieve 
congestion.  Horses  brought  in  chilled  and  exhausted  arc 
frequently  saved  from  congestion  and  intianimation  of  in- 
ternal parts  by  the  timely  use  of  a  stimulating  drink,  the 
good  effects  of  which  are  further  ensured  by  an  extra  rug, 
and  flannel  bandages  to  the  legs.  More  permanent  dilatation 
of  external  vessels  is  effected  by  frequently  repeated  doses  of 
nitrous  ether  and  ammonium  acetate,  with  which  camphor 
may  also  be  conjoined.  In  combating  chronic  inflammation, 
vascular  stimulants  are  also  serviceable,  and  their  operation 
is  further  promoted  by  hot  applications,  friction,  and  counter- 
irritation. 

Heart  Tonics  produce  their  effects  more  gradually  and 
slowly  than  heart  stimulants.  All  are  muscle  poisons,  and 
exert  fuller  effects  on  the  heart  than  on  other  muscles,  on 
account  of  its  receiving  much  larger  supplies  of  blood. 
Although  large  doses  induce  violent,  irregular  heart  action, 
repeated  moderate  doses  prolong  the  diastole,  and  render 
the  contractions  slower,  stronger  and  more  regular.  Most, 
besides,  contract  the  muscular  coat  of  the  arteries,  and 
hence  are  vascular  tonics.  On  the  muscular  coat  of  the 
digestive  canal  they  are  also  liable  to  act,  producing  nausea, 
spasms,  and  sometimes  diarrhQ?a.  Heart  tonics  comprise 
digitalis  and  its  alkaloids,  casca,  and  its  active  principle 
erythrophloeine,  strophanthus,  veratrine,  convallaria  majalis, 
squill,  caffeine,  nux  vomica,  and  strj'chnine. 

Digitalis  has  hitherto  been  the  heart  tonic  generally  used, 
notwithstanding  the  disadvantage  of  its  preparations  being  of 
irregular  strength,  and  its  so-called  active  principle,  digita- 
lin,  usually  consisting  of  several  bodies,  differing  consider- 
ably in  their  actions.  Digitalis  is  prescribed  where  the  left 
ventricle,  from  weakness  caused  by  reducing  disease,  or 
from  incompetence  of  the  bicuspid  or  mitral  valve,  is 
unable  to  drive  the  blood  into  the  aorta.  In  hard-worked 
horses  compensating  hypertrophy  gives  increased  propelling 
power,  and  hence  sometimes  mitigates  the  results  of  valvular 
disease.  When  dilatation  occurs,  and  the  mitral  valve  is 
insufficient  to  close  the  orifice,  blood  is  liable  to  regurgitate 
into  the  left  auricle,  retarding  the  blood  flow  from  the  lungs, 


90  VASCULAR  TONICS 

and  leading  to  general  venous  congestion.  Heart  tonics, 
notably  digitalis,  relieve  this  condition  by  imparting  to  the 
contractions  the  needful  regularity  and  strength ;  while, 
moreover,  by  slowing  the  beats,  the  ventricle  is  more  com- 
l^letcly  filled.  In  dilatation  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
usually  depending  upon  serious  attacks  of  influenza,  bron- 
chitis, or  emphysema,  heart  tonics  are  seldom  so  beneficial 
as  in  mitral  disease.  In  the  various  diseases  for  which  digi- 
talis has  been  used,  strophanthus,  which  is  not  cumulative, 
is  now  generally  preferred,  both  in  human  and  veterinary 
practice,  on  account  of  its  solubility,  and  less  liability  to 
produce  nausea  and  gastro-intestinal  irritation.  In  heart 
failure,  whether  depending  on  nervous  asthenia  or  on  muscular 
weakness,  strychnine  in  continued  small  doses  is  specially 
useful.  "Wliere  there  is  marked  irritability,  it  may  be  con- 
joined with  cocaine,  and,  in  anemia,  with  preparations  of 
iron.  Where  there  is  cardiac  pain,  nitro-glycerine  is  pre- 
scribed. Where  blood  pressure  is  abnormal,  it  is  usually 
desirable  in  vigorous  subjects  to  relieve  venous  congestion 
by  purgatives  or  diuretics  before  even  the  most  cautious 
use  of  heart  tonics  is  attempted. 

Vascular  Tonics  cause  increased  contraction  of  arterioles 
and  capillaries.  They  stimulate  the  vaso-motor  nerves,  and 
thus  raise  blood  pressure,  and  also  proinote  outflow  and 
absorption  of  lymph.  The  most  important  are  digitalis, 
iron,  and  strychnine,  with  friction  of  swollen,  infiltrated 
parts,  equable  pressure  of  well-applied  bandages,  and  exer- 
cise, which  secures  oxidation  and  muscular  movements 
favouring  removal  of  lymph  and  waste  products.  Vascular 
tonics  are  chiefly  used  to  combat  local  oedema,  resulting 
mainly  from  changes  in  the  Avails  of  the  capillaries,  and 
general  dropsy  depending  upon  tardy  removal  of  lymph, 
from  the  lymph  spaces  or  serous  cavities,  upon  a  watery 
condition  of  the  blood,  or  upon  vaso-motor  paralysis.  Dropsy 
resulting,  as  it  often  does,  from  anaimia  is  appropriately 
treated  by  iron  salts. 

Inflammatory  oedema  or  lymphangitis  attacking  usually 
the  lymph  glands  and  vessels  of  the  hind  limbs  of  the 
heavier  breeds  of  horses,  and  occurring  chiefly  in  well-fed, 


VASCULAR    SEDATIVES  91 

hard-worked  animals  after  a  day's  rest,  is  probably  caused 
by  a  toxine,  and  connected  witli  imperfect  oxidation,  tbe  con- 
sequent formation  of  sarcolactic  acid,  obstruction  and  con- 
gestion of  veins,  capillaries,  and  lymph  vessels.  The  result- 
ing acute  inflammation  is  combated  by  hot  fomentations,  a 
smart  purgative,  antiseptics,  and  saline  diuretics,  while  the 
tediously  chronic  oedema,  which  is  apt  to  follow,  is  removed 
by  friction,  vascular  tonics,  and  stimulants,  and  regular 
exercise. 

Cardiac  Sedatives  lessen  the  force  and  frequency  of  the 
heart's  action.  For  such  purposes  aconite,  gelsemium,  vera- 
trine,  and  antimonials  are  chiefly  prescribed.  In  veterinary 
patients  aconite  is  most  effectual,  especially  when  given 
in  small  doses,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours.  It  is 
chiefly  used  in  antagonising  violent  palpitating  action  of 
the  heart,  or  lowering  the  quick,  full,  bounding  pulse,  and 
other  febrile  symptoms  of  laryngitis,  laminitis,  acute  lymph- 
angitis, and  other  local  inflammations. 

Vascular  Sedatives  contract  blood-vessels,  lessen  the  flow 
of  blood  throusfh  them,  and  hence  limit  local  inflammation, 
and  arrest  haemorrhage.  They  are  represented  by  ergot, 
lead  acetate,  and  opium,  full  doses  of  digitalis  and  other 
heart  tonics,  and  topical  application  of  cold.  Ice  or  re- 
frigerant lotions  applied  to  circumscribed  spots  contract  the 
capillaries,  and  even  considerable  arteries,  and  thus  relieve 
congestion,  inflammation,  and  pain.  In  like  manner,  ice, 
when  swallowed,  arrests  bleeding  from  the  stomach,  reflexly 
checks  bleeding  from  the  lungs,  and,  moreover,  acts  as  a 
cardiac  sedative.  When  the  bleeding  vessels  cannot  be 
reached,  either  directly  or  reflexly,  ergotin  is  injected  hypo- 
dermically. 


92  SIALAGOGUES 


MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM 
On     the    Salivary     Glands. — sialagogues — antisialics — 

KEFUIGEllANTS. 

On     the      Stomach.  —  antacids  —  gastric      tonics  — 

STOMACHICS  —  bitters  — EMETICS — ANTI-EMETICS — GASTRIC 

sedatives. 
On    the   Intestines. —  purgatives  —  carminatives  —  intes- 
tinal ASTRINGENTS — ANTISEPTICS. 

On    the    Liver.  —  hepatic    stimulants  —  cholagogues  — 
hepatic  depressants. 

On  the  Pancreas  and  Spleen. 

On  Worms. — anthelmintics — vermicides— vermifuges. 

Sialagogues  are  drugs  which  increase  the  secretion  of 
saliva.  This  alkaUne  fluid  comes  from  the  secreting  glan- 
dular cells,  which  are  replenished  with  fresh  materials  from 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  glands.  The  process  of  salivation 
is  regulated  by  a  nerve-centre  in  the  medulla,  and  subsidiary 
nerve-centres  in  the  several  glands.  By  food  or  other  sub- 
stances moved  in  the  mouth,  by  irritation  of  the  stomach,  or 
even  of  the  eyes  or  nostrils,  stimulation  is  conveyed  by  their 
respective  nerves  to  these  ganglia,  and  reflexly  salivation 
ensues.  In  this  way  the  presence  of  food  in  the  mouth  and 
the  movements  of  the  jaws  naturally  provoke  salivation.  In 
like  manner,  through  different  nerves  distributed  within  the 
mouth,  acids,  alkalies,  ethers,  mustard,  ginger,  and  other 
pungent  substances  reflexly  increase  secretion  of  saliva. 
Tartar  emetic  and  other  nauseants  exert  similar  effects  re- 
flexly by  acting  on  the  stomach.  Another  group  of  siala- 
gogues, consisting  of  jaborandi,  calabar  bean,  and  their  alkal- 
oids, with  muscarine  and  nicotine,  produce  salivation  when 
injected  into  the  blood,  stimulate  the  peripheral  ends  of 
the  secreting  nerves  within  the  glands,  and  are  termed 
specific  sialagogues.  Another  group,  including  mercury, 
tobacco,  and  potassium  iodide,  induce  their  effects,  partly  by 
acting  reflexly  on  the  membrane  of  the  mouth,  and  parti}'  by 
absorption  and  stimulation  of  the  secreting  nerves. 


ANTISIALICS    AND    PvEFRIGERANTS  93 

The  salivary  and  buccal  secretions  moisten  the  mouth  and 
fauces,  and  hence  facilitate  mastication  and  swallowingf,  and 
lessen  or  prevent  thirst.  The  ptyalin  of  the  saliva,  more- 
over, helps  the  solution  of  starch,  and  the  alkaline  fluid,  when 
swallowed,  promotes  secretion  of  the  acid  gastric  juice,  and 
thus  further  assists  digestion.  Graminivora  secrete  propor- 
tionally large  quantities  of  saliva  for  the  moistening  of  the 
dry  food,  on  which  they  chiefly  live.  The  horse  in  twenty- 
four  hours  secretes  84  lbs.  In  all  animals  the  fluid  is  more 
alkaline  the  larger  the  amount  of  the  starch  food. 

Antisialics  are  medicines  which  lessen  the  salivary  secre- 
tion. Borax  and  potassium  chlorate  frequently  remove  the 
faulty  irritable  conditions  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which 
lead  to  over-secretion.  Opium  and  morphine  diminish  irri- 
tability of  the  nerve-centres,  while  atropine  is  the  most 
effective  paralyser  of  the  peripheral  endings  of  secreting 
nerves.  The  fermentative  action  of  ptyalin  is  diminished  by 
alcohol,  alkalies,  and  acids,  and  checked  by  1  per  cent,  solu- 
tions of  carbolic  acid.  It  is  promoted  by  small  quantities  of 
quinine,  strychnine,  and  morphine. 

Refrigerants,  in  contact  with  the  buccal  and  pharyngeal 
membrane,  induce  a  sensation  of  coolness,  and  allay  thirst, 
which  is  locally  manifested  by  dryness  of  the  mouth  and 
fauces.  Thirst  is  quenched  by  washing  out  the  mouth  with 
water,  or  lubricating  the  dry  throat  with  bland  mucilaginous 
fluids,  sucking  portions  of  ice,  which  horses  with  sore  throats 
soon  learn  to  do,  or  swallowing  slowly  slightly  acidulated 
drinks,  which,  by  stimulating  secretion  of  saliva,  moisten 
the  parched  membrane.  But  thirst  also  depends  upon  a 
deficiency  of  fluid  in  the  body,  and  excess  of  soluble  or 
saline  substances  in  the  blood  —  conditions  which  are 
remedied  by  ingestion  of  water  or  other  diluents.  The 
extreme  thirst  which  occurs  in  horses  affected  Avith  polyuria, 
or  diabetes  insipidus,  is  best  controlled  by  a  combination  of 
iodine  and  opium,  the  former  probably  exerting  its  anti- 
septic effect,  the  latter  perhaps  lessening  excitability  of  the 
thirst-centre. 


94       GASTRIC   ABSORPTION   IN   DIFFERENT   ANIMALS 


ACTION  OP  DRUGS  ON  THE  STOMACH 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  small  relatively  to  his  size ; 
the  cardiac  portion  is  lined  with  stratified  epithelium,  and 
secrets  no  digestive  fluid.  The  pyloric  portion,  which  occu- 
pies about  one-half  of  the  viscus,  is  the  active  digestive  part, 
and  is  lined  with  a  vascular  villous  membrane,  in  which 
lie  the  gastric  glands.  Gastric  absorption  in  horses  has  been 
questioned  or  denied  since  Bouley  and  Colin  published  their 
experiments  with  strychnine ;  but  probably  slow  absorption 
does  take  place  from  the  right  sac  in  a  normal  condition. 
In  ruminants,  the  first  three  compartments  of  the  sub- 
divided stomach  are  lined  with  cuticular  mucous  membrane, 
are  chiefly  occupied  in  the  reception,  maceration,  and  sub- 
division of  the  bulky  fibrous  herbage,  which  constitutes  their 
principal  diet.  This  thick  epithelial  covering,  and  the 
amount  of  food  always  lodged  in  these  three  stomachs,  ex- 
plain the  tardy  action  of  many  medicines  administered  to 
ruminants,  and  their  taking  with  impunity  large  doses  of 
irritants.  The  fourth  stomach  is  lined  with  vascular  velvet- 
like mucous  membrane,  and  secretes  the  gastric  juice,  while 
from  its  walls  slow  absorption  takes  place,  In  the  dog  and 
hog  the  stomach  and  digestive  organs  resemble  those  of 
man,  and  in  both  animals  absorption  commences  in  the 
stomach. 

Secretion  of  gastric  juice  is  stimulated  by  gentle  mechani- 
cal and  chemical  irritation,  by  introduction  of  suitable  food 
into  the  stomach,  and  by  administration  of  dilute  alkalies, 
alcohol  and  ether.  When  indigestion  occurs  from  pre- 
sumed insufficiency  of  the  gastric  juice,  two  modes  of  treat- 
ment are  available — (1)  dilute  acids  and  a  little  S2)irit  are 
given  to  stimulate  secretion ;  but  (2)  where,  from  reducing 
disease  or  other  causes,  the  stomach  is  enfeebled,  a  substi- 
tute for  the  gastric  juice  should  be  given  in  the  form  of 
diluted  mineral  acid,  conjoined,  Avhere  the  food  is  albumin- 
ous, Avith  pepsin.  Moreover  in  all  such  cases,  the  food  uuist 
be  readily  digestible.  For  horses,  well-prepared  mashes  are 
substituted  for  dry  corn  and  hard  fibrous  hay;  while  calves 


ANTACIDS  95 

or  foals,  when  their  undihited  milk  disagrees,  should  have 
it  mixed  with  water,  or,  better  still,  with  linseed  tea,  in 
order  that  the  tough  curd  may  be  more  easily  broken  down. 
In  dyspepsia,  acids  and  bitters  are  frequently  conjoined,  the 
latter  being  serviceable  probably  on  account  of  their  stimu- 
lating the  movements  of  the  stomach,  and  of  their  action  on 
the  liver. 

Antacids. — Certain  forms  of  dyspepsia  depend  upon,  or  are 
aggravated  by,  undue  gastro-intestinal  acidity,  Avhich  is 
counteracted  by  antacids.  These  comprise  the  alkalies — 
potash,  soda,  and  ammonia ;  the  alkaline  earths — lime  and 
magnesia ;  and  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  of  these  bases. 
The  neutral  salts  which  these  alkalies  form  with  vegetable 
acids,  notably  the  tartrates  and  citrates,  after  acting  primarily 
as  salines,  are  converted  in  the  blood  into  carbonates,  and 
secondarily  exert  alkaline  effects  on  the  tissues  and  secretions 
with  which  they  are  brought  into  contact.  It  is  thus  that 
they  are  serviceable  in  rheumatism,  eczema,  some  cases  of 
pyrexia,  and  in  counteracting  acidity  of  the  urine.  As  an 
antacid,  the  volatile  ammonia  is  less  permanent  than  the 
fixed  alkalies.  Potash  and  its  salts  are  more  active  than 
soda  and  its  corresponding  salts.  Lime  salts,  being  soothing 
and  astringent,  are  indicated  in  diarrhoea ;  magnesia  salts, 
being  laxative,  are  appropriate  where  acidity  concurs  with 
torpidity  of  the  bowels.  Lithium  carbonate,  present  in 
Baden-Baden  and  Bath  mineral  waters,  is  prized  in  human 
medicine  as  a  solvent  of  urinary  calculi  and  deposits. 

Horses  fed  irregularly,  or  too  closely  restricted  to  dry 
food,  frequently  suffer  from  gastric  acidity,  instinctively  lick 
the  lime- washed  walls  of  their  stables,  or  eat  earth,  and  are 
usually  promptly  relieved  by  antacids  and  suitable  feeding. 
Calves  carelessly  managed  manifest  the  same  disposition  to 
allay  their  discomfort  by  eating  earthy  matters.  Antacids 
given  before  meals  excite  gastric  secretion ;  given  after  meals 
they  neutralise  gastric  and  intestinal  acidity.  After  pro- 
ducing local  and  direct  effects  on  the  digestive  organs,  they 
undergo  absorption,  and  produce  remote  antacid  effects  on 
the  blood  and  urine. 

Gastric  Tonics  or  stimulants,  sometimes  called  stomachics. 


96  EMETICS   AND   VOMITING 

aid  gastric  digestion  and  improve  tlie  appetite.  Such  results 
occur  when,  in  experiments,  the  stomach  walls  are  gently 
irritated,  and  are  also  produced  by  small  doses  of  stimulants 
and  bitters.  In  certain  conditions  of  gastric  irritation, 
stimulants  or  bitters  are,  however,  unsuitable,  and  small 
doses  of  mineral  acids,  or  of  gastric  sedatives,  such  as 
bismuth,  strontium  bromide,  ammonium  chloride,  or  prussic 
acid,  arc  prescribed. 

Emetics  are  agents  which  cause  vomiting.  This  is  effected 
by  tirm  compression  of  the  stomach  between  the  diaphragm 
and  the  abdominal  muscles,  and  by  the  simultaneous  con- 
traction of  the  longitudinal  fibres  which  pass  from  the 
oesophagus  round  the  gastric  walls.  When  the  stomach  is 
thus  compressed  from  behind,  and  drawn  forward,  the 
familiar  spasmodic  movements  of  retching  result.  When 
concurrently,  however,  with  these  movements,  the  cardiac 
orifice  is  dilated,  the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  thrown  up, 
and  vomiting  occurs.  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  thus  describes 
the  phenomena  of  vomiting : — '  Uneasiness  is  felt ;  the  in- 
spirations become  deeper ;  several  swallowing  movements  are 
made,  which  sometimes  carry  down  sufiticient  air  to  distend  the 
stomach  moderately.  After  several  deep  inspirations,  there 
suddenly  comes  one  which  is  deeper  still.  Then,  instead  of 
this  being  followed  by  expiration,  the  glottis  shuts  to  prevent 
the  esca]3e  of  air ;  the  diaphragm  again  contracts  still  more 
deeply  into  the  abdomen,  and  pulling  the  ribs  together,  the 
abdominal  muscles  forcibly  contract;  the  left  half  of  the 
stomach  is  drawn  upwards,  and  the  cul-de-sac  flattened  out ; 
the  cardiac  orifice  dilates,  and  the  contents  of  the  stomach 
are  forcibly  expelled.  The  pylorus  remains  firmly  contracted, 
and  allows  but  little  escape  into  the  intestines.' 

The  movements  of  vomiting  are  modified  respiratory  and 
ruminating  actions,  and  are  presided  over  by  nerve-centres 
in  the  medulla.  The  ganglia  regulating  respiration  and 
vomition  lie  close  together.  Certain  cells  probably  take 
part  in  both  actions,  and  are  acted  upon  by  the  same  agents. 
'  Emetics  usually  quicken  the  respiration  considerably  be- 
fore they  produce  vomiting,  and,  if  injected  into  the  veins, 
they   not  only   quicken   the   respiration,   but   prevent   the 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   VOMITING  97 

condition  of  apnoea  being  produced  by  vigorous  artificial 
respiration.  On  the  other  hand,  the  desire  to  vomit  may  be 
lessened,  to  some  extent,  by  taking  frequent  and  deep 
inspirations,  and  narcotics  which  diminish  the  excitability 
of  the  respiratory  centre  also  lessen  the  tendency  to  vomit ' 
(Brunton). 

That  the  vomiting  centre,  rather  than  the  stomach  itself, 
is  the  prime  factor  in  the  production  of  emesis,  is  evident 
from  Magendie's  famous  experiment  of  removing  the  stomach 
of  a  dog,  attaching  to  the  severed  oesophagus  a  pig's  bladder 
filled  with  fluid,  Avhich,  when  tartar  emetic  was  injected  into 
the  veins,  was  compressed  between  the  abdominal  muscles  and 
the  diaphragm,  and  emptied  of  its  contents  by  vomiting. 

When  the  fauces  of  men,  dogs,  or  other  animals  which 
vomit  readily,  are  tickled  with  a  feather,  or  when  the 
interior  of  the  stomach  is  irritated  mechanically,  or  by  a 
solution  of  mustard,  the  stimulus  is  conveyed  by  afferent 
nerves  to  the  vomiting  centre  with  which  the  special 
motor  impulses  are  correlated.  Many  other  parts  of  the 
body,  through  their  afferent  nerves,  have  communication 
with  the  vomiting  centre,  and  hence  vomiting  is  produced, 
not  only  by  irritation  of  the  fauces  and  stomach,  but  by 
irritation  of  the  brain,  lungs,  liver,  and  gall  ducts,  the 
intestines,  kidneys,  and  bladder,  sometimes  even  by  pain 
or  injury  of  the  extremities. 

Dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  vomit  as  readily  as  men.  Indeed, 
in  dogs,  vomiting  is  induced  by  most  disagreeably- tasted 
nauseous,  or  acrid  substances,  and  sometimes  is  brought 
on  purposely  by  eating  certain  grasses  which  instinct 
readily  enables  them  to  discover.  But  horses,  ruminants, 
rabbits,  and  guinea-pigs  rarely  if  ever  vomit,  and  are  in- 
sensible to  the  action  of  powerful  emetics.  In  horses 
emesis  only  occurs  from  extreme  distension  and  spasm  of 
the  stomach,  from  dilatation  of  the  lower  part  of  the  gullet, 
from  complete  obstruction  of  the  intestines,  and  from  the 
action  of  large  doses  of  aconite,  which,  however,  induce 
retching  and  discharge  of  excessive  secretion  of  saliva  rather 
than  true  vomiting.  The  insusceptibility  of  horses  to  the 
action  of  emetics  is  due  apparently  to  some  undiscovered 
peculiarity  of  the  nervous  mechanism  concerned  in  vomi- 

Q 


98  HORSES    AND   RUMINANTS    DO    NOT    VOMIT 

tion  in  most   other   animals.      The  horse's  inability  to  re- 
gurgitate  matters  from  the  stomach,  even  when   attempts 
to  vomit  are  excited,  depends  upon  several  conditions — on 
the  smallness  of  the  stomach,  which  prevents  it,  even  when 
tolerably  full,  from   being  grasped  and  squeezed  between 
the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  diaphragm;  on  the  strong 
horse-shoe-like   band   of  fibres   which   guards   the  cardiac 
orifice;  and  on  the  greater  length  of  that  portion  of  the 
a3Sophagus    between   the   diaphragm   and   stomach,   which 
bends  on  itself,  and  thus  more  securely  obstructs  the  cardiac 
orifice  when  the  tube,  under  the  influence  of  emetics,  is 
shortened  by  the  contraction  of  its  longitudinal  fibres.     The 
contents  of  the  horse's  stomach,  even  if  discharged  upwards, 
owing  to  the  position  and  length  of  the  soft  palate,  would 
pass  out  by  the  nostrils,  and  not  by  the  mouth.     As  cattle 
naturally  ruminate,  it  might  be  supposed  that  they  might 
also  readily  perform  the  analogous  act  of  vomiting;    but 
the  substances  which  cause  emesis  in  other  animals  have 
no  such  effect  on  cattle  or  sheep.     This,  in  part,  depends 
upon   the  large    size   of  the    subdivided    stomach,   which 
cannot  be  grasped  and  compressed  between  the  abdominal 
walls    and    diaphragm.      In    horses    and    ruminants,    the 
arrangement   of  the   digestive   organs   thus   virtually  pre- 
venting   vomiting,    the    vomiting    centre    Avould    not    be 
required;  if  it  ever   existed   amongst   earlier   races,  it  has 
become  dwarfed  or  ineffective,  as  seems  evident  from  the 
notable  tolerance  which  horses  have  of  tartar  emetic.     Pro- 
fessor M'Fadyean  suggests  that  in  ruminants  the  power  to 
vomit  has  perhaps  been  merged  into  the  habit  of  rumination. 
Emetics  are  divisible  into  two  classes : — 
(1.)  Those  which   mainly  act  locally  on   the  pharynx 
or   stomach,   such   as   copious   draughts   of  tepid 
water,  bitter  infusions,  solutions  of  salt,  mustard, 
alum,  and  ammonium  carbonate,  with  copper  and 
zinc  sulphates. 
(2.)  Those   which   act,  through  the   circulation,  on  the 
vomiting   centre,    such    as    tartar    emetic,   ipeca- 
cuanha   and    ciuctiiie,   apomorphine,   senega,    and 
squill.     Muscarine  and  digitalis  are  general  emetics, 
although  not  used  medicinally. 


USES    OF   EMETICS  99 

Emetics,  acting  locally,  stimulate  the  vomiting  centre 
reflexly  from  the  stomach.  Those  of  the  second  class  may 
be  carried  direct  to  the  vomiting  centre;  but  many  are 
also  attracted  to  the  stomach,  and  thus,  in  part,  at  any 
rate,  act  reflexly.  Tartar  emetic  injected  into  the  blood 
is  believed  thus  to  act  in  both  ways.  The  effects  of 
local  emetics  are  not  of  long  duration,  ceasing  usually 
when  the  cause  of  irritation  is  expelled,  and  leaving  little 
depression.  The  effects  of  general  emetics  are  more  per- 
sistent, and  are  followed  by  nausea,  depression,  and  increased 
secretion  of  saliva  and  sweat,  as  well  as  of  mucus,  alike 
from  the  digestive  and  respiratory  tracts. 

Emetics  are  used  on  dogs  and  pigs  for  removing  from 
the  stomach  foreign  bodies,  acrid,  irritating,  undigested 
food,  and  poisons.  Where  prompt  and  effectual  results 
are  desired,  as  in  cases  of  poisoning,  copper  and  zinc 
sulphates  are  most  suitable.  By  relaxing  the  longitudinal 
fibres  of  the  gullet,  and  exciting  anti-peristaltic  movements, 
they  are  also  serviceable  in  expelling  obstructions  from 
the  fauces  and  upper  part  of  the  oesophagus.  They  expel 
bile  from  the  gall  ducts,  and  gall  bladder,  and  force  in- 
spissated mucus  and  small  gall  stones  into  the  intestine, 
thus  relieving  jaundice  resulting  from  obstruction.  By 
clearing  out  both  the  stomach  and  biliary  system,  they 
remove  biliousness,  and,  used  at  the  outset,  they  thus 
mitigate  distemper,  and  other  febrile  attacks,  and  some- 
times arrest  epileptic  seizures.  In  animals  which  vomit 
easily  it  is  better  that  irritants  lodged  in  the  anterior 
parts  of  the  digestive  tube  should  be  promptly  got  rid  of 
by  the  mouth,  rather  than  make  the  longer  and  more  tedious 
route  through  the  intestines,  running  risk  of  absorption, 
and  thus  probably  doing  further  mischief.  By  stimulating 
the  respiratory  as  well  as  the  vomiting  centre,  emetics 
beneficially  promote  secretion  and  expectoration  in  the 
dry  stage  of  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  and  sometimes  in 
congestive  as  well  as  spasmodic  asthma.  In  respiratory 
disorders,  ipecacuanha  and  squill  are  often  conjoined,  and, 
where  there  is  cardiac  depression,  ammonium  carbonate 
is  prescribed,  alone  or  in  combination.     Relaxing  muscular 


100  EMETICS    AND    ANTI-EMETICS 

fibre,  they  were  wont  to  be  given  to  assist  in  the  reduction 
of  dislocations,  but  for  such  purposes  ana3sthetics  are 
much  more  effectual.  Their  paralysing  effect  on  muscle 
explains  why  emetics  in  excessive  doses  often  fail  to  cause 
vomiting. 

Emetics  are  contra-indicated  in  gastric  inflammation,  cere- 
bral congestion,  and  hccmorrhagic  conditions,  and  require 
cautious  use  in  pregnancy  and  hernia. 

A  safe  and  convenient  emetic  for  a  medium-sized  dog 
consists  of  a  teaspoonful  each  of  common  salt  and  mustard 
dissolved  in  three  ounces  of  tepid  water.  More  prompt 
and  certain  effects  are  produced  by  two  or  three  grains  of 
copper  or  zinc  sulphate  dissolved  in  a  couple  of  ounces 
of  warm  water,  rolled  in  a  piece  of  meat,  or  mixed  with 
other  food.  Greater  depression  follows  the  administration 
of  three  grains  tartar  emetic  and  ten  grains  ipecacuanha, 
given  dissolved  in  three  or  four  ounces  of  tepid  water. 
Apomorphine,  the  most  prompt  and  certain  of  emetics, 
acts  by  whatever  channel  it  enters  the  body,  and  produces 
full  effects  on  dogs  in  doses  of  one-tenth  to  one-fifth  of  a 
grain. 

To  check  vomiting,  which  occasionally  proves  trouble- 
some in  dogs,  three  methods  of  relief  are  indicated — (1)  the 
removal,  by  appropriate  means,  of  the  irritation  of  the  fauces, 
bronchi,  stomach,  or  other  part  which  excites  the  reflex 
act ;  (2)  lessening  irritability  of  the  gastric  nerves  by  giving 
small  pieces  of  ice,  or  cocaine,  carbolic  acid,  creasote,  silver 
nitrate,  or  hydrocyanic  acid ;  (3)  quieting  over-activity  of 
the  irritable  vomiting  centre  by  morphine,  atropine,  chloral, 
potassium  or  ammonium  bromide,  or  amyl-nitrite. 


ACTION   OP   DRUGS   ON   THE   INTESTINES 

PURGATIVES — CARMINATIVES — INTESTINAL  ASTRINGENTS 
AND   ANTISEPTICS 

Purgatives  or  Cathartics  cause  intestinal   evacuations 

by   sLiuuilating    the   nuiscular   coat,   and    accelerating    the 
peristaltic  movements  of  the  bowels;  by  increasing  secre- 


PURGATIVES  101 

tion  from  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane ;  and  sometimes 
by  limiting  absorption  of  the  intestinal  fluids. 

Intestinal  movements  are  dependent  on  the  ganglia  of 
Auerbach's  plexus,  situated  between  the  outer  longitudinal 
and  inner  circular  layers  of  muscle.  Secretion  is  believed 
to  be  influenced  by  Meissner's  plexus,  lying  in  the  sub- 
mucous coat;  but  these  ganglia,  immediately  regulating 
intestinal  movements  and  secretions,  are  controlled  by 
cerebro-spinal  centres  and  nerves,  notably  by  the  vagi, 
which,  when  irritated,  cause  increased  peristalsis,  and  by 
the  splanchnics,  which,  although  containing  both  stimulant 
and  inhibitory  fibres,  generally  diminish  intestinal  move- 
ments. When  all  the  cerebro-spinal  nerves,  going  to  a 
portion  of  intestine,  are  divided,  copious  fluid  discharges 
pour  into  the  intestine;  but  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  and  Dr. 
Pye  Smith,  who  thoroughly  investigated  the  subject,  found 
that  the  nerves  which  specially  restrain  secretion  are  the 
inferior  ganglia  of  the  solar  plexus,  with  the  superior 
mesenteric  offshoot  from  them.  The  blood-supply  of  the 
intestine  is  mainly  regulated  by  the  splanchnics,  but  also  in 
part  by  the  lumbar  portion  of  the  cord. 

Purgatives  vary  in  the  degree  and  method  of  their  action. 
Some,  like  castor  oil,  act  tolerably  uniformly  on  the  wdiole  tract; 
podophyllum  operates  mainly  on  the  duodenum ;  jalap  and 
salines  chiefly  on  the  small  intestine ;  the  several  species  of 
rhamnus  or  buckthorn  and  aloes  mostly  on  the  large  boAvel. 

Purgatives  are  frequently  classified  as  follows : — 

Laxatives  or  aperients,  such  as  small  doses  of  oil,  mag- 
nesia, sulphur  and  treacle,  wdth  fruits,  roots,  and  green 
vegetable  food. 

Simple  purgatives,  such  as  full  doses  of  oils,  aloes,  various 
species  of  rhamnus,  produce  more  copious,  softened,  or  fluid 
evacuations,  and  act  mainly  by  increasing  the  intestinal 
secretions. 

Drastic  purgatives,  such  as  croton  oil,  colocynth,  ela- 
terium,  gamboge,  and  podophyllum,  greatly  increase  both 
peristalsis  and  secretion ;  violently  stimulate  intestinal  con- 
tractions, causing  more  or  less  pain ;  promptly  produce 
copious,  fluid   discharges;    and   in  large   doses   may  cause 


102  CLASSIFICATION   OF   CATHARTICS 

serious  intestinal  irritation  and  inflammation.     Eserine  and 
liarinm  chloride  exert  similar  effects. 

Hydragogues,  such  as  claterium,  gamboge,  crotou  oil,  and 
other  drastic  cathartics,  with  large  doses  of  the  more  active 
salines,  excite  copious  intestinal  secretions. 

Cholagogue  purgatives,  such  as  mercurial  preparations, 
aloes,  podophyllum,  and  euonymin,  remove  bile,  and  will 
receive  special  notice  later. 

Saline  purgatives  consist  of  neutral  salts  of  the  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths,  such  as  magnesium  sulphate  and  citrate, 
sodium  sulphate,  potassium  tartrate,  and  bitartrate. 

The  salines  have  been  specially  investigated  by  Professor 
Matthew  Ha}^  Aberdeen  University.  His  admirable  observa- 
tions show  that,  without  causing  much  increased  peristalsis, 
they  notably  increase  the  alimentary  secretions,  and  impede 
absorption.  They  do  so  chiefly  in  virtue  of  their  specific 
irritant  and  bitter  properties.  They  act  especially  on  the 
small  intestines,  but  only  slightly  increase  the  secretion  of 
bile  or  pancreatic  fluid.  When  the  accumulated  fluid 
mechanically  distends  and  stimulates  the  intestine,  some 
extra  peristalsis  is  excited.  Saline  solutions  weaker  than  10 
per  cent,  provoke  little  or  no  secretion  in  the  stomach,  and 
not  much  in  the  bowels.  A  20  per  cent,  solution  given  to 
dogs  or  men  rapidly  increases  secretion,  which  reaches  its 
maximum  in  one  to  one  and  a  half  hours.  But  the  larger 
the  amount  of  fluid  given  with  the  saline,  the  more  prompt 
will  be  the  purgation.  Magnesium  and  sodium  sulj)hates 
are  in  part  decomposed,  their  acid  being  more  rapidly 
absorbed  than  their  base.  No  increase  of  secretion  is  pro- 
duced, as  was  formerly  taught,  by  the  acid  or  salt,  when, 
after  absorption,  it  is  excreted  into  the  intestine;  and 
neither  of  these  salines  excites  intestinal  secretion  when 
injected  into  the  blood,  or  subcutaneously.  More  inorganic 
than  organic  matters  are  removed  by  salines  from  the 
blood.  The  amount  of  fluid  secreted  has  been  measured  by 
Dr.  Lauder  Brunton,  who  experimented  on  cats  with  con- 
centrated solutions  of  Epsom  salt  tied  into  a  loop  of  intes- 
tine. In  four  hours  he  found  that  from  42  to  56  minims  of 
serous  fluid  wore  outpoured  for  every  inch  of  surface  acted 


PRECAUTIONS    IN    THE   USE    OF    CATHARTICS  103 

on.  In  cattle  or  horses  upwards  of  12  square  feet  of 
intestine  must  often  be  directly  stimulated  by  even  a 
moderate  dose  of  physic.  A  secretion  of  50  minims  to  the 
inch  would  give  a  discharge  of  nine  pints  of  fluid.  Such 
considerations  illustrate  the  depurative  and  febrifuge  effects 
of  an  active  cathartic. 

The  intestines  of  the  horse  are  voluminous,  presenting 
about  550  square  feet  of  vascular  mucous  membrane. 
Purgatives  and  other  irritants  hence  require  to  be  used  with 
much  caution.  For  a  day  previous  to  the  exhibition  of  a 
purgative,  the  animal,  if  possible,  should  be  restricted  to 
mash  diet  or  green  food.  The  dose  should  be  moderate,  and 
its  effect  may  be  accelerated  and  increased  by  administering 
it  while  the  animal  is  fasting,  by  occasional  gentle  exercise, 
until  it  begins  to  operate,  and  by  the  repeated  use  of 
clysters.  This  last  auxiliar}^  when  properly  employed  with 
sufficient  perseverance,  is  indeed  so  effectual  in  promoting 
the  action  of  the  bowels  that  one  of  the  most  successful  of 
army  veterinarians  was  wont  to  trust  almost  entirely  to  its 
use,  seldom  giving,  except  in  extraordinary  cases,  any  purga- 
tive medicine  whatever.  In  serious,  obstinate  impaction  of 
the  large  intestines,  a  flexible  tube,  six  feet  long,  should  be 
screwed  on  to  a  Read's  pump,  and  copious  enemata  introduced 
into  the  colon. 

For  horses,  aloes  is  the  best  cathartic.  Linseed  and  castor 
oils  are  tolerably  good,  but  less  certain;  while  croton  is 
much  too  drastic,  unless  in  small  amount,  and  largely  mixed 
with  some  bland  oil.  Salines  in  cathartic  doses  are  irregular, 
and  sometimes  act  with  unexpected  violence.  Senna,  colo- 
cynth,  buckthorn,  and  other  drugs  used  as  purgatives  for 
men  and  dogs  have  little  effect  on  horses. 

With  a  warm  mash  the  previous  night,  and  subsequent 
abstinence  from  solid  food,  a  moderate  dose  of  aloes  given  in 
the  morning,  assisted  by  further  mashes  and  occasional 
draughts  of  tepid  water,  purges  most  horses  in  ten  or  twelve 
hours.  AVithout  this  desirable  preliminary  j)reparation, 
purgation  seldom  occurs  within  eighteen  or  twenty  hours. 
In  acute  febrile  cases  absorption  is  usually  tardy,  and  the 
action  of  the  purgative  is  hastened  by  combination  with  a 


104       CATHARTICS    FOR   CATTLE,    SHEEP,    AND    DOGS 

small  dose  of  calomel,  mix  vomica,  or  tartar  emetic.  A 
liorse  should  never  have  pm-gative  medicine  when  his 
strength  is  reduced  as  in  the  advanced  stages  of  inflamma- 
tory disease  of  the  air-passages,  in  influenza  and  other 
debilitating  epizootics,  and  seldom  when  the  bowels  are  con- 
gested or  inflamed.  I  have  known  horses  aft'ected  by  bron- 
chitis die  from  superpurgation,  induced  by  three  and  four 
drachms  of  aloes ;  and  similar  susceptibility  to  the  action  of 
moderate  doses  is  also  observable  in  influenza,  purpura 
haimorrhagica,  and  laminitis. 

In  cattle  and  sheep  the  magnitude  of  the  quadriseded 
stomach,  the  large  amount  of  food  Avhich  it  always  contains, 
the  relatively  small  size  of  the  true  digestive  compartment, 
and,  compared  with  the  liorse,  the  greater  length  but  smaller 
capacity  of  the  intestines,  explain  the  tardy,  uncertain 
action  of  purgatives  and  some  other  drugs.  For  these 
ruminants  saline  cathartics  are  preferable,  and  their  action  is 
materially  hastened  by  encouraging  the  drinking  of  water, 
rendered  palatable  by  sweetening  it  Avith  treacle.  In 
obstinate  constipation,  or  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  gamboge, 
croton,  and  calomel  are  often  useful.  Purgation  may  usually 
be  produced  in  cattle  in  twelve  to  sixteen  hours ;  but  cases 
frequently  occur  where,  in  spite  of  treatment,  the  bowels 
remain  unmoved  for  several  days.  The  best  purgatives  for 
sheep  are  common  and  Epsom  salts  and  castor  oil,  in  doses 
of  about  one-fourth  of  those  given  to  cattle.  Calomel  and 
croton  are  apt  to  act  too  violently.  As  sheep  drink  sparingly, 
their  medicine  should  be  given  with  a  liberal  quantity  of 
fluid. 

The  dog,  on  account  of  his  small  stomach  and  short 
alimentary  tube,  and  the  concentrated  nature  of  his  food,  is 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  action  of  purgatives.  Jalap, 
with  a  little  calomel,  or  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  linseed 
and  castor  oils,  is  most  generally  approved  of,  and  usually 
operates  in  from  five  to  eight  hours.  Aloes  acts  more  slowly 
and  uncertainly,  while  saline  medicines  are  apt  to  cause 
vomiting,  or,  if  retained,  to  purge  with  undue  violence. 

Pigs  are  acted  on  by  cathartics  much  in  the  same  way  as 
men  and  dogs,  and  are   best  physicked  by  administering, 


USES    OF    CATHARTICS  105 

from  a  shallow  spoon  or  bottle,  three  or  four  ounces  of 
Epsom  salt  dissolved  in  water,  or  a  like  amoimt  of  linseed 
or  castor  oil. 

The  uses  of  purgatives  are  numerous.  Few  medicines  are 
applied  to  so  many  important  purposes. 

(1.)  They  empty  the  alimentary  canal  of  undigested 
food,  fasces,  bile,  some  poisons,  and  worms.  Sweeping  away 
partially  digested  food,  they  diminish  the  amount  of  blood- 
making  materials,  and  thus  diminish  plethora  and  obesity. 
In  horses  fully  two-thirds  of  the  fluid  ingesta,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  is  removed  by  the  bowels,  and  this 
large  amount  is  greatly  increased  when  physic  is  given. 
They  remove  noxious  gases  and  fluids,  micro-organisms, 
ptomaines,  and  other  intestinal  toxic  matters  which  are  the 
causes  of  dyspepsia,  colic,  and  diarrhoea ;  and  which,  more- 
over, secondarily  or  reflexly  produce  nervous  depression,  skin 
irritation,  and  local  hyperassthesia. 

Constipation  is  usually  dependent  in  great  part  on 
deficient  peristalsis,  and  hence,  when  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, is  often  advantageously  combated  by  conjoining  a  little 
nux  vomica  with  the  cathartic.  When  the  general  vigour 
of  the  patient  is  defective,  the  aperient  may  be  conjoined 
with  iron  or  arsenic ;  and  where  there  is  venous  stasis  with 
belladonna.  Horses  restricted  to  dry  food  are  frequently 
affected  with  constipation,  and  in  such  cases  the  diet  should 
be  varied  with  an  occasional  mash,  a  little  linseed  cake  or 
green  food,  while  Avater  ad  libitum  should  be  allowed  at  least 
four  times  daily.  The  bulky  and  comparatively  indigestible 
nature  of  the  horse's  food  induces  copious  alvine  evacua- 
tions, which  are  passed  usually  at  intervals  of  four  or  five 
hours.  Impaired  intestinal  action,  or  obstruction,  hindering 
or  arresting  these  frequent  evacuations,  causes  more  serious 
and  rapidl}"  fatal  results  in  horses  than  in  dogs,  or  ruminants, 
in  which  the  bowels  naturally  act  less  frequently.  Torpidity 
or  obstruction  which  has  resisted  ordinary  treatment  is  now 
usually  relieved — even  in  horses — by  the  hypodermic  injec- 
tion of  a  grain  of  eserine  and  one  or  two  grains  of  pilo- 
carpine; or  by  intravenous  injection  of  a  solution  of 
barium  chloride.      Constipation,  troublesome   in  dogs  kept 


106  PURGATIVES   RELIEVE   PYREXIA 

in  the  house,  or  on  the  chain,  is  best  treated  with  a  dose  of 

oil,  and  prevented  by  attention  to  diet. 

Diarrhoea,  at  its  outset,  is  usually  most  effectually  treated 
by  a  dose  of  oil,  containing  a  little  laudanum  or  hyoscyanms 
— a  combination  which  removes  the  cause  of  irritation,  and 
prevents  irregular  peristalsis  and  griping.  When  diarrhoea 
dejiends,  as  it  sometimes  does,  on  diminished  absorption  of 
fluid  from  the  bowels,  a  little  ether  proves  serviceable. 

(2.)  Purgatives,  notably  salines  or  hydragogues,  increase 
the  secretion  of  intestinal  fluid,  and  hinder  its  absorption, 
and  thus  purge  the  blood  of  waste  products,  relieving  febrile 
attacks,  and  lowering  blood-pressure. 

The  blood,  thus  left  in  a  state  of  concentration,  speedily 
recuperates  itself,  absorbs  water  and  lymph  from  the  tissues, 
thus  relieving  oedema,  dropsy,  and  lymphangitis.  To  secure 
this  special  action,  such  salines  as  Epsom  salt  and  alkaline 
tartrates  are  specially  useful,  and  their  efficacy  is  increased 
when  they  are  prescribed  in  tolerably  concentrated  form, 
and  given  when  there  is  comparatively  little  fluid  in  the 
alimentary  canal.  When  catharsis  caused  by  a  saline  has 
almost  ceased,  another  concentration  of  the  blood  occurs, 
which  has  also  an  influence  in  reducing  dropsical  swellings. 

(3.)  Purgatives  lower  fever  temperature,  but  how  this 
effect  is  produced  is  not  definitely  known.  They  diminish 
the  force  of  the  circulation,  and  may  in  this  way  lessen  the 
production  of  heat,  and,  moreover,  hasten  removal  from  the 
body  of  waste  or  other  deleterious  matters,  which  are  a 
frequent  cause  of  fever.  In  animals  in  health  purgatives  do 
not,  however,  produce  any  appreciable  lowering  of  tempera- 
ture.    (See  Antipyretics.) 

Carminatives  are  agents  which  assist  the  expulsion  of 
gases  from  the  stomach  and  intestines.  When  digestion  is 
in  any  way  interfered  with,  the  contents  of  the  stomach  are 
liable  to  undergo  excessive  or  irregular  fermentation,  giving 
rise  to  large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  and  h3drogen,  which 
unite  with  sulphur,  sometimes  derived  from  the  food,  some- 
times from  the  bile,  and  produce  the  noisome  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  Formation  of  these  gases  is  favoured  by  accumu- 
lation of  mucus  on  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  and  by  venous 


CARMINATIVES  107 

congestion  of  the  organ,  both  of  which  conditions  interfere 
with  the  natural  absorption  of  oxygen  and  excretion  of 
carbonic  acid.  These  gases  cause  uncomfortable  distension, 
and  often  provoke  spasm  and  pain.     {See  Antispasmodics.) 

Carminatives  are  closely  allied  to  Antispasmodics,  and 
include  the  aromatic  oils  of  the  umbelliferce,  labiatse,  and 
other  orders,  with  ginger,  mustard,  and  peppers,  alcohol, 
ethers,  and  chloroform.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  neutralised  by 
ammonia  preparations,  sulphuretted  and  carburetted  hydro- 
gen, and  by  solution  of  chlorine  or  chlorinated  lime. 

They  are  used  to  expel  flatus,  relieve  spasm,  and  pain, 
whether  resulting  from  direct  intestinal  irritants,  or,  second- 
arily, from  chill  or  other  causes.  Their  effects  mainly 
depend  upon  their  controlling  irregular  peristalsis.  They 
stimulate  contraction  of  the  distended  stomach,  and  thus 
promote  escape  of  gas  by  either  the  cardiac  or  pyloric  open- 
ing. Kegulating,  in  like  manner,  intestinal  peristalsis,  they 
displace  and  expel  gases  from  other  parts  of  the  canal.  They 
are  usefully  conjoined  with  purgatives.  In  cattle,  owing  to 
the  large  amount  of  food  in  the  first  stomach,  it  is  some- 
times difficult  to  remove  accumulations  of  gas,  by  either 
carminatives  or  antispasmodics,  the  use  of  a  gag  fixed  in  the 
mouth,  or  even  by  the  probang.  Where  these  means  fail, 
and  distension  is  so  great  as  to  interfere  with  breathing  or 
circulation,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  gas  by  opening 
the  rumen,  with  either  a  trochar  and  canula,  or  a  tolerably 
large  knife.  In  serious  distension,  threatening  rupture 
of  the  large  intestines,  in  horses,  the  gas  is  liberated  by 
puncture  of  the  caecum  or  colon  with  a  special  trochar  and 
canula. 

Intestinal  Astringents  diminish  excessive  or  unduly  fluid 
intestinal  evacuations.  They  are  specially  used  to  antagonise 
various  forms  of  diarrhoea.  Some,  like  opium  and  chloral, 
lessen  the  excessive  peristalsis  on  which  diarrhoea  generally 
in  great  part  depends.  Some,  like  antacids,  neutralise  acids 
which  provoke  both  peristalsis  and  increased  secretion. 
Some,  like  creasote,  check  fermentation  and  putrefaction, 
and  thus  arrest  formation  of  irritants.  Others,  like  catechu 
and  tannin- containing  substances,  coagulate  albumin,  and 


108  INTESTINAL    ASTRINGENTS 

consequently  dry  up  both  discharge  of  mucus  and  of  blood. 
Others,  like  copper  and  iron  sulphates,  usually  conjoin  anti- 
septic and  astringent  actions.  Coto-bark  and  its  alkaloids, 
although  devoid  of  astringency,  exert  antiseptic  effects,  and 
besides,  by  increasing  absorption,  remove  superfluous  fluid 
from  the  intestines.  Mineral  acids  and  metallic  salts  are 
specially  indicated  when  the  mucous  membranes  are  relaxed 
and  flabby. 

Drs.  Lauder  Brunton  and  Pye  Smith  experimented  with 
various  agents,  with  the  view  of  discovering  any  which  would 
arrest  the  copious  discharges  of  cholera.  The  conclusion 
arrived  at  was  that  most  cases  of  diarrhoea,  whether  continuous 
or  alternated  with  constipation,  were  best  checked  by  castor 
oil,  administered  with  a  few  drops  of  opium  tincture.  Where 
the  diarrhcjea  still  persists,  opium  in  moderate  doses  is  given. 
Where  active  peristalsis  occurs  after  eating,  drinking,  or  the 
excitement  of  quick  work,  as  in  some  nervous  horses  and 
dogs,  liquor  arsenicalis  is  prescribed.  Undue  relaxation  of 
the  bowels,  occurring  in  irritable  horses  during  active  work, 
is  mitigated  by  careful  attention  to  diet,  by  using  the  best 
food  in  digestible  form,  allowing  water  in  small  quantity  at 
a  time  but  frequently,  and  withholding  water  for  several 
hours  previous  to  putting  the  animal  to  quick  work. 

Intestinal  antiseptics  or  disinfectants  are  sometimes  pre- 
scribed in  the  treatment  of  disorders  of  the  bowels,  and  of 
diseases  which  are  believed  to  depend  on  the  presence  of 
pathogenic  bacteria  or  their  toxines  in  the  intestine.  Naph- 
thol,  salol,  iodol,  dermatol,  lysol,  creolin,  carbolic  acid,  sali- 
cylates, iodine,  iodides,  tannoform,  thymol,  tannalbin,  tannic 
acid,  terebene  and  boric  acid  are  the  disinfectants  generally 
•employed.  Experiments  show  that  rej^cated  small  doses  of 
beta-naphthol,  salol,  or  creolin,  rapidly  diminish  the  number 
of  micro-organisms  expelled  with  the  fa?ces;  and  the  admini- 
stration of  these  or  other  intestinal  antiseptics  in  hemoglo- 
binuria, parturient  apoplexy,  South  African  horse  sickness, 
some  cases  of  tetanus,  and  in  distemper  and  other  infectious 
diseases,  deserves  further  trial.  To  ensure  full  eftects  within 
the  bowel,  the  agent  selected  should  be  given  encased  in  kera- 
tin, which  is  unaffected  by  the  gastric  secretion.    A  course  of 


FUNCTIONS    OF   THE    LIVER  109 

intestinal  antiseptics  may  be  preceded  by  a  dose  of  purgative 
medicine. 


ACTION  OF  MEDICINES  ON  THE  LIVER 
HEPATIC  STIMULAXTS — HEPATIC    DEPRESSANTS — CHOLAGOGUES 

The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body.  It  not  only 
secretes  and  excretes  bile,  but  part  of  the  bile,  mingled  with 
the  food  materials,  is  again  taken  up  from  the  intestine  and 
again  excreted,  and  this  circulation  through  the  liver  and 
back  to  the  intestine  is  accomplished  within  five  minutes. 
The  liver,  moreover,  forms  glycogen,  and  is  concerned  with 
the  general  metabolism  of  the  body,  the  breaking  up  of  the 
blood  globules,  and  the  formation  of  urea.  Medicines  taken 
up  by  the  vessels  of  the  small  intestine  enter  the  liver,  where 
they  may  be  retained,  destroyed,  or  neutralised.  Some  are 
eliminated  in  the  bile.  Arsenic,  copper,  and  mercury  are 
retained,  and  morpine,  atropine,  strychnine,  veratrine, 
antipyrine,  cocaine,  and  other  alkaloids,  are  detained  and 
modified.  It  further  acts  upon  peptones,  and  probably  upon 
ptomaines  and  waste  products  (which,  accumulating  in  the 
blood  and  tissues,  prove  injurious,  and  indeed  poisonous), 
and  forms  them  into  sugar,  glycogen,  and  simpler  forms, 
which  are  stored,  as  it  were,  "in  a  coal-bunker,"  as  Dr. 
Lauder  Brunton  aptly  puts  it,  for  the  production  of  heat  and 
muscular  energy.  This  important  power  of  the  liver  to 
destroy  poisons,  elaborated  in  the  vital  processes  or  intro- 
duced from  without,  is  illustrated  in  Lautenbach's  experi- 
ments. One- twentieth  of  a  drop  of  nicotine  does  not  kill  a 
frog,  but  half  that  dose  suffices  when  the  liver  has  been 
removed.  When  the  glycogenic  function  of  the  liver  is 
impaired,  retained  or  transformed  toxic  substances  exert 
unexpected  activity.  In  this  way  liver  toxines  formed  in  ill 
health  aftect  nervous  and  other  tissues,  and  produce  tem- 
porary sickness,  fatigue,  and  lassitude. 

The  bile  has  various  functions.  It  promotes  absorption 
and  assimilation  of  fats.  Containing  a  diastatic  ferment,  it 
transforms  starch  and  glycogen  into  sugar.  It  moistens  the 
intestinal  walls,  and  excites  contraction  of  their  muscular 


110  HEPATIC   STIMULANTS    AND    DEPRESSANTS 

coat,  thus  acting  as  a  natural  laxative.  The  action  of  various 
medicines  upon  the  liver  has  been  ascertained  chietiy  by 
Roiirig,  Rutherford,  and  Vignel,  who  curarised  fasting  dogs, 
ligatured  the  common  bile  duct,  and  inserted  a  canula 
through  which  the  bile  secreted  was  discliarged  and  collected 
Numerous  drugs  were  experimented  with,  usually  by  injeo 
tion  into  the  duodenum.  As  food  increases  the  secretion  of 
bile,  the  experiments  were  made  on  fasting  animals.  These 
experiments  demonstrate  that  medicines  acting  upon  the 
liver  are  divisible  into  three  classes : — 

(1.)  Hepatic  Stimulants  or  Direct  Cholagogues  increase 
the  functional  activity  of  the  organ  and  the  formation 
of  bile,  and  are  represented  by  dilute  nitro- hydrochloric 
acid,  sodium  phosphate,  sodium  sulphate,  salicylate,  and 
benzoate,  corrosive  sublimate,  turpentine,  podophyllum, 
euonymin,  aloes,  rhubarb,  jalap,  colocynth,  colchicum,  and 
ipecacuanha.  Some  of  these  drugs  augment  the  quantity 
of  bile  without  altering  its  quality ;  others,  like  sodium 
salicylate,  increase  the  quantity  and  fluidity;  others,  such 
as  toluylendiamine,  increase  the  solid  parts,  rendering 
it  so  viscid  that  it  cannot  readily  pass  through  the  bile 
ducts,  and  hence  becomes  reabsorbed,  and  may  produce 
jaundice.  Podophyllum  is  a  powerful  hepatic  stinuilant,  in 
small  doses,  but  loses  this  effect  when  given  in  large  doses, 
in  which  it  causes  purgation ;  and  similar  results  occur  when 
other  hepatic  stimulants  are  given  in  such  doses  as  actively 
to  move  the  bowels.  Many  aromatic  bitters  slightly  increase 
bile  secretion.  Healthy  dogs  with  biliary  fistulas,  liberally 
fed  with  fats  and  oils,  were  found  to  secrete  more  bile  than 
when  freely  fed  on  albuminoids  or  carbo-hydrates. 

(2.)  Hepatic  Depressants  or  Anticholagogues  diminish  the 
quantity  of  bile  secreted  by  the  liver.  Professor  Rutherford 
found  that  calomel,  castor  oil,  gamboge,  and  magnesium 
sulphate  lessened  the  secretion  probably  by  lowering  blood- 
pressure  in  the  liver;  while  these  and  other  purgatives 
besides  diminish  secretion  by  sweeping  out  of  the  intestine 
bile  which  might  otherwise  be  reabsorbed,  and  partially 
digested  food  which  might  furnish  fresh  bile.  In  this  way 
cholagogues  are  also  hepatic  depressants. 


CHOLAGOGUES  111 

(3.)  Indirect  Cholagogues  remove  bile  froui  the  body 
mainly  by  increasing  intestinal  action.  Superfluous  bile 
cannot  be  got  rid  of  by  a  hepatic  stimulant  alone,  which 
increases  the  secretion,  nor  even  by  a  hepatic  depressant, 
which  diminishes  secretion,  for,  as  already  indicated,  excess 
of  bile  is  apt  to  lodge  in  the  small  intestine,  and  become  re- 
absorbed. Effectually  to  get  rid  of  it,  the  bowels  must  be 
freely  moved,  preferably  by  a  purge,  which  will  produce 
sufficient  fluid  to  wash  out  the  small  intestine.  The  drugs 
which  eftect  this  are  calomel  and  other  purgative  mercurial 
salts,  given  with  a  cathartic,  such  as  aloes,  jalap,  podophyllum, 
or  sulphates  of  magnesium  and  sodium.  Their  effects  are 
increased  by  active  exertion.  In  dogs  and  other  animals  that 
vomit,  emetics  efiectually  remove  bile  by  compressing  the 
liver  between  the  diaphragm  and  the  abdominal  muscles, 
diluting  the  bile  with  abundant  mucus,  and  promptly  dis- 
charging it  by  the  mouth  as  well  as  by  the  rectum. 

Owing  to  the  low  blood-pressure  in  the  portal  vein,  and 
also  the  low  pressure  at  which  bile  is  secreted,  there  is  little 
vis  a  tergo  to  overcome  obstruction  in  the  gall  ducts,  and 
hence  the  bile  flow  is  rather  liable  to  stagnation,  with  conse- 
quent increased  reabsorption.  This  is  apt  to  occur  in  human 
patients  living  largely  on  albuminoid  food,  and  not  taking 
sufficient  brisk  exercise.  It  also  occurs  in  cattle  forced  for 
exhibition,  and  in  all  animals  as  a  concomitant  of  intestinal 
catarrh.  It  is  frequent  among  horses  suffering  from  in- 
fluenza, and  the  circulation  of  bile  accounts  not  only  for  the 
yellow  membranes,  but  also,  m  great  part,  for  the  dulness 
and  languor  characterising  such  complaints.  The  removal 
of  this  superfluous  bile,  with  the  waste  products  it  has  helped 
to  neutralise,  in  these  cases  is  suitably  effected  by  half  a 
dose  of  physic,  or  by  some  calomel  or  grey  powder,  followed 
by  or  conjoined  with  salines.  Nitro-muriatic  acid  and  iron 
salts,  which  experience  shows  to  be  subsequently  serviceable, 
owe  their  good  eflects,  at  least  in  part,  to  their  action  on  the 
liver.  In  jaundice,  the  late  Professor  Robertson  prescribed  a 
purgative,  followed  by  salines,  and  subsequently  administered 
twice  daily  a  bolus  of  inspissated  ox  bile,  alternately  with 
aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia. 

The   pancreas   has  been  termed  an  abdominal  salivary 


112  AGENTS   WHICH    KILL   OR   EXPEL   WORMS 

gland,  but  its  secretion  not  only  converts  starch  into  sugar, 
but  also  digests  proteids,  and  breaks  up  and  emulsifies  fat. 
Not  much  is  accurately  known  regarding  the  action  of  drugs 
upon  the  pancreas.  Its  secretion  is  increased  when  ether  is 
introduced  into  the  stomach,  and  diminished  in  dogs  by 
atropine  and  vomiting.  Calomel  and  salicylic  acid  check 
decomposition  of  pancreatic  juice. 

Few  investigations  have  yet  been  made  regarding  the 
action  of  drugs  on  the  spleen. 

MEDICINES  WHICH  KILL  OR  EXPEL  WORMS 
ANTHELMINTICS — VERMICIDES — VERMIFUGES 

Anthelmintics  are  agents  which  kill  or  expel  intestinal 
worms.  They  include  vermicides,  which  kill  the  parasites, 
and  vermifuges,  such  as  purgatives,  which,  without  neces- 
sarily killing,  detach  them  from  the  walls  of  the  canal,  and 
wash  them  away  with  the  mucus  in  which  they  are  usually 
imbedded. 

The  parasites  most  frequently  infesting  the  alimentary 
canal  are — bots,  the  larvae  of  the  oestrus  bovis,  found  in  the 
stomach  of  the  horse ;  various  tape-worms  and  round  worms, 
occurring  in  the  intestines  and  stomach  of  most  animals; 
and  fluke-worms,  which  invade  the  liver,  gall-ducts,  and  in- 
testines of  sheep,  and  occasionally  of  cattle  and  deer. 

The  appropriate  vermicides  are — 

1.  For  bots,  green  food,  a  combination  of  aloes,  asafoetida, 
turpentine,  and  ether;  iodine  tincture,  or  carbon  bisulphide. 

2.  For  tape-worms,  areca  nut,  male  fern,  kamala,  kousso, 
pomegranate  root  bark,  turpentine,  and  chloroform. 

3.  For  ascarides,  popularly  known  as  round  worms,  the 
remedies  used  are  tienicides,  with  santonin,  bitters,  arsenic, 
strontium  salts,  lysol,  and  creolin. 

4.  For  strongyli  or  thread-worms,  turpentine  and  essential 
oils,  thymol,  tannin,  and  tannin-containing  substances,  lysol, 
carbolic  acid,  naphthol,  turpentine  oil,  with  enemata  of 
common  salt,  ferric-chloride,  or  lime  water. 

5.  For  fluke-worms  infesting  the  liver  and  gall-ducts  of 
slicep,  and  occasionally  of  cattle  and  other  animals,  the 
treatment  consists  in  maintaining  the  patient's  strength  by 


BOTS   AND   TAPE-WORMS  113 

good  feeding ;  furnisliing  common  salt  and  soluble  iron  salts, 
which  exert  general  tonic  effects  and  limited  vermicidal 
action,  and  giving  a  dose  of  physic,  which  hastens  the  re- 
moval of  flukes  which  have  migrated  into  the  intestines. 
Prevention  is  ensured  by  keeping  the  flock  on  sound  pastures, 
free  from  the  developmental  forms  of  the  parasite. 

Bots  in  horses  comjDlete  their  larval  stage  in  spring,  and 
their  discharge  is  then  readily  promoted  by  the  laxative 
fresh  grass.  During  autumn  or  winter  they  are  dislodged 
with  difficulty,  and  unless  numerous,  and  causing  much 
irritation,  their  removal  is  seldom  attempted;  but  animals 
seriously  infested  with  them  require  liberal  feeding.  A 
considerable  number  of  the  larvae  may  be  dislodged  by 
giving,  after  twelve  hours'  fast,  two  drachms  each  of  aloes 
and  asafoetida,  dissolved  in  hot  water,  to  which  is  added, 
when  cold,  half  an  ounce  each  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  ether. 
The  mixture  is  administered  in  gruel  or  linseed  tea,  and 
repeated  on  several  consecutive  days.  Carbon  bisulphide, 
in  half-ounce  doses,  given  for  several  days  before  feeding, 
and  followed  by  a  purgative,  causes  discharge  of  the  dead 
bots ;  and  iodine  tincture  one  ounce  diluted  with  two  ounces 
each  of  glycerin  and  water  kills  bots  lodged  in  the  stomach. 

Tape-worms  of  the  three  species  infesting  horses  are 
usually  expelled  by  aloes,  turpentine,  and  oil.  Drs.  Fried- 
berger  and  Frohner  place  first  on  their  list  of  tsenicides 
three  to  five  drachms  of  male  fern  extract.  Professor  John 
Gamgee  {Veterinm^ians  Vade  Mecum)  recommends  two 
drachms  of  asafoetida,  a  drachm  each  of  powdered  savin  and 
calomel,  with  thirty  drops  of  male  fern,  made  up  with 
treacle  and  linseed  meal,  given  at  night,  and  followed  by  a 
purge  next  morning.  Mr.  Robert  Littler,  both  for  tape  and 
and  other  worms,  gives  for  three  or  four  consecutive  morn- 
ings a  ball  containing  two  drachms  of  copper  sulphate,  and 
follows  this  with  a  purgative  dose  of  aloes.  Whatever 
remedies  are  used,  it  is  essential  that  the  bowels  be  emptied 
as  thoroughly  as  possible  by  twelve  to  fifteen  hours'  fasting, 
or  by  a  gentle  aperient,  in  order  that  the  vermicide  shall  be 
brought  into  contact  with  the  head  of  the  worm. 

Dogs  in  some  localities,  in  the  proportion  of  fifty  to  every 

H 


114  VERMICIDES 

hundred,  are  infested  with  tape-worms.  The  most  effectual 
remedy  is  powdered  areca  nut ;  15  to  20  grains,  in  half  an 
ounce  of  linseed  oil,  is  the  dose  for  an  animal  25  to  40  lbs. 
weight.  Amongst  other  remedies  are  male  fern  extract, 
now  reputed  the  most  certain  remedy  for  tape-worm  in  man  ; 
pomegranate  root  bark,  the  flowers  of  the  Abyssinian  kousso, 
followed  by  a  purge  ;  the  American  remedy,  emulsion  of  the 
pumpkin  seed;  tenaline,  a  registered  preparation  of  areca 
nut ;  and  kamala,  obtained  from  a  Euphorbiaceous  plant,  is 
eftectually  used  in  India.  A  drachm  of  turpentine  in  two 
ounces  of  castor  or  linseed  oil  is  frequently  used. 

Sheep,  and  especially  lambs,  are  victimised  by  the  Tcenia 
expansa,  which  grows  very  rapidly,  and  sometimes  does 
wide-spread  mischief  Areca  nut,  or  extract  of  male  fern, 
in  the  dose  suitable  for  large  dogs,  is  most  eflfectual.  Poultry 
harbour  various  species,  for  which  areca  nut  followed  by  a 
laxative  is  the  best  remedy. 

Ascarides  are  more  readily  removed  than  tape-worms. 
British  practitioners  usually  treat  the  Ascaris  viegalocephala 
(which  chiefly  occurs  in  the  small  intestine  of  horses)  with 
drenches  containing  one  to  two  drachms  of  aloes,  and  half  a 
drachm  each  of  chloroform  and  turjjeutine,  given  fasting  on 
two  consecutive  mornings,  and  repeating  the  treatment  a 
week  later.  German  authorities  recommend  three  or  four 
doses  of  one  drachm  of  tartar  emetic,  conjoined  with  bitters, 
at  intervals  of  three  hours,  or  a  drench  of  arsenic,  aloes,  or 
absinthe,  thrice  daily,  either  jDrescription  being  followed  by 
an  aloe  tic  purge. 

The  Oxyuris  curvula,  met  with  in  the  colon  and  rectum 
of  the  horse,  is  removed  by  similar  prescriptions,  and  when 
confined  to  the  rectum  is  still  more  readily  dislodged  by 
enemata  of  quassia  decoction  or  other  bitters,  creolin  solu- 
tion, lime  water,  or  solution  of  common  salt. 

The  Ascaris  niarginata,  the  most  common  lumbricoid  of 
dogs,  is  killed  by  three  to  five  grains  of  santonin,  the  active 
cr3^stalline  principle  of  artcmisia  or  wormwood.  Turpen- 
tine and  oil,  gentian  and  other  bitters,  aconite  and  various 
other  medicines  also  remove  round  worms.  The  effect  of 
vermicides,  as  already  indicated,  is  greatly  increased  by  first 


ASCARIDES    AND    STRONGYLI  115 

emptying  the  intestines  by  fasting,  or  by  a  purgative,  in 
order  that  the  drug  may  act  more  directly  on  the  parasite. 
Occasional  doses  of  salines  and  mineral  tonics  remove  super- 
fluous mucus,  which  shelters  the  worms.  The  spread  of 
parasitism  is  prevented  by  isolating  infested  animals,  de- 
stroying their  excreta,  and  by  keeping  healthy  animals  in 
uncontaminated  quarters,  and  supplied  with  pure  water  and 
sound  food. 

The  Strongyli  include  many  species,  two  of  which  infest 
the  horse,  and,  imbedding  themselves  in  the  nuicous  mem- 
brane usually  of  the  large  intestine,  are  difficult  to  expel. 
The  S.  contortus  invades  the  fourth  stomach  of  sheep  and 
goats,  and  not  infrequently  concurs  with  the  S.  filaria, 
infesting  the  bronchi.  Other  species  attack  dogs,  cats,  pigs, 
and  poultry ;  Avhile  the  S.pergracilis  is  the  cause  of  disease  in 
grouse.  Emp}Teumatic  coal-tar  oils,  lysol,  creolin,  thymol, 
and  chloroform  are  the  remedies  used. 

Some  cases  of  parasitism,  unfortunately,  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  anthelmintics.  Trichinae  get  immured  in  the 
muscles ;  the  palisade  worms  develop  aneurisms  ;  Strongylus 
tetracanthiis,  Avhich  causes  fatal  enteritis  in  many  horses, 
becomes  encysted  in  the  raucous  coat  of  the  caecum,  colon 
and  rectum,  and  is  thus  protected  from  the  action  of 
medicinal  agents.  Several  species  of  Uncinaria  burrowing 
in  the  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels  of  dogs  and  cats  produce 
a  pernicious  anaemia  (Friedberger).  The  treatment  of  such 
cases  is  limited  to  a  dose  of  aloes,  with  antiseptics,  nutritive 
food,  and  tonics,  to  sustain  failing  strength. 


MEDICINES   ACTING   ON   THE   SKIN 
DIAPHORETICS — SUDORIFICS — ANHYDROTICS 

The  skin,  in  the  domesticated  animals,  besides  being  pro- 
tective and  tactile,  secretes  sweat  and  sebaceous  matter, 
exerts  a  modified  respiratory  function,  and,  on  account  of 
its  constant  and  large  secretion  of  fluid,  is  an  important 
factor  in  regulating  animal  temperature.  Sanctorius's  ex- 
periments show  that  of  eight  parts  of  food  taken  into  the 


116  FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   SKIN 

healthy  body,  about  three  parts  leave  it  in  the  faDces  and 
urine,  three  by  the  hings,  and  two  by  tlie  skin. 

So  important  are  the  cutaneous  functions  that  when  they 
are  impaired  by  covering  one  lialf  the  body  of  horses,  dogs,  or 
pigs  with  a  gelatin  varnish,  the  temperature  falls,  and  there 
is  much  weakness.  When  these  animals  are  wholly  en- 
veloped in  varnish,  or  when  one-eighth  of  the  body  of  a 
rabbit  is  similarly  coated,  the  temperature  rapidly  falls,  blood 
is  imperfectly  arterialised,  and  the  animal  gradually  dies 
from  loss  of  heat.  The  poisonous  action  of  retained  per- 
spiration is  illustrated  by  Rohrig's  experiment  of  the  injection 
of  3|  centimetres  of  freshly-filtered  human  sweat  into  the 
external  jugular  of  a  rabbit,  which  was  nearly  killed,  the 
temperature  promptly  rising  from  99'2  to  104-3,  the  pulse 
mounting  from  192  to  315,  the  respirations  from  85  to  105. 

The  sweat  Glands,  f)laced  in  the  subcutaneous  adipose 
tissue,  number  2000  to  3000  on  every  square  inch  of  the 
surface  of  men  and  horses.  Their  activity  is  regulated  by 
the  special  centres  which  are  situated  in  the  spinal  cord. 
The  amount  of  natural  perspiration  depends  mainly  upon 
the  dryness  and  temperature  of  the  air.  Sweating  in 
men  and  horses  begins,  even  Avhile  they  are  at  rest,  at 
a  little  over  80°  Fahr.  It  is  chiefly  determined — (1)  by 
increased  circulation  of  blood  through  the  cutaneous 
vessels ;  and  (2)  by  increased  activity  of  the  sweat  glands. 
The  taking  of  food,  the  drinking  of  warm  water  or  other 
bland  fluids,  the  administration  of  strong  tea  and  coffee, 
and  active  exercise,  by  raising  arterial  pressure  increase 
blood  circulation  through  the  cutaneous  vessels,  and  pro- 
mote perspiration.  The  sweat  glands  are  stimulated  by 
various  aromatic  and  volatile  substances  which  are  excreted 
by  them.  The  sweat  centres  are  stimulated  by  ammonia 
salts,  ipecacuanha,  opium,  camphor,  nicotine,  and  antimony 
salts,  by  mental  emotions  and  nausea,  by  a  venous  condition 
and  high  temperature  of  the  blood,  and  reflexly  by  warmth 
to  the  surface,  warm  drinks,  alcohol,  and  pilocarpine. 

Diaphoretics  and  sudorifics  are  agents  which  increase 
the  skin  secretions.  They  include  (1)  agents  which  stinm- 
late  the  sudoriparous  glands,  or  nerves  connected  with  them, 


DIAPHORETICS  117 

comprising  jaborandi,  physostigmine,  and  warmth  to  the 
surface ;  (2)  agents  which  increase  superficial  blood  supply, 
including  such  vascular  stimulants  as  alcohol,  ethers,  and 
ammonia  acetate  solution,  Taso-dilators  such  as  amyl-nitrite, 
sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  and  such  nauseants  as  ipecacuanha 
and  tartar  emetic.  Diaphoretics  are  less  prompt  and  certain 
in  veterinary  than  in  human  patients.  Horses  are  made 
to  sweat  more  readily  than  cattle,  while  the  skin  of  horses 
and  cattle  is  more  easily  acted  upon  than  that  of  sheep, 
dogs,  cats,  or  pigs.  In  all  animals  the  readiest  way  of  pro- 
moting copious  cutaneous  secretion  is  by  heavy  clothing, 
warm  diluents,  and  keeping  the  animal  in  a  dry  atmosphere 
of  about  70°,  and  administering  small  and  repeated  doses  of 
ammonia  acetate  solution,  or  sweet  spirit  of  nitre.  General 
stimulants  in  small  doses  raise  arterial  pressure,  and  hence 
usually  increase  skin  secretion.  When,  however,  blood- 
pressure  is  high,  as  in  the  early  stages  of  acute  inflammation, 
sedatives,  such  as  aconite,  or  blood-letting,  by  reducing  the 
action  of  the  heart  and  blood-pressure,  notably  increase 
cutaneous  secretion.  Friction  or  grooming  with  suitable 
brushes  beneficially  excites  the  action  of  the  skin  in  all 
animals.  Warm  and  vapour  baths,  at  temperatures  varying 
from  100''  to  120'  Fahr.,  are  useful  diaphoretics. 

Hydrotherapy  affords  a  ready  means  of  producing  dia- 
phoresis in  the  lower  animals,  as  well  as  in  man.  The 
patient  may  be  enveloped  in  a  sheet  saturated  with  either 
cold  or  tepid  water.  Over  this  are  placed  three  or  four 
large  horse-cloths.  The  legs  should  be  subjected  to  similar 
treatment,  or  rolled  in  warm  bandages.  After  the  patient 
has  been  thus  clothed  for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour,  he  will 
steam  and  perspire  very  freely.  The  sheet  and  rugs  should 
then  be  removed,  and  the  animal  dried  by  hand-rubbing, 
and  comfortably  clothed.  This  practice  has  been  success- 
fully adopted  both  with  horses  and  cattle.  The  evil  effects 
of  chills  are  thus  counteracted,  colds  are  cut  short,  and 
rheumatism,  especially  in  gross  subjects,  removed.  Hydro- 
therapy should  not,  however,  be  adopted  unless  with  due 
consideration,  and  under  competent  supervision.  Pro- 
tracted or  violent  diaphoresis,  howsoever  produced,  proves 


118  DIURETICS 

debilitating.  It  rcinoves  from  the  body  an  undue  proportion 
of  its  solids,  and  especially  of  its  saline  matters. 

Diaphoretics  are  used  for  the  following  purposes : — 

(1.)  They  restore  checked  cutaneous  secretion,  and  hence 
equalise  irregularities  of  circulation,  counteract  congestion  of 
internal  organs,  and  lower  abnormal  temperature.  They  are 
hence  often  serviceable  in  cutting  short  chills,  colds,  and 
simple  febrile  attacks,  especially  amongst  horses. 

(2.)  They  remove  injurious  waste  products,  and  other 
morbid  matters,  which  are  apt  to  accumulate,  particularly 
in  febrile,  inflammatory,  and  rheumatic  disorders.  These 
depurative  services  are  especially  valuable  when  the 
eliminating  functions  of  the  kidneys,  bowels,  or  pulmonary 
membrane  are  impaired.  In  such  cases  the  skin  may  be 
made  to  undertake  a  vicarious  duty,  and  excrete  waste 
matters  usually  removed  by  other  channels. 

Anhydrotics  are  drugs  which  lessen  cutaneous  secretion. 
Their  etfects  appear  to  be  induced  (1)  by  diminishing  the 
activity  of  the  sweat  glands  ;  (2)  by  lessening  excitability  of 
the  sweat  centres ;  or  (3)  by  acting  on  the  circulation,  usually 
by  stimulating  the  respiratory  centre,  and  thus  overcoming 
that  venous  condition  of  the  blood  which  in  weakness  and 
disease  is  a  frequent  cause  of  sweating.  It  is  in  this  manner 
that  belladonna  and  atropine,  jaborandi,  ipecacuanha,  nux 
vomica,  and  salts  of  zinc  check  sweating;  but  belladonna 
and  its  alkaloid,  moreover,  are  effective  by  their  paralysing 
the  terminals  of  the  secreting  nerves  of  the  skin. 


MEDICINES   ACTING   ON    THE   URINARY   ORGANS 
ON   THE    Kn>NEYS:    DIURETICS 

Diuretics  are  agents  which  act  on  the  kidneys  and  in- 
crease secretion  of  urine. 

The  amount  of  urine  is  liable  to  much  variation,  depending 
mainly  on  the  nature  of  the  food,  the  quantity  of  water 
drunk,  and  the  proportion  of  fluid  removed  by  the  bowels 
and  skin.     Horses  during  the  twenty-four  hours  pass  from 


CONDITIONS    MODIFYING    SECRETION    OF   URINE       119 

two  quarts  to  two  gallons,  or  on  an  average  about  ten 
pints.  Secretion  is  augmented  during  digestion,  especially 
when  the  diet  is  rich  in  proteids,  by  such  food  as  heated 
oats  or  musty  hay,  and  by  vetches,  particularly  when  animals 
are  unused  to  them.  More  urine  is  passed  during  rest  than 
when  the  horse  at  active  work  is  losing  fluid  freely  by  the 
skin  and  lungs.  Veterinary-Major  Smith,  from  a  series  of 
examinations  of  the  urine  of  horses,  finds  the  specific  gravity 
averages  1036,  and  that  3f  ounces  of  urea  are  excreted  in 
the  twenty-four  hours.  Cattle  j^ass  10  to  40  pints  of  urine 
per  diem,  the  specific  gravity  ranging  from  1007  to  1030. 
Sheep  pass  10  to  30  ounces  of  alkaline  urine  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  1006  to  1015.  Pigs  excrete  3  to  14  pints  of  urine, 
which  may  be  acid  or  alkaline.  The  quantity  of  urine,  15  to 
35  ounces,  excreted  by  the  dog  depends  upon  the  diet  and 
the  size  of  the  animal.  The  specific  gravity  ranges  from 
1016  to  1060. 

The  urinary  secretion  is  increased  by  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions, notably  by  raising  the  pressure  of  blood  in  the 
Malpighian  tufts,  by  cardiac  stimulation,  as  also  by  con- 
traction of  the  blood-vessels  of  other  vascular  areas,  as 
when  cold  diminishes  cutaneous  activity.  Irritation  of  the 
medulla  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle  experimentally 
produced  by  mechanical  injury,  or  naturally  produced  by 
circulation  of  venous  blood,  greatly  increases  secretion,  owing, 
it  is  believed,  to  stimulation  of  the  special  vaso-motor  centre 
which  controls  the  renal  arteries.  Similar  subsidiary  centres 
are  also  found  in  the  spinal  cord,  and  in  connection  with  the 
solar  and  mesenteric  plexuses. 

The  proportion  of  the  several  urinary  constituents  is 
altered  by  different  conditions.  Urea,  uric  acid,  and 
hippuric  acid  are  increased  by  nitrogenous  food,  by 
common  salt,  phosphoric  acid,  leucin,  and  glycocol,  and 
are  also  augmented  during  the  early  stages  of  most  acute 
diseases.  They  are  diminished  by  alcohol,  turpentine, 
arsenic,  and  large  draughts  of  water.  Horses  at  rest  pass 
a  maximum  of  uric  acid  and  a  minimum  of  the  less  per- 
fectly oxidised  hippuric  acid,  but  these  proportions  are 
reversed  during  and  immediately  after  exertion,  when  dis- 


120 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    DIURETICS 


integration  of  albuminoid  tissues  freely  uses  up  oxygen  and 
increases  production  of  carbonic  acid. 

Albumin  is  not  a  normal  constituent  of  urine,  but  occurs 
in  convalescence  from  febrile  disorders,  temporarily  in 
horses  receiving  excess  of  albuminoids,  and  also  in  hoemo- 
globinuria  in  horses,  and  red  water  in  cattle.  It  appears 
Avhere  contraction  of  the  renal  arteries  has  been  induced  by 
digitalis  or  strychnine;  and  is  likewise  produced  by  full 
doses  of  cantharides,  which  also  causes  ha3maturia.  Such 
exudation  of  albumin,  more  apt  to  appear  suddenly  and 
temporarily  in  horses  than  in  man,  is  lessened  by  administra- 
tion of  tannin,  and  by  arbutin,  the  active  principle  of  uva 
ursi,  and  also  by  keeping  the  bowels  and  skin  in  proper 
action,  clothing  the  patient  comfortably,  but  avoiding  active 
diuretics.  Bile  constituents  are  occasionally  found  in  the 
urine  of  the  lower  animals,  but  sugar  is  rarely  present. 

Classifying  diuretics  as  refrigerant,  hydragogue,  and 
stimulant,  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  presents  the  subjoined  tabular 
view  of  their  probable  modes  of  action : — 


Generally. 


Increased  action  of  the 
heart : 


Digitalis 
Alcohol 


Contraction  of  vessels  in  intestines 
and  throughout  the  body  : 


/^Digitalis. 
Erythrophlcjcum. 
Strophanthus. 
Squill. 
Convallaria. 
Strychnine. 
Caffeine. 
Cold  to  surface. 


Raise 
arterial  •< 
pressure 


Locally  in 
kidney. 


Contract  efferent^ 
arterioles  of  glo- 
meruli, so  as  to 
raise  pressure 
in  glomerulus, 
or  lessen  absorp- 
tion in  tubules 
or  both : 


By    action     on]rp, 
vaso  -   motor  V     „         ,  •       , 


centres. 


preceding  list. 


By  local  action"\  Broom, 
on   vessels   or  i  Turpentine, 
nervous struc-  rJuniper. 
tures    in    the    Copaiba, 
kidney  itself.  J  Cantharides. 


Dilate        afferent 
vessels : 


Nitrites. 
Alcohol. 
Urea. 


^Paialysc  vaso- 
motor nerves, 
oriuvoluntary 
muscular  fibre 
or  stimulate 
vaso  -  dilating 
nerves. 

/-Increase  water  ex-fjjj^j^^^ 

Act  on  the  secretory  nerves  *  [Calomel, 

or  secretory   cells  of  the< 

kidney  itself.  I  Increase    solids   ex- f  ^'1"°'' ^^*^''*^^''^- 

inciease   soUds   ex- I  pot_.,sj^i,„n  Acetate,  etc. 

I,     cretea  :  (^Qther  Saline  Diuretics. 


THE    USES    OF   DIURETICS  121 

The  selection  of  a  diuretic  must  in  great  part  depend 
upon  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  given.  A  diuretic  ball, 
commonly  used  for  horses  standing  for  several  days  in  the 
stable,  or  affected  with  swollen  or  itching  legs,  is  made  with 
half  an  ounce  each  of  nitre,  resin,  and  soft  soap,  and  may 
be  repeated  daily  for  four  or  five  days.  The  same  ingredients 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  make  a  diuretic  drink  for  the 
cow.  For  a  medium- sized  dog,  Stonehenge  advises  six 
grams  of  nitre,  a  grain  of  digitalis,  and  three  grains  of 
cringer,  made  into  a  pill  with  linseed  meal  and  water. 
Another  useful  combination  for  dogs  consists  of  thirty 
drops  of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre  and  five  grains  of  saltpetre  in 
a  little  water.  Diuretic  effects  are  best  ensured  by  conjom- 
ing  several  drugs,  by  giving  small  and  repeated  doses,  by 
encouraging  the  animal  to  drink  water,  thin  gruel,  or  other 
bland  fluids,  and  otherwise  promoting  excretion  of  the 
medicine  by  the  kidneys  rather  than  by  the  skin  or  bowels. 
Diuretics  are  used — 

(1.)  To  increase  the  proportion  of  water  in  the  urine, 
thus  preventing  deposition  of  its  solids  in  the  kidneys  or 
bladder,  and  mechanically  washing  out  such  solids  when 
they  have  been  formed.  Along  with  medicinal  diuretics, 
diluents  in  such  cases  are  freely  supplied. 

(2.)  To  hasten  expulsion  of  waste  products  and  poisonous 
matters  from  the  body,  as  in  febrile  or  rheumatic  disorders, 
or  where  the  kidneys  are  acting  tardily.  In  these,  as  in 
other  cases,  a  combination  of  diuretics  is  desirable,  and 
digitahs,  turpentine,  or  oil  of  juniper  is  often  usefully 
conjoined  with  nitre.  In  human  practice  caffeine  is  pre- 
scribed. 

(3.)  To  remove  excess  of  fluid  from  the  tissues  or  serous 
cavities.  When  dropsy  is  connected  with  cardiac  disorder, 
digitahs,  and  other  drugs  which  act  on  the  vascular  system, 
are  indicated,  their  efficacy  being  rendered  more  certain  by 
combination  with  some  salme  diuretic,  such  as  nitre. 
Copaiba  is  added  to  the  prescription  when  the  liver  is 
affected.  In  dropsy  connected  with  chronic  kidney  disease, 
nitrous  ether  and  oil  of  juniper  are  preferred ;  but  they  should 
be  used  with  extreme  caution. 


122  URINARY   DEPOSITS 

Calomel  augments  secretion  of  urea,  and  hence  promotes 
secretion  of  urine.  In  excessive  or  too  frequently  repeated 
doses  diuretics  are  apt  unduly  to  stimulate  the  kidneys  and 
urinary  organs,  and  provoke  strangury,  inflammation  and 
hajmaturia.  In  cystitis,  urethral  disease,  or  obstruction,  to 
prevant  alkaline  decomposition  of  the  urine,  antiseptics, 
benzoic  and  salicylic  acids,  citrates  and  tartrates  are 
prescribed. 

MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  BLADDER 

LITHONTRIPTICS — URINARY   SEDATIVES,  TONICS,   AND 
ASTRINGENTS 

The  movements  of  the  urinary  bladder  are  mainly  regu- 
lated by  a  centre  in  the  lumbar  portion  of  the  spinal  cord, 
but  in  all  the  higher  animals  there  is  also  a  presiding  centre 
in  the  brain,  which  may  be  set  in  action  either  voluntarily 
or  reflexly.  Most  drugs  influencing  the  bladder  appear, 
however,  to  come  into  actual  contact  with  it,  and  produce 
their  effects  reflexly.  Some  horses  will  not  urinate  while  in 
harness ;  others  will  not  while  the  rider  is  in  the  saddle.  As 
with  other  animals,  the  desire  to  urinate  is  suggested,  and 
the  act  facilitated,  by  seeing  or  hearing  other  animals  stal- 
ing, or  even  by  the  sound  of  flowing  water.  If,  as  is  often 
the  case,  the  horse  is  in  the  habit  of  being  whistled  to  when 
urinating,  the  act  will  be  encouraged  by  whistling  to  him. 

Hard-fed  and  hard- worked  horses  are  liable  to  suffer  from 
urinary  deposits,  which  arc  sometimes  found  in  the  kidney, 
but  more  commonly  in  the  bladder,  and  in  male  animals 
in  the  tract  of  the  long  urethra.  In  horses,  as  in  other 
herbivora,  urinary  deposits  consist  mainly  of  calcium  and 
magnesium  salts,  sometimes  derived  directly  from  drinking 
water,  from  earthy  matters  mixed  with  fodder  or  grain,  or 
from  lime  salts,  abundant  in  clovers  and  other  fodder,  which 
unite  with  the  carbonates  produced  by  oxidation  of  the 
vegetable  acids  also  present  in  the  food.  These  calcareous 
deposits  are  sometimes  in  a  finely-divided  pulverulent 
state;  sometimes  they  are  aggregated  into  masses  or  calculi. 
Whether  occurring  as  sediment,  gravel,  or  stone,  they  cause 


PREVENTION  OF   URINARY   DEPOSITS  123 

more  or  less  difficulty,  straining,  and  pain  in  urination ;  the 
stream  is  interrupted,  and  from  irritation  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  passage  the  urine  usually  contains  excess 
of  mucus ;  while  the  portions  last  discharged  are  often 
turbid.  When  such  symptoms  are  caused  by  a  calculus  in 
the  bladder,  medical  treatment  is  unavailing.  No  medicine 
can  be  safely  given  in  sufficient  amount  or  sufficiently  con- 
centrated to  dissolve  calcareous  urinary  deposits  within  the 
body.  Hence  a  stone  which  cannot  be  naturally  discharged 
can  only  be  removed  by  a  surgical  operation.  When  small 
it  may  be  extracted  by  lithotomy;  when  large  or  of 
awkward  shape,  it  should  be  crushed  and  removed  in 
pieces.  Calcareous  sediment  can  usually  be  got  rid  of  in 
great  part,  or  entirely,  by  giving  liberal  supplies  of  barley 
water,  linseed  tea,  or  other  diluents ;  or  with  a  syringe  and 
flexible  catheter  the  bladder  inay  be  filled  with  tepid  water, 
and  deposits  thus  washed  out.  Successive  quantities  of 
w\ater  may  be  introduced  until  they  come  away  tolerably 
clear. 

LiTHONTRiPTics  are  defined  as  remedies  which  prevent 
deposit  of  solids  from  the  urine,  or  cause  their  resolution. 
In  veterinary  patients,  as  already  indicated,  they  cannot 
resolve  calculi,  although  they  may  mechanicall}^  remove 
them,  and  may  check  their  formation.  Such  preventive 
treatment  in  the  case  of  horses  mainly  consists  in  furnish- 
ing abundant,  regular,  and  pure  supplies  of  drinking  water. 
Waters  rich  in  calcareous  matters  are  theoretically  more 
liable  to  deposit  such  earthy  constituents,  especiall}^  under 
conditions  where  their  carbonic  anhydride  is  diminished.  A 
weekly  mash,  containing  any  simple  saline,  somewhat  lessens 
the  tendency  to  these  urinary  deposits;  and  it  is  further 
important  to  remove  conditions  which  interfere  with  regular 
urination  or  any  obstruction  to  the  outflow.  It  is  accord- 
ingly advisable,  from  time  to  time,  to  vrash  out  the  horse's 
sheath  with  soap  and  tepid  water,  and  thus  get  rid  of 
accumulating  sabulous  matter. 

Bulls  and  oxen,  and  still  more  frequentl}^  rams  and 
wethers,  when  liberally  supplied  with  albuminoid  food,  and 
having  little  or  no  exercise,  are  liable  to  deposits,  chiefly  ot 


124  VESICAL    SEDATIVES    AND    TONICS 

ammonio-magnesian  phosphates,  in  the  bladder  and  curved 

or  tortuous  uretlira.  Amongst  feeding  sheep,  fatal  uraiinic 
poisoning  may  thus  be  produced.  The  patients  must  be 
turned  up,  and  endeavour  made  by  manipulation  to  displace 
the  deposits  which  block  the  urethra.  Where  these  means 
fail  to  effect  a  passage,  the  vermiform  appendage  may  be 
excised,  or  the  canal  may  be  opened,  when  a  full  stream 
of  urine  will  be  discharged,  and  with  it  a  considerable 
amount  of  deposit.  Prevention  is  effected  by  withholding 
or  reducing  the  allowance  of  cake  and  corn,  supplying  soft 
laxative  food,  raising  the  sheep  and  moving  them  about  at 
least  thrice  daily,  so  as  to  encourage  urination,  and  by 
prescribing  potassium  bicarbonate. 

Dogs,  when  freely  eating  animal  food,  suffer  occasionally 
from  deposits  of  uric  acid  and  acid  urates,  the  tendency  to 
which  is  combated  by  suitable  diet,  diluents,  and  salts  of 
potassium  and  lithium,  both  of  which  form  soluble  salts  with 
uric  acid,  but  the  lithium  having  a  lower  atomic  weight, 
unites  with  a  larger  proportion  of  uric  acid. 

Vesical  and  Urinary  Sedatives  are  agents  which  lessen 
irritability  of  the  bladder  and  urinary  passages,  and  thus 
remove  straining  and  pain.  Dikients,  such  as  linseed  tea  or 
other  nuicilaginous  drinks,  are  often  serviceable.  Irritability 
when  caused  by  the  presence  of  calculi  is  diminished  by 
administering  calcium  carbonate,  and  when  due  to  acidity  of 
the  urine  alkalies  are  beneficial.  In  cystitis,  rugs  Avrung  out 
of  hot  water  and  laid  over  the  loins,  and  hot  fomentations  to 
the  perineum,  afford  much  relief  Irritability  of  the  nerve- 
centres  is  soothed  by  opium,  belladonna,  and  hyoscyamus. 
Chronic  inflammatory  conditions  are  relieved  by  such  astrin- 
gents as  uva  ursi,  buchu,  and  Pareira  brava.  Copaiba,  sandal- 
wood oil,  and  terpenes  are  excreted  in  considerable  amount 
by  the  kidneys,  and  exert  their  antiseptic  and  astringent 
effects  throughout  the  urino-genital  tract.  Relaxed  and 
hfemorrhagic  conditions  may  be  treated  by  sulphuric  acid 
and  iron  sulphate,  alternated  by  salicylic  acid. 

Vesical  and  Urinary  Tonics  are  agents  which  increase  the 
contractility  of  the  bladder.  Strychnine  and  cantharides 
strengthen  the  sphincter  muscle  and  thus  prevent  involun- 


APHRODISIACS  125 

tary  escape  of  urine.     Belladona  acts  upon  tlie  regulating 
nerve-centres,  and  is  believed  to  lessen  their  sensibility. 


MEDICINES  ACTING  ON  THE  ORGANS  OF  GENERA- 
TION AND  THE  MAMMARY  GLANDS 

APHRODISIACS— ANAPHRODISIACS — ECBOLICS,  OR  OXYTOCICS 

The  sexual  function  is  regulated  by  two  nerve-centres 
which  influence  and  react  on  each  other. 

(1.)  The  cerebral  is  believed  to  lie  in  the  crus  cerebri,  is 
stimulated  reflexly  by  the  special  nerve  of  smell,  sight,  or 
hearing.  (2.)  The  spinal  centre,  situated  in  the  lumbar 
region,  regulates  the  vascular  supply  of  the  erectile  genital 
tissues.  Irritation  of  this  centre  causes  turgid  rigidity. 
Erection  is  also  produced  reflexly  by  local  stimulation  of  the 
genital  organs,  as  well  as  by  irritation  of  the  bladder,  prostate, 
and  lower  intestines. 

Aphrodisiacs  are  agents  which  increase  sexual  desire. 
Deflcient  sexual  activity  usually  depends  upon  want  of 
general  vio-our,  and  the  rational  treatment  consists  in 
the  administration  of  tonics — notably  of  iron  and  of  strych- 
nine, which  latter,  in  addition  to  its  general  action  as  a 
nervme  tonic,  has  also  a  special  effect  in  stimulating  the 
sexual  centres.  Cantharides  exerts  aphrodisiac  influences 
mainly  by  irritating  the  urinary  mucous  membrane,  and 
hence  is  an  unsafe  remedy.  Alcohol,  although  stimulating 
the  cerebral  sexual  centre,  appears  to  paralyse  the  lumbar 
vaso-motor  centres,  and  hence  interferes  wdth  the  proper 
performance  of  the  generative  act. 

Anapkrodisiacs  are  agents  w^hich  diminish  the  sexual  pas- 
sion. Some,  as  applications  of  ice,  or  cold  water,  act  locally 
on  the  organs  themselves ;  others,  as  potassium  iodide,  and 
bromide,  purgatives,  digitalis,  and  hemlock,  act  generally  on 
the  genital  nerve  centres.  A  spare  diet  and  steady  work 
exert  anaphrodisiac  effects.  Irritation  of  the  genital  lumbar 
plexus  is  produced  reflexly  by  distension  of  the  bladder  with 
acrid  urine,  by  accumulation  of  filth  around  the  prepuce,  by 
ascarides,  and  even  by  fgeces  m  the  rectum.     Removal  of 


12G  AGENTS    AFFECTING    SECRETION    OF   MILK 

such  causes    of    irritation    accordingly   diminishes    undue 
sexual  excitement. 

EcBOLics. — The  involuntary  muscular  fibres  of  the  uterus 
have  the  power  of  rhythmical  contraction,  hut  are  besides 
controlled  by  higher  nerve-centres  in  the  lumbar  portion  of 
the  cord,  and  in  the  brain.  Experiments  have  demonstrated 
that  stimulation  of  the  cerebellum,  crura  cerebri,  corpora 
striata,  and  optic  thalami  produces  uterine  contractions. 

Ecbolics  cause  expulsion  of  the  contents  of  the  uterus. 
They  include  ergot,  hydrastis,  savin,  and  thuja;  but  ergot  is 
the  only  one  in  general  use.  It  induces  uterine  contractions 
even  when  all  nervous  connections  have  been  divided,  but  it 
also  acts  on  the  special  centre.  It  is  occasionally  used  in 
veterinary  patients — particularly  in  the  bitch — to  hasten  par- 
turition when  no  obstruction  is  jiresent,  but  when  expulsive 
power  is  deficient.  As  it  induces  persistent  contraction  of 
the  uterus,  with  consequent  arrest  of  placental  circulation,  it 
must  be  used  sparingly  and  cautiously  during  parturition.  It 
is  serviceable,  however,  subsequently  in  promoting  contrac- 
tion and  checking  hemorrhage.  Prompt  contraction  of  the 
flaccid  uterus,  with  arrest  of  dangerous  bleeding,  is  best 
secured  by  subcutaneous  injection  of  ergotin,  and  also  by 
injection  of  warm  water. 

The  local  irritation  of  metritis  and  leucorrha^a  can  be 
relieved  by  injection  of  warm  water,  which  is  rendered  still 
more  eftectual  by  addition  of  Condy's  fluid,  creolin,  or  car- 
bolic acid.  Suppositories  of  opium  and  belladonna  may  be 
subsequently  introduced. 

Agents  acting  on  the  Mammary  Glands. — A  full  stream 
of  healthy  blood  passing  through  the  mammary  glands  is 
essential  to  the  abundant  secretion  of  good  milk.  Animals 
which  are  to  milk  well  must  accordingly  be  well  fed.  Their 
diet  must  contain  a  sufficient  proportion  especially  of  albumi- 
noids and  fatty  matters,  Avhich  furnish  the  casein  and  cream 
of  the  milk.  There  are  no  drugs  of  much  practical  value 
as  galactagogues,  or  increasers  of  milk.  Jaborandi  exerts 
only  a  temporary  ett'ect.  Many  drugs,  however,  pass  into  the 
milk,  communicating  to  it  their  flavour  and  medicinal  pro- 
perties.    Ether-oils  promptly  taste  the  milk  of  any  animal 


TREATMENT    OF    DISEASES    OF    THE   UDDER         127 

to  which  the}'  are  given.  Fixed  oils  and  salines  administered 
to  milking  mothers,  purge  the  sucking  offspring.  Acids, 
diuretics,  opiates,  potassium  iodide,  arsenic,  and  other  active 
drugs  given  to  suckling  mothers  frequently  exhibit  notable 
effects  on  their  susceptible  progeny. 

By  careful  selection  of  good  milking  breeds,  and  by  suit- 
able management,  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  first-class 
dairy  cows  is  many  times  that  obtained  from  cattle  in  their 
natural  or  semi-feral  state,  which  furnish  only  sufficient  for 
the  rearing  of  one  calf  But  the  highly  developed  mammary 
organs  of  these  improved  dairy  animals  become  increasingly 
susceptible  to  disease,  and  less  amenable  to  treatment. 
Acute  inflammation  frequently  attacks  the  udder,  causing 
much  constitutional  disturbance,  and  necessitating  the 
administration  of  purgatives,  febrifuges,  and  antiseptics.  In 
order  to  relieve  its  weight,  the  inflamed  udder  should  be 
suspended  by  a  broad  web  passed  over  the  loins,  and  pro- 
vided with  holes  for  the  teats.  The  web  will  conveniently 
support  the  light  poultice  of  spent  hops,  which  is  often 
advantageously  applied.  A  teat-syphon  is  generally  useful 
to  withdraw  the  milk  or  exudate,  and  to  introduce  disinfec- 
ants.  The  inflamed  parts  are  dressed  with  belladonna,  which 
paralyses  the  terminations  of  the  nerves,  and  diminishes 
lacteal  secretion ;  and  also  relieves  tension,  and  relaxes  the 
sphincters  of  the  teats.  These  desirable  results  are  some- 
times obtained  by  the  hypodermic  injection  of  atropine. 

With  the  view  of  hastening  the  drying  of  cows,  belladonna 
is  sometimes  applied  topically  to  the  udder,  and  is  also 
administered ;  but  the  desired  object  is  more  practically 
attained  by  restricting  the  cow  to  dry  food,  milking  her  at 
gradually  lengthening  intervals,  and,  where  the  result  has  to 
be  quickly  secured,  giving  a  dose  of  purgative  medicine. 


1 28  KESTORATIVES 


REMEDIES    ACTING    ON    TISSUE    CHANGE 

RESTORATIVES — TONICS — HiEMATINICS — ALTERATIVES — 
ANTIPYRETICS — BLOOD-LETTING 

The  various  structures  of  healthy  animal  bodies  are  con- 
tinually undergoing  reconstruction,  change,  and  devolution. 
Fresh  materials  or  restoratives,  in  sufficient  abundance,  and 
containing  in  suitable  proportion  the  constituents  of  the 
several  tissues,  are  required.  By  digestion  and  assimilation, 
the  food  materials  are  prepared  for  their  special  uses.  But 
these  complex  nutritive  processes  sometimes  become  de- 
ranged. Some  fault  occurs  in  the  digestive  snzymes ;  some 
want  of  activity  or  co-relation  overtakes  the  presiding  nervous 
centres;  some  delay  takes  place  in  the  prompt  and  effectual 
removal  of  waste  products  by  the  bowels,  kidneys,  or  skin. 
Hence  arise  muscular  and  nervous  depression,  expressed  by 
dulness,  debility,  and  diminished  capacity  for  exertion.  For 
such  weakened,  relaxed,  unfit  conditions,  the  appropriate 
remedies  are  tonics.  Within  the  living  organs  and  tissues 
themselves,  further  subtle  reparative  processes  constantly 
occur,  and  certain  drugs,  termed  alteratives,  modify  these 
remoter  tissue  changes  in  a  manner  not  fully  understood. 
The  maintenance  of  a  tolerably  uniform  temperature  is 
essential  tc  the  performance  of  normal  tissue  changes  in 
warm-blooded  animals.  In  fever,  however,  the  temperature 
is  increased,  and  the  remedies  employed  for  its  reduction  are 
antipyretics,  or  febrifuges. 

Restoratives. — The  bodies  of  all  animals,  especially  when 
at  work,  undergo  disintegration  and  waste,  and  their  growth 
,and  repair  hence  require  continual  recuperation.  Food 
must  bo  provided  in  sufficient  amount,  of  suitable  quality, 
and  with  its  several  constituents  in  fitting  proportion,  to 
furnish  appropriate  nutriment  for  every  tissue.  Water, 
which  constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  total  weight  of  most 
animals,  is  being  constantly  removed  by  the  lungs,  skin, 
kidneys,  and  intestines,  and,  unless  restored  at  short  intervals, 
thirst  and  impaired  health  ensue.  Kot  only  are  water  and 
v;atery  fluids  requisite  for  the  normal  nutrition  of  the  tissues, 


DIETING    OF    SICK    ANIMALS  129 

and  for  dissolving  and  carrying  away  their  waste  products, 
but  in  sick  animals  tliey  besides  assist  the  removal  of  the 
products  of  disease.  Even  more  imperative  is  the  need  of 
pure  air  to  oxygenate  the  blood,  maintain  internal  respira- 
tion and  normal  tissue  change,  and  remove  waste  products. 
Animals  require,  either  in  the  form  of  food  or  as  restora- 
tive medicines,  varying  supplies  of  many  constituents — 
phosphorus,  specially  for  blood,  bone,  brain,  and  nerves; 
sulphur,  for  the  skin  and  bile  acids;  fats,  for  cell-growth 
generally;  iron,  for  the  blood  globules;  salines,  for  the 
healthy  restoration  of  the  blood  and  most  other  parts. 

These  requirements,  essential  in  health,  are  even  more 
important  in  animals  affected  by  disease.  Food  then 
requires  to  be  given  with  especial  care,  and  in  an  easily 
disfested  form,  for  in  all  serious  diseases  the  dio;estive  func- 
tions  are  impaired.  In  many  febrile  complaints,  of  horses 
and  cattle,  the  ordinary  grains  and  dry  fodder,  being  imper- 
fectly digested  and  assimilated,  are  apt  to  produce  or  aggra- 
vate gastric  derangement.  Animals  suffering  from  febrile 
and  inflammatory  disorders  should  therefore  be  restricted  to 
mashes,  gruels,  or  cooked  food,  to  which  extra  nutritive  value 
can  be  given  as  required  by  addition  of  milk,  eggs,  or  meat 
extracts.  Food  should  never  be  allowed  to  lie  long  before  a 
sick  animal.  If  not  piomptly  eaten,  it  should  be  removed, 
and  in  a  couple  of  hours,  or  less  time,  replaced  by  a  fresh 
supply.  During  and  after  attacks  of  debilitating  diseases 
patients  fed,  as  they  should  be,  on  small  quantities  of  rapidly- 
digested  fare,  obviously  require  food  more  frequently  than 
in  health.  With  returning  appetite  a  convalescent  occa- 
sionally greedily  eats  more  than  can  be  easily  digested,  and 
against  this  contingency  well-intentioned  attendants  require 
to  be  warned.  Relapses  of  colic  and  lymphangitis  sometimes 
occur  by  allowing  horses,  immediately  after  recovery,  their 
full  allowance  of  dry  corn  and  hay. 

Unless  when  affected  with  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  or  diabetes, 
animals  do  not  injure  themselves  by  taking  too  much  water 
or  watery  fluids,  but  are  often  rendered  uncomfortable  by 
undue  restriction.  A  supply  of  water  should  always  be 
within  the  patient's  reach.     Cold  water  seldom  does  harm, 

I 


130  HYGIENIC   REMEDIES 

and  is  more  palatable  and  refreshing  than  when  tepid. 
Salines,  chalk,  and  other  simple  medicines,  sometimes  given 
with  the  water  offered  to  sick  horses,  should  be  sparingly 
added,  or  administered  in  some  other  way. 

Much  mismanagement  occurs  with  regard  to  the  ventila- 
tion and  temperature  of  the  habitations  of  sick  animals. 
Even  for  horses  or  cattle  accustomed  to  comfortable  boxes, 
a  temperature  of  60°  to  65°  Fahr.  is  sufficiently  warm. 
Avoiding  draughts,  cool  air  should  be  freely  admitted.  No 
restorative  or  tonic  is  so  effectual  as  cool,  pure  air,  and  it  is 
especially  needful  in  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs  and 
in  zymotic  cases.  Sunlight  is  also  an  essential  factor  of 
health,  especially  in  young  animals.  It  increases  the  capa- 
city of  the  blood  and  tissues  for  oxygen,  favours  healthy 
excretion,  and  is  an  excellent  disinfectant. 

A  comfortable  bed  greatly  conduces  to  the  restoration  of 
most  sick  animals.  A  sick,  exhausted  horse,  who  to  his  dis- 
advantage would  continue  to  stand  if  kept  in  a  stall,  will 
often  at  once  lie  down  and  rest  if  placed  in  a  comfortable 
box.  In  febrile  and  inflammatory  attacks,  and  during 
recovery  from  exhausting  disease,  alike  in  horses  and  cattle, 
a  warm  rug  or  two,  and  bandages  to  the  legs,  help  to  main- 
tain equable  temperature  and  combat  congestion  of  internal 
organs ;  but  at  least  twice  daily  these  rugs  and  bandages 
should  be  removed,  the  skin  wisped  over,  and  the  clothing 
at  once  replaced.  In  fever,  when  the  skin  is  hot  and  dry, 
great  comfort  results,  a  natural  moist  state  of  skin  is  secured, 
and  more  active  blood  purification  and  restoration  ensue, 
from  sponging  the  body  several  times  a  day  with  tepid 
water  acidulated  with  vinegar,  quickly  drying,  and  at  once 
putting  on  the  clothing. 

Attention  to  the  position  of  the  patient  is  frequently 
important  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  The  debilitated 
horse  allowed  to  lie  long  on  his  side  is  apt  to  suffer  from 
congested  lungs.  The  horse  with  severely  injured  knees  is 
advantageously  placed  in  slings.  The  cow,  in  the  uncon- 
scious stage  of  milk  fever,  if  permitted  to  lie  on  her  side, 
speedily  becomes  tympanitic,  and  her  chances  of  recovery 
arc  seriously  impaired.     In  this  and  other  cases,  in  which 


MECHANICAL    AND    PHYSIOLOGICAL   REST  131 

she  has  to  lie  even  for  a  few  hours,  she  must  be  propped  up 
m  a  natural  position  on  her  breast-bone. 

Mechanical  and  physiological  rest  are  great  restoratives. 
The  pain  accompanying  most  injuries  and  diseases,  and 
greatly  aggravated  by  performance  of  the  natural  functions 
of  the  part,  instinctively  enjoins  as  much  rest  as  possible. 
Mechanical  rest  is  frequently  secured  by  splints  and  bandages, 
applied  in  all  animals  in  cases  of  fractures  of  long  bones  of 
the  limbs,  and  serious  muscular  and  tendinous  strains. 
Slings  are  also  of  similar  service  in  horses  suffering  from 
fractures,  open  joint,  and  occasionally  in  laminitis.  An 
inflamed  part,  when  practicable,  should  be  raised  above  the 
level  of  surrounding  parts.  Any  pressure  likely  to  interfere 
with  circulation  should  be  removed.  To  relieve  irritation, 
pressure,  and  tension,  the  inflamed  udder  of  the  cow  is 
suspended.  In  irritable  and  inflammatory  states  of  the 
digestive  organs,  the  simplest  and  most  digestible  food  is 
given,  and  as  little  action  as  possible  exacted  from  the 
stomach  and  bowels.  When  the  kidneys  are  diseased,  their 
work  should  be  lightened,  by  promoting  the  action  of  the 
skin  and  bowels.  Emollients  and  demulcents,  as  well  as 
opium,  belladonna,  and  other  agents  which  paralyse  the 
endings  of  sensory  nerves,  exert  their  curative  effects  mainly 
by  ensuring  physiological  rest.  But  when  acute  disease  has 
passed  away,  the  gradual  use  of  an  affected  part  generally 
does  good.  Exercise  in  such  circumstances  proves  a  health 
restorer,  improving  appetite,  and  stimulating  most  of  the 
bodily  functions. 

The  medicinal  restoratives  in  common  use  are  as  follows : 
Linseed,  in  the  form  of  gruel,  tea,  or  cake,  proves  a  soothing, 
palatable,  digestible  laxative  combination  of  food  and  medi- 
cine. Cod-liver  oil,  especially  in  dogs  and  cats,  conveniently 
supplies  assimilable  fatty  matters.  Iron  salts,  possessing 
tonic  and  hfematinic,  as  well  as  restorative  properties,  are 
specially  serviceable  in  anaemia ;  phosphates  are  prescribed 
for  ill-thriving,  weakly  young  animals ;  salines  are  indicated 
in  skin  eruptions  and  itching,  often  met  with  amongst  hard- 
worked,  liberally-fed  horses;  pepsin,  liquor  pancreatis,  and 
malt  extract,  are  sometimes  administered  to  foals,  dogs,  and 


132  TONICS 

calves,  when  the  natural  digestive  ferments  are  deficient  or 
faulty.     Kreochyle  is  an  excellent  restorative  for  dogs. 

Tonics. — When  digestion  is  enfeebled,  nutrition  impaired, 
circulation  languid,  or  waste  products  not  promptly  removed, 
there  is  apt  to  ensue  weakness,  want  of  energy,  and  unfitness 
for  Avork — conditions  treated  for  the  most  part  by  tonics. 
They  are  defined  as  remedies  which  impart  tone  or  strength 
to  the  parts  on  which  they  specially  act.  They  are  allied  to 
nutrients  and  restoratives.  They  resemble  stimulants ;  but 
their  effects  are  more  slowly  and  gradually  produced,  are 
more  permanent,  and  not  succeeded  by  subsequent  depression. 
While  stimulants  usually  call  forth  strength  previously  latent, 
tonics  frequently  give  strength.  They  are  also  allied  to 
astringents,  but  do  not  exhibit  the  same  chemical  power  of 
coagulating  albumin  and  constringing  tissues.  The  same 
drugs,  in  different  doses,  often  appear,  however,  in  two  or 
more  of  these  classes.  Alcohol,  for  example,  is  nutrient, 
tonic,  and  stimulant.  Iron  salts,  according  to  their  dose  and 
the  state  of  the  patient,  are  nutrient,  tonic,  and  astringent, 
but,  used  improperly,  are  sometimes  irritant. 

Tonics  exert  their  curative  effects  in  one  or  more  of  the 
following  ways : — 

1.  By  influencing  primary  digestion,  usually  increasing 
gastric  secretion.  Gentian,  calumba,  chiretta,  and  other 
bitters  are  chiefly  serviceable  as  gastric  stimulants  or 
stomachics. 

2.  By  promoting  secondary  digestion,  thus  improving  the 
chemical  and  physiological  condition  of  the  blood,  secretions, 
and  tissues.  The  most  important  members  of  this  class  are 
hfEmatinics,  noticed  below. 

3.  By  acting  on  other  special  organs  and  structures,  notably 
on  the  heart,  nervous  centres,  or  liver. 

In  using  tonics  it  is  accordingly  essential  to  discover  what 
part  or  organ  is  primarily  and  chiefly  at  fault.  When  diges- 
tion is  enfeebled,  gastric  or  intestinal  tonics  are  prescribed. 
When  the  pulse  is  soft  and  weak,  with  a  tendency  to  local 
congestion  and  oedema,  cardiac  and  vascular  tonics  are  used. 
When  nervous  functions  are  imperfectly  performed,  nervine 
tonics  are  appropriate.     In  the  early  stages  of  tuberculous 


ALTERATIVES   INFLUENCE   METABOLISM  133 

disease  of  the  mesenteric  glands,  in  cattle  and  horses,  copper 
sulphate  is  often  useful,  probably  on  account  alike  of  its 
tonic  and  antiseptic  properties.  Cold,  in  the  form  of  baths, 
douches,  and  sponging,  proves  a  valuable  tonic,  applicable  for 
general  as  well  as  local  purposes,  relieving  irritability,  bracing 
up  soft,  flabby  textures,  and  equalising  circulation. 

H^MATiNics,  or  blood  tonics,  constitute  an  important  group 
of  tonics,  which  increase  the  quantity  of  red  corpuscles  and 
haemoglobin  in  the  blood.  '  The  red  blood  corpuscles  are 
probably  formed  in  the  spleen,  the  medulla  of  bones,  the 
liver,  and  possibly  other  parts  of  the  body,  from  leucocytes, 
which  lose  their  nucleus,  take  up  haemoglobin,  and  alter  their 
form  to  that  of  the  red  corpuscles'  (Brunton).  These  red 
corpuscles  are  in  great  part  destroyed  in  the  liver  and  spleen, 
and  it  hence  appears  probable  that  disorder  of  these  organs  is 
an  essential  cause  of  anaemia,  which  is  very  common  amongst 
badly  reared  young  animals.  In  order  to  restore  iron  and 
fatty  matters  which  are  deficient  in  ansemic  blood,  daily  doses 
of  soluble  iron  salts  are  prescribed,  while  easily  assimilated 
fatty  matters,  such  as  boiled  linseed,  or  linseed  cake,  are 
given  to  horses  and  cattle,  and  cod-liver  oil  to  dogs.  An 
improvement  of  general  health  is  further  effected  by  judi- 
cious feeding  and  comfortable  quarters.  The  anaemia  result- 
ing from  debilitating  disease  requires  similar  treatment.  To 
ensure  their  good  effects,  tonics  are  generally  given  in 
moderate  doses,  two  or  three  times  daily,  for  six  or  eight 
days,,  and  throughout  their  administration  the  bowels  should 
be  kept  in  a  normal  state. 

Alteratives  are  drugs  which  influence  the  amount  and 
kind  of  tissue  change  going-  on  in  different  organs  and 
cells.  Their  results  are  usually  readily  recognised,  but  the 
way  in  which  they  are  produced  is  difficult  to  explain.  '  They 
produce  no  marked  corresponding  changes  in  assimilation, 
circulation,  or  excretion.  It  is  uncertain  how  thoy  act ;  it  is 
possible  that  they  may  alter  in  some  way  the  action  of 
enzymes  in  the  body,  but  it  is  also  possible  that  they 
act  by  replacing  the  normal  constituents  of  the  tissues,  and 
forming  compounds  which  tend  to  break  up  in  a  different 
way  from  those  which  are  ordinarily  present.    Thus,  chloride 


134  MODIFY   TISSUE   CHANGE 

of  sodium,  and  nitrogenous  bodies  such  as  albumin  are 
amongst  the  most  important  constituents  of  the  body ;  and 
W(B  find  that  among  the  chief  alteratives  are  substances 
Avhich  will  replace  chlorine,  sodium,  or  nitrogen  in  many 
compounds.  Thus,  we  have  iodine  and  iodides,  and  nitric 
and  nitro-hydrochloric  acids,  which  will  displace  or  replace 
chlorine.  We  have  chlorine  itself,  and  chlorides,  which  may 
alter  the  proportion  of  the  chlorides  to  other  salts  in  the 
blood  and  tissues,  and  thus  modify  the  solubility  of  various 
constituents  of  the  tissues.  AVe  have  salts  of  potassium  and 
calcium,  which  may  replace  those  of  sodium ;  sulphur  and 
sulphides,  which  may  replace  oxygen ;  phosphorus,  hypo- 
sulphites, antimon}',  and  arsenic,  Avhich  may  replace  nitro- 
gen; mercury  and  its  salts,  which  may  replace  calcium. 
Besides  these,  we  have  organic  alteratives,  regarding  the 
action  of  which  we  can  at  present  form  no  hypothesis,  unless 
they  influence  the  processes  of  digestion.  Nitro-hydrochloric 
acid,  taraxacum,  and  small  doses  of  mercurials  probably 
act  either  by  modifying  the  digestion  of  food  in  the  duo- 
denum and  jejunum,  or  by  modifying  the  changes  Avhich 
it  undergoes  in  the  liver  after  absorption '  {Pharmacology, 
Therapeutics,  and  Materia  Meclica). 

Sodium  chloride,  sulphate,  phosphate,  acetate,  and  biborate, 
potassium  nitrate,  ammonium  chloride  and  carbonate,  and 
probably  all  salts  excreted  by  the  kidneys,  increase  tissue 
change  and  the  amount  of  urea  excreted.  Fats  and  fatty 
acids  lessen  decomposition  of  albuminoids  and  excretion  of 
urea,  but  glycerin  has  no  such  action.  Alcohol,  in  small  or 
moderate  doses,  lessens,  and  in  large  doses  increases  tissue 
change.  Benzoic  and  salicylic  acids  increase  tissue  change. 
Quinine  lessens,  iron  appears  to  increase  it.  Mercury  also 
causes  a  slight  increase,  but  has  a  peculiar  power  of  breaking 
up  new  deposits  of  fibrin,  and  hence  is  used  to  remove  lymph 
deposits  and  prevent  adhesions.  Iodine,  iodides,  and  pro- 
bably also  chlorides,  apparently  act  on  the  lymphatic  system, 
promoting  absorption.  Potassium  iodide  arrests  the  progress 
of  actinomycosis.  In  general  malnutrition,  without  definite 
symptoms,  mercurials,  nitro-hydrochloric  acid,  and  taraxa- 
cum arc  indicated,  and  especially  when  the  liver  appears  to 


ANTIPYRETICS    LESSEN   PRODUCTION   OF   HEAT        135 

be  at  fault.  Antimony,  arsenic,  and  phosphorus  exert  their 
actions  notably  on  the  glandular,  nervous,  respiratory,  and 
cutaneous  systems,  and  large  or  continued  doses  affect  the 
liver  in  a  marked  manner,  producing  fatty  degeneration. 
Antimony  is  prescribed  in  acute  disorders  of  the  respiratory 
organs;  arsenic,  in  chronic  consolidations,  which  it  probably 
softens,  by  fatty  degeneration.  Arsenic  is  also  employed  in 
chronic  skin  diseases,  such  as  psoriasis,  lichen,  and  eczema. 
Phosphorus  and  arsenic  are  prescribed  in  nervous  debility. 

Antipyretics  lower  the  temperature  of  the  body  in  fever. 
They  are  sometimes  termed  antithermals,  and  correspond  to 
the  old  group  of  febrifuges.  Their  effects  are  more  notable 
when  the  temperature  is  abnormally  high.  Animal  heat  is 
chiefly  produced  by  oxidation,  in  the  muscles,  both  volun- 
tary and  involuntary,  and  in  glands,  especially  when  they 
are  in  a  state  of  activity.  It  is  given  off  by  the  skin  and 
lungs,  in  small  amount  by  radiation ;  in  still  larger  amount 
by  contact  with  cold  water  or  cold  air,  the  latter  abstracting 
heat  with  especial  rapidity  when  it  is  damp  or  in  motion. 
Owing  to  diminished  activity  of  the  cerebro-vaso-raotor 
centre,  and  consequent  dilatation  of  the  surface  vessels,  loss 
of  heat  is  greater  when  animals  are  asleep  than  when  awake. 
Conversely,  more  heat  is  produced  when  the  animal  is  in 
active  motion,  and  blood  circulates  freely  through  the  heat- 
producing  apparatus  of  the  muscles  and  glands.  Small 
animals,  having  a  cooling  surface  relatively  larger  than  their 
internal  heating  appliances,  are  more  rapidly  cooled  than 
large  animals.  A  centre  has  been  found  in  the  corpus 
striatum,  which  appears  to  regulate  the  production  of  heat 
(thermotaxis),  and  certain  antipyretics  appear  to  develop 
their  effects  by  stimulating  this  centre. 

Antipyretics  are  divided  by  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  into  two 
classes— those  which  lessen  production  of  heat,  and  those 
which  increase  loss  of  heat ;  and  these  again  he  subdivides 
as  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


136 


ANTIPYRETICS   INCREASE    LOSS   OF   HEAT 


^Acting  on  Tissue  Change 


''Lessen  pro 
duction  of- 
heat. 


Acting  on  the  Cir- 
culation : 


Generally 


Locally 


''Cinchona  Alkaloids. 

Benzoic    and     Car- 
bolic Acids. 

Salicylic  Acid. 

Salicylates. 

Salicin. 

Camphor. 

Eucalyptol. 

Thymol   and  other 

Essential  Oils. 
^Alcohol. 

Antimony  Salts. 

Aconite. 
I  Digitalis. 
I  Veratrine. 
IThallin. 

(Local  Blood-letting. 
Poultices. 
Blisters. 
Guaiacol. 


03 

o 
•1-1 

(D 

Pi 

.1-1 

< 


By  dilating   cutaneous   ves-  TAlcohol. 
sels  and  increasing  radia--^  Nitrous  Ether, 
tion :  [Antipyrine. 


Increase 
loss  of  heat. 


By  increasing  the  loss  of 
heat  due  to  evaporation 
of  perspiration :  Sudori- 
fics: 


Mode  of 
action  un- 
V     certain. 


By    abstracting 
the  body : 


J  Purgatives. 
I  Venesection. 


heat    from 


Antimonial  pre- 
parations. 

Opium  and  Ipeca- 
cuanha. 

Nitrous  Ether. 

^Cold  Bath. 

Cold  Sponging. 

AVet  Pack. 

Ice  to  the  Surface. 

Cold  Drinks. 
.Cold  Enemata. 


The  production  of  heat  (therinogcnesis)  is  lessened  in 
various  ways: — Hydrotherapy,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  cold 
bath  or  cold  packing,  diminishes  abnormal  thermogenesis. 
Water  absorbs  and  parts  with  heat  quickly;  it  is  capable 
of  application  locally  or  generally,  continuously  or  inter- 
mittently.    Cold   water,   medicinally   used,   stiuudates    the 


HOW    HEAT    IS    LOST  137 

cerebrospinal  as  well  as  the  sympathetic  nerve  centres, 
increases  the  activity  of  healthy  vital  processes,  notably 
metabolism,  elimination,  and  leucocytosis,  and  thus  conjoins 
antithermogenic  and  antipyretic  actions. 

Cinchona  and  its  alkaloids,  antipyrine,  and  other  drugs  of 
the  aromatic  hydrocarbon  group,  the  salicyl  compounds  and 
alcohol  appear  to  act  directly  on  the  trophic  nerves  and  nerve- 
centres,  both  central  and  local,  and  thus  retard  oxidation  of 
protoplasm,  and  of  red  and  white  blood  globules.  Acids  long 
used  in  the  treatment  of  fever  appear  to  reduce  the  alkalinity 
of  the  nutrient  fluids,  and  in  this  way  retard  metabolism. 
Antimony,  aconite,  digitalis,  and  blood-letting  probably  lessen 
the  production  of  heat  by  diminishing  the  volume  and 
rapidity  of  the  blood  stream.  Guaiacol,  poultices,  blisters, 
and  local  blood-letting  exert  similar  effects  topically.  The 
notable  effect  of  purgatives  in  checking  pyrexia  is  probably 
somewhat  complex,  comprising  a  diminished  force  of  the 
circulation,  derivation,  and  increased  excretion  of  those  waste 
products  and  pathogenic  germs  which  are  fruitful  causes  of 
elevated  temperature. 

The  loss  of  heat  (thermolysis)  is  increased,  as  set  forth  in 
the  above  table,  chiefly  in  three  ways : — 

(1.)  By  dilating  the  cutaneous  vessels,  and  augmen ting- 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  body,  as  is  efl"ected  by  alcohol, 
volatile  oils,  and  antipyrine.  These  agents,  it  will  be  noted, 
exert  a  twofold  action  of  lessening  production  and  increasing 
loss  of  heat. 

(2.)  By  promoting  secretion  of  sweat,  and  thus  increasing 
cooling  evaporation,  as  is  effected  by  diaphoretics. 

(8.)  By  directly  removing  heat,  as  is  effected  by  hydro- 
therapy, cold  baths,  cold  affusion,  etc. 

Antipyretics  are  used  to  lower  abnormal  temperature, 
whether  caused  by  prolonged  exposure  to  heat  or  by  febrile 
disease.  Cinchona  and  its  alkaloids  are  the  remedies  most 
trusted  in  the  treatment  of  the  fevers  of  animals.  They 
mitigate  the  pyrexia,  cut  short  the  attack,  and  prevent  the 
exacerbations  which  characterise  such  cases.  Antipyrine, 
although  it  has  little  action  on  the  temperature  of  healthy 
animals,  reduces  abnormal  temperature  quickly,  and  usually 


138  BLOOD-LETTING 

permanently.  For  veterinary  patients  it  is  the  best  of  the 
new  fever  medicines.  It  has  been  successfully  used  in  in- 
fluenza, and  is  given  both  by  the  mouth  and  hj^podermically. 
Salicylic  acid  and  salicylates  are  specially  serviceable  in  com- 
bating the  fever  and  pain  of  acute  rheumatism.  Alcohol, 
in  its  several  forms,  exerts  a  twofold  effect,  diminishing 
oxidation  and  also  dilating  cutaneous  vessels,  and  thus 
accelerating  cooling.  Bleeding,  both  general  and  local, 
judiciously  used,  lowers  abnormal  temperature,  by  relieving 
alike  local  inflammation  and  symptomatic  fever.  Purgatives 
doubtless  act  in  like  manner,  and  in  some  cases,  moreover, 
relieve  gastric  derangement,  and  remove  disease  products. 
Horses  and  cattle  are  sometimes  quickly  sponged  with  cold 
or  tepid  water,  rapidly  dried,  and  comfortably  clothed.  Heat 
is  thus  directly  removed ;  the  cooling  functions  of  the  skin, 
which  are  impaired  in  most  febrile  attacks,  are  re-established, 
and  their  action  may  be  further  stimulated  by  the  admini- 
stration of  ammonia  salts,  ethers,  and  alcohol.  Very  essential 
adjuncts  for  ensuring  the  effects  of  antipyretics  are  perfect 
rest,  comfortable  quarters,  and  a  temperature  of  about  G0° 
Fahr.  Guaiacol  applied  locally  acts  on  the  peripheral  nerve 
ends  and  reflexly  on  the  vaso-motor  centres,  diminishing  pro- 
duction of  heat.  But  although  reducing  temperature  in 
pyrexia  connected  with  tuberculosis,  it  appears  to  have  no 
effect  on  fever  depending  on  local  inflammation  or  septic 
intoxication. 

Blood-letting  promptly  and  directly  affects  tissue  changes. 
A  full  bleeding  diminishes  the  activity  of  all  vital  func- 
tions, excepting  the  production  of  blood  globules.  The 
heart-beat  is  quickened,  but  its  force  is  lessened;  arterial 
tension  is  lowered ;  absorption  is  increased ;  sensibility  to 
pain  is  diminished,  owing  to  reduced  activity  of  the  peri- 
pheral centres.  When  blood  is  lost  rapidly  or  freely,  nausea, 
fainting,  and  convulsions  ensue,  and  artificial  anaemia  is 
produced.  In  healthy  subjects,  however,  these  effects 
quickly  disappear,  and  the  blood  is  rapidly  restored  to  its 
normal  state. 

Until  within  the  last  forty  years,  blood-letting  was  freely 
practised,  and  very  generally  abused.     Venesection  is  now 


PRECAUTIONS   REGARDING   BLOOD-LETTING         139 

seldom  employed  even  in  cases  of  acute  congestion  and 
inflammation,  which  it  is  especially  fitted  to  control.  It  may 
be  practised  either  generally  or  locally.  In  robust  animals 
suffering  from  acute  congestion  or  hsemorrhage  from  the 
lungs,  especially  when  accompanied  by  venous  stasis,  blood- 
letting affords  prompt  and  frequently  permanent  relief. 
Alike  in  horses  and  cattle,  it  is  serviceable  where  fever  is 
acute,  with  a  firm,  incompressible,  or  full,  slow  pulse,  as  in 
pleurisy  and  peritonitis,  as  well  as  in  acute  rheumatism.  ^  In 
lymphangitis,  and  in  some  cases  of  laminitis  in  horses  it  is 
also  useful.  Dogs  are  so  readily  brought  under  the  influence 
of  emetics  and  nauseants  that  bleeding  is  less  needed  in  them 
than  in  horses  and  ruminants. 

Blood  may  generally  be  taken  from  full-grown  horses  or 
cattle  to  the  extent  of  three  or  four  quarts.  The  amount 
drawn  should  be  accurately  measured.  The  circumstances 
of  the  case  materially  affect  the  amount  of  blood  to  be 
drawn.  It  should  flow  freely  until  its  abstraction  has 
made  a  decided  impression  on  the  volume  and  strength  of 
the  pulse,  or  until  the  earliest  symptoms  of  nausea  and  faint- 
ing are  apparent.  The  jugular  vein  on  either  side  is  gener- 
ally selected  as  the  vessel  on  which  it  is  most  convenient 
and  safe  to  operate.  Excepting  in  expert  professional  hands, 
the  fleam  is  safer  than  the  lancet,  which  in  restive  horses 
may  make  a  ugly  gash.  When  practicable,  the  horse  should 
be  bled  with  his  head  erect,  for  in  this  position  the  nauseating 
effects,  which  indicate  that  no  more  blood  can  be  spared, 
are  most  noticeable.  When  sufficient  blood  has  been  taken, 
the  edges  of  the  wound  of  the  skin  are  brought  accurately 
together,  and  secured  by  a  pin,  round  which  is  wound 
some  aseptic  thread,  or  tow. 

Blood-letting,  although  valuable  m  the  earlier  stages  of 
acute  inflannnation  in  vigorous  animals,  is  injurious  m 
young  or  weakly  subjects,  in  the  later  stages  of  disease,  in 
epizootic  and  eruptive  fevers,  and,  indeed,  wherever  the 
pulse  is  small,  quick,  or  weak.  A  pulse  of  this  character 
indicates  debihty,  and  bleeding  in  such  cases  mcreases 
exudation  and  efl'usion  instead  of  preventing  them,  while 
it  unnecessarily  weakens  the  patient  and  retards  recovery. 


140  POISONS    AND    ANTIDOTES 

While  blood  is  being  drawn,  the  finger  should,  in  all  animals, 
be  placed  upon  a  prominent  artery,  and  if  the  pulse  is 
observed  to  become  rapidly  weaker,  it  is  evident  that  the 
treatment  is  unsuitable.  Such  mischance  should,  however, 
rarely  happen,  for  when  there  is  any  question  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  blood-letting,  such  a  reducing  remedy  should  be 
avoided. 

Local  blood-letting'  is  not  much  practised  among  the 
lower  animals.  Lancing  the  tumid  gums  of  teething  horses 
is  seldom  necessary,  especially  if  soft  food  is  supplied,  as  it 
should  be  in  such  cases.  In  laminitis  some  practitioners 
pare  the  horny  sole,  and  open  the  vessels  of  the  sensitive 
sole,  encouraging  the  flow  of  blood  by  immersing  the  foot 
in  hot  water  or  in  a  warm  poultice ;  but  in  such  cases  the 
heat  and  moisture  are  generally  of  more  benefit  than  the 
bleeding.  Cupping  and  leeches  are  not  used  in  veterinary 
practice. 

POISONS  AND  ANTIDOTES 

Antidotes  are  agents  which  counteract  the  effects  of 
poisons.  A  poison  is  an  agent  which  is  capable  of  deter- 
mining definite  modifications  of  protoplasm.  It  produces 
cellular  death  or  cessation  of  cell  action.  In  the  popular 
acceptation  of  the  term,  a  poison  is  a  drug,  whether  animal, 
vegetable,  or  mineral,  which,  in  small  quantity,  destroys 
health  and  life ;  but  it  differs  from  a  medicine  only  in  the 
degree  or  intensity  of  its  effects.  Indeed,  many  valuable 
medicines,  when  given  in  large  doses,  become  active  poisons, 
whilst  many  poisons,  properly  administered,  prove  valuable 
medicines. 

Antidotes  may  prevent  the  action  of  the  poison,  or  may 
mitigate  or  arrest  its  effects.  When  a  Ictlial  dose  has 
been  swallowed,  endeavour  should  be  made,  before  it  has 
time  to  enter  the  circulation,  promptly  to  remove  it  by 
the  stomach-pump,  stomach  syphon,  or  by  an  emetic.  It 
is  advisable,  however,  in  all  cases  to  empty  the  stomach, 
and  thus  remove  unabsorbed  portions  of  the  poison,  before 
giving  any  fluid  which  favours  solution  and  absorption,  or 


PHYSIOLOGICAL   ANTAGONISM  141 

eyen  before  administering  the  antidote.  Some  antidotes, 
such  as  cliarcoal  and  demulcents,  mechanically  envelop  the 
particles  of  the  poison,  or  ensheath  and  protect  the  mucous 
surfaces,  and  thus  retard  absorption.  Many  enter  into 
chemical  combination  with  the  poison,  forming  compara- 
tively insoluble  inert  compounds.  Thus,  albumin  forms, 
with  corrosive  sublimate  and  other  metallic  salts,  insoluble 
albuminates.  Freshly  precipitated  ferric  oxide  converts 
arsenious  acid  into  an  insoluble  iron  arsenite.  When  poison 
has  been  introduced  into  a  wound,  as  by  the  bite  of  a 
rabid  dog,  or  by  the  fang  of  a  serpent,  a  ligature,  if  possible, 
is  placed  so  as  to  prevent  or  retard  absorption,  and  the 
wound  is  forthwith  thoroughly  washed  with  antiseptics  and 
cauterised  or  excised. 

The  action  of  poisons,  even  after  absorption,  may,  more- 
over, be  controlled  and  counteracted  by  remedies  which 
antagonise  their  lethal  tendencies.  Hypodermic  injection 
of  antivenomous  serum  neutralises  the  poison  of  cobra. 
Opium  lessens  the  irritation  and  pain  caused  by  irritants. 
Artificial  respiration  frequently  sustains  life  throughout 
the  stage  of  deadly  narcosis  induced  by  curare,  prussic  acid, 
or  anaesthetics.  But  still  more  definite  antagonism  occurs 
between  certain  drugs.  The  stimulant  and  convulsant 
effects  of  strychnine  on  the  spinal  cord  are  opposed  by 
chloral  hydrate  and  tobacco,  which  lessen  the  excitability  of 
the  cord.  The  fatal  depression  of  the  cardiac  and  respira- 
tory centres,  produced  by  large  doses  of  aconite,  is  antago- 
nised by  alcohol,  atropine,  digitalin,  and  by  strychnine. 
Between  physostigmine  and  atropine  the  antagonism  is 
very  marked  in  their  actions  on  the  vagus,  heart,  muscular 
tissues,  and  iris,  as  well  as  on  secretion. 

Two  explanations  are  given  of  this  antagonism — (1)  By 
chemical  action,  the  drug  Hrst  given  is  supposed  to  combine 
with  the  tissues  immediately  acted  on,  and  to  this  combina- 
tion the  second  drug  may  be  added,  developing  another  and 
less  active  compound ;  or  otherwise,  from  such  compound 
the  second  drug  may  displace  the  first.  (2)  The  two  ant- 
agonistic drugs  may  act  independently  of  each  other  on  the 
tissues,  producing  opposite  effects  —  the  one  exciting,  the 


*2 


POISONS    AND    ANTIDOTES 


other,  it  may  be,  paralysing.  This  Latter  physiological  view 
seems  to  meet  with  most  general  approval  (Brim ton).  In 
the  case  of  poisons  not  rapidly  fatal — such  as  lead,  mercury, 
savin,  or  yew — an  important  curative  measure  consists  in 
hastening  their  removal  from  the  body  by  the  organs 
through  which  they  are  chiefly  excreted. 


Poisons 

Sulphuretted  Hydro- 
gen 

Chlorine,  Bromine    . 
Iodine  Vapour  . 

Ammonia  Vapour     , 

Carbon  Monoxide 

Nitrous  Oxide 


Coal  Gas 
Charcoal  Fumes 
Carbonic  Acid  . 
Marsh  Gas 


Sulphuric  Acid 
Hydrochloric  Acid 
Nitric  Acid 
Phosphoric  Acid 


Oxalic  Acid  and  Ox- 
alates   . 
Tartaric  Acid    . 
Acetic  Acid 


/ 


Antidotes 

Chlorine  cautiously  inhaled. 

Ether,  alcohol. 
<    Steam  inhalation. 
I  Opium,  starch. 

Vinegar  vapour. 

f  Fresh  air  and  artificial  respiration ; 
[  transfusion. 

{Artificial  respiration;  tongue  drawn 
forward ;  intermittent  pressure  over 
cardiac  region  if  heart  action  failing. 

f  Artificial  respiration. 
Alternate  warm  and  cold  douches  to 

the  head  and  neck. 
Encourage  circulation  by  friction. 
3Iustard  plasters  over  surface. 

Alkalies;  sodium  or  potassium  bi- 
carbonate. 

Magnesia:  chalk:  plaster 

Soap ;  milk ;  eggs  wh 

Olive  or  almond  oil. 

The  alkalinity  of  the  blood  impaired 
by  acids  is  restored  by  intravenous 
injection  of  sodium  bicarbonate. 

Chalk,  whiting,  or  wall  plaster,  with 
-     water. ,    Carbonates   of    lime  and 
mao:nesia. 


.]' 


in  oil. 


POISONS    AND    ANTIDOTES 


U3 


Hydrocyanic  Acid 
Potassium  Cj^anide 


Potassium  hydrate 
and  Carbonate 

Sodium  hydrate,  Car- 
bonate and  Chlo- 
ride 

Ammonia   Solution 

Calcium  Oxide 

Aconite     . 

Acorns ;  Oak  Shoots  ; 
Fern 

Alcohol     . 

Anaesthetics — 
Chloroform,  ether, 
etc.  .. 


Antimony 


Arsenic 


'Alternate  cold  and  warm  affusions  to 
the  spine. 

Artificial    respiration.       Ether    and 
camphor  subcutaneously. 
{ Atropine    injection,   repeated    every 
half-hour. 

Mixed  salts  of  iron:  ferrous  sul- 
phate, ferric  perchloride  ;raagnesia. 
Tracheotomy. 

Vinegar;  lemon  juice. 

Other  dilute  acids. 

Milk :  oil :  acidulated  drinks. 

Stimulants. 


[Spirits :  ammonia.    Ether  hypodermi- 

j      cally. 

[Digitalis;  atropine;  warmth. 

-Oil :  salines :  laxative  diet. 

rStrong  coffee,  and  cold  douches  to  the 

\     head.     Camphor,  ether,  ammonia. 

rArtificial  respiration.  Amyl-nitrite : 
ammonia. 

[Cold  douche  to  head  and  neck. 

'In  patients  that  do  not  vomit,  wash 
out  the  stomach  with  tannic  or 
gallic  acid,  followed  by  milk,  white 
of  esfor  or  other  demulcents. 

^  Wash  out  stomach  with  large  amount 
of    warm    water,    introduced    by 
stomach  syphon  or  pump. 
Give   dogs    zinc    sulphate    or    other 

emetic. 
Iron  oxide,  moist,  made  by  precipita- 
tion of  ferric  chloride  solution  by 
sodium     carbonate    or    ammonia. 
Milk;  oil. 


144 


POISONS    AND    ANTIDOTES 


Atropine — 
Belladonna    . 
Hyoscyanms 
Stramonium 


Barium  Chloride 

Calabar  Bean— 
Physostigminc 

Cantharides 

Carbolic  Acid   . 
Creasote   . 

Chloral     . 

Cocaine    . 
Colchicum 

Conium:  Conine- 
Cicuta  Virosa 
Qlnanthe 

Croton  Oil 


Curare 


Stimulants  and  coffee :  tannic  acid. 
Caffeine,  subcutaneously  injected. 
Sustain  action  of  motor  centres  by 
interrupted    electric   current,   and 
occasionally  moving  the  animal. 
Artificial     respiration,     if     needful: 

animal  charcoal. 
Physostigminc  given  cautiously, 
j  Epsom  salt.     Glauber's  salt. 
[Sulphuric  acid  diluted. 
[Stimulants:  chloral. 
-  Atropine,  strychnine. 
(Artificial  respiration,  if  necessary. 
[Barley  water,  gruel,  and  other  demul- 
cents. 
[Avoid  oils  and  fats. 

(Oil :  sodium  sulphate. 
Saccharated  lime :  stimulants. 
Sulphate  of  lime. 
rWarmth. 

Keep  patient  moving. 
Strychnine  and  caffeine,  subcutane- 
ously. 
[Chloral;  amyl  nitrite. 
1 1nhalation  of  chloroform. 
[Tannic  and  gallic  acids :  demulcents. 
I  Stimulants. 
Tannic  acid. 
Potassium  iodide. 
Strong  coffee. 
Stimulants. 

Demulcents :  stimulants. 
[Artificial  respiration. 
If    there    be    a   wound,    ligature,   if 
possible,  above  it,  and  incise  and 
suck  strongly. 
Loosen  ligature  from  time  to  time,  but 
avoid  letting  too  much  poison  into 
the  blood  at  a  time. 


POISONS    AND    ANTIDOTES 


145 


Digitalis — 
Dicritalin 


Ergot 


Fungus  -  infested  or 
mouldy  fodder  or 
Sfraiu 


Gelsemium 


(Tannin:  stimulants. 
Aconite,  subcutaneously. 
Perfect  quiet. 

Tannin :  stimulants. 

''Substitute  sound  food:  laxatives. 
Eucalyptol,    menthol,   other    anti- 
septic volatile  oils. 
Ether :  stimulants :  saline  antiseptics. 

[Atropine:  stimulants. 
1  Artificial  respiration. 


Insects'      Venomous  "i  Apply  ammonia  and  oil.     Solution  of 
.    r     carbolic  acid.     Sal  Volatile. 
.     Stimulants  :  diaphoretics :  hot  baths. 


Stings 


Iodoform  . 


Laburnum 


Lobelia 


Lead  Salts. 


Copper 


Lead 
Mercury 


[Stimulants :  coffee. 

4  Alternate  hot  and  cold  douches  to 

[     chest. 

I  Tannin :  stimulants, 

I  Strychnine,  hypodermically. 

rEpsom  salt :  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
I  Potassium  iodide :  occasional  dose  of 
[     castor  oil 

'White  of  egg,  in  large  amount. 

Subsequently  wash  out  stomach. 

Give  demulcents.  Milk  and  soap: 
treacle :  magnesia :  moist  iron  per- 
oxide. 

Foment:  poultice. 

Morphine,  if  needful. 

{Magnesia  sulphate ;  sodium  sulphate. 
Sulphur. 

Potassium  iodide ;  olive  oil. 
E 


146 


POISONS   AND   ANTIDOTES 


Morphine — 
Opium  . 
Other  Narcotics 


/Empty  stomach  by  syphon  or  pump; 
or  wash  out  stomach  with  sol: 
potassium  permanganate. 

Warm  coffee :  ammonia :  emetics : 
alcohol. 

Maintain  activity  of  motor  centres  by 
keeping  patient  moving,  and  by 
electric  shocks:  tannin:  zinc  sul- 
phate. 

Strychnine  hypodermically  sustains 
action  of  heart. 

Atropine  in  small  doses  subcutane- 
ously. 
\  Artificial  respiration,  if  ncodfuL 

(Stimulants. 
Alternate  hot  and  cold  douche. 
Artificial  respiration. 

(Ergotin :  atropine  subcutaneously. 
Cold  to  head. 

rCopper  sulphate :  emetics :  charcoal 
.Oil  of  turpentine,  old  and  oxidised. 
I  Avoid  fats,  fatty  oils,  and  alkalies. 

Picrotoxine:  Cocculus)^,  ,      ,         ,      .        ,         .■, 
)■  Chloral:  potassmm  bromide. 
Indicus   .         .         •) 

Pilocarpine :  Jaborandi.  Atropine. 

I  Tannic  or  gallic  acid :  coffee, 
[Stimulants:  artificial  respiration. 

r Epsom    salt;    demulcents:    ethereal 
I     stimulants. 

^Ligature    limb :    excise   wound,   and 
I     sear  with  hot  iron :  antivenin. 

Alcoholic  stimulants:  ammonia. 

Artificial  respiration. 

{Chloroform :     chloral :      tobacco    in- 
fusion :  apomorphine  for  dogs. 
Potassium  bromide :  tannin. 


Nitro-Benzol 
Amyl-Nitrite 

Nitro-Glycerine 
Phosphorus 


Quinine 


Savin 


Snake-Bite 


Strychnine :  Brucine 
Nux  vomica 


DOSAGE  147 

(Warm  stimulants. 
Tannin :     strychnine :     solution     of 
iodine. 

Turpentine  Oil   .         .  Demulcents :  Epsom  salt. 

Veratrine —  fStimulants :  warm  coffee  :  emetics. 

White  Hellebore     .[Perfect  quiet;  opium:  tannin. 

(Stimulants :      laxatives :       ammonia 
acetate. 
Demulcents. 

„.      <^  ,  (White  of  egg:   acetate  of  ammonia 

'1     emetics. 


DOSES  AND  THEIR  ADMINISTRATION 

The  dose,  channel  of  administration,  and  manner  of  using 
remedies  demand  consideration. 

The  dose,  or  quantity  of  the  medicine  used,  affects  the 
degree,  and  sometimes  also  the  nature  of  the  action  pro- 
duced. Thus,  small  doses  of  most  salts  of  potassium,  sodium, 
and  magnesium  are  alterative  and  diuretic,  while  larger 
quantities  are  purgative.  Aloes,  in  small  quantity,  is  tonic, 
and  in  large,  purgative.  Alcohol  and  opium  are  examples 
of  medicines  in  which  variation  in  dose  produces  difference 
in  effect.  With  topical  remedies,  an  increase  of  the  time 
during  which  the  drug  is  applied  is  generally  equivalent  to 
an  increase  of  dose,  as  illustrated  in  the  case  of  mustard, 
cantharides,  and  concentrated  acids. 

The  period  during  which  a  drug  remains  in  the  body 
determines  in  like  manner  its  activity.  Hence  increased 
action  results  from  rapid  absorption  and  prolonged  retention 
within  the  body,  while  diminished  action  results  from  tardy 
absorption  and  quick  excretion.  Where  prompt  and  full 
effects  are  desired,  as  in  the  case  of  such  a  sedative  as  aconite, 
or  such  a  stinmlant  as  ether,  carefully  regulated  doses  are 
given  every  hour  or  oftener.     Where  continued  effects  are 


148  ADMINISTRATION    OF    MEDICINES 

desired,  as  iu  the  case  of  tonics  or  alteratives,  small  doses 
repeated  three  or  four  times  daily  are  preferable  to  larger 
doses  given  at  longer  intervals.  Stinnilants,  which  are  evan- 
escent in  their  eflfects — such  as  alcohol,  ether,  and  ammonia 
— are  usually  beneficially  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours, 
or,  in  critical  cases,  oftener.  The  dose  of  a  medicine,  and 
the  desirability  of  its  repetition,  intermission,  or  suspension, 
must  frequently  be  determined  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
patient  is  affected  by  the  first  dose  or  doses. 

The  doses  mentioned  in  this  work  under  the  head  of  each 
drug,  unless  otherwise  stated,  are  those  suitable  for  adult 
animals  of  medium  size.  But,  as  already  indicated,  the  size, 
weight,  and  environment  of  the  patient  require  consideration 
in  fixing  the  dose.  In  the  lower  animals,  differences  of  sex 
do  not  materially  affect  dosage;  although,  on  account  of 
their  larger  size,  extra  doses  are  required  for  stallions,  bulls, 
and  rams.  Doses  must  be  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  patient. 
It  is  generally  estimated  that  a  one-year-old  colt  requires 
one-third  the  quantity  of  any  medicine  given  to  an  adult 
horse;  a  two-year-old,  one-half;  a  three-year-old,  two-thirds. 
A  somewhat  similar  ratio  is  applicable  to  cattle. 

Medicinal  agents  are  used  to  produce  either  local  or  general 
actions,  or  a  combination  of  both. 

Local  Actions  are  produced  by  applying  the  agent  to  the 
surface  of  the  skin,  to  the  mouth  or  throat,  the  eye  or  ear, 
and  also  by  injection  into  the  rectum,  bladder,  vagina,  uterus, 
udder,  and  substance  of  muscles.  Agents  thus  used,  besides 
acting  locally,  may  pass  into  the  general  circulation,  and 
produce  general  effects,  or  by  reflex  action  develop  secondary 
or  remote  effects. 

General  Actions  are  usually  produced  by  the  introduction 
of  the  medicine  into  the  circulation.  Injection  may  be  made 
directly  into  the  veins  as  in  the  treatment  of  collapse  and 
acute  anicmia,  and  occasionally  into  the  arteries,  for  purposes 
of  experiment.  When  transfusion  is  undertaken  the  fluid 
should  be  watery,  and  of  the  specific  gravity  of  blood- serum. 
Drugs  injected  into  serous  cavities  are  very  rapidly  absorbed. 
They  are  also  quickly  taken  up  from  abraded  skin  surfaces. 


BY  THE  MOUTH  AND  TRACHEA        149 

The  channels   by  which   medicines   are   administered 

are: — • 

(1.)  The  digestive  tract,  generally  by  the  mouth. 

(2.)  The  pulmonary  mucous  membrane,  by  inhalation. 

(3.)  Intratracheal  injection. 

(4.)  Intravenous  injection. 

(5.)  The  skin : — (a)  Epidermically  by  inrubbing ;  (b)  En- 
dermically  by  inunction  after  removal  of  the  epidermis. 

(6.)  Hypodermically,  by  injection  into  the  subcutaneous 
ceUuIar  tissues. 

1.  The  mouth  is  the  channel  by  which  medicines  are  most 
frequently  administered,  for  they  immediately  pass  into  the 
stomach  and  intestine,  whence  they  are  readily  and  rapidly 
absorbed.  To  avoid  their  admixture  with  food,  and  conse- 
quent impaired  and  delayed  eifect,  they  should  generally  be 
given  after  the  patient  has  been  fasted  for  several  hours. 
Nutrient  oils,  iron  salts,  arsenic,  and  other  irritants  are,  how- 
ever^  given  along  with  food,  or  immediately  after  eating. 
When  it  is  desired  that  they  shall  be  quickly  absorbed, 
and  thus  act  promptly  and  certainly,  they  should  be 
given  in  the  fluid  state,  and  this  is  especially  requisite  in 
ruminants.  The  time,  labour,  and  patience  of  attendants  may 
be  saved,  and  high-spirited,  nervous  animals  preserved  from 
injurious  struggling,  if  they  can  be  persuaded  to  take  their 
medicines  voluntarily.  This  may  sometimes  be  accomplished 
where  comparatively  concentrated,  tasteless,  or  pleasant- 
tasted  drugs  are  used,  by  mixing  them  with  palatable  food, 
or  disguising  them  in  gruel,  milk,  or  even  in  water.  Dogs 
and  cats  will  often  bolt  concentrated  drugs  rolled  up  in  a 
piece  of  meat.  Although  absorption  is  not  so  active  from 
the  posterior  portions  of  the  digestive  tract,  soluble  medicines 
introduced  into  the  rectum  enter  the  circulation. 

2.  The  pulmonary  mucous  membrane  has  a  superficies  of 
fifty  times  the  extent  of  the  skin  surface,  and  actively  absorbs 
substances  in  the  gaseous  form.  By  this  channel  are 
administered  anaesthetics,  when  their  general  effects  are 
required;  watery  vapour;  balsams  and  anodynes  to  relieve 
morbid  conditions  of  the  respiratory  passages ;  diluted  sul- 
phurous  and   chlorine   gases   to   destroy   bronchial   filarioe. 


150  rN-TRATRACHEAL    INJECTION 

But  other  volatile  drugs  may  thus  be  introduced  into  the 
body,  while  others,  in  a  finely  divided  state,  can  be  inhaled 
along  with  watery  vapour,  or  such  a  readily  diffusible 
volatile  body  as  chloroform. 

3.  Intratracheal  injection  has  lately  been  adopted  both  in 
this  country  and  abroad.  Tolerably  bland  fluids  in  consider- 
able quantity  can,  with  impunity,  be  introduced  into  the 
trachea,  and  agents  too  bulky  to  be  used  hypodermically 
can  thus  be  absorbed  into  the  blood  more  quickly  and 
directly,  and  with  less  risk  of  having  their  activity  impaired 
than  when  administered  through  the  digestive  tract.  Various 
experiments  on  dogs,  made  at  St.  Petersburg,  indicate  that 
the  effects  of  curare,  strychnine,  and  cocaine  were  frequently 
produced  in  ten  seconds,  and  more  rapidly  than  when  these 
drugs  were  injected  subcutaneously.  Turpentine  by  this 
channel  exerts  its  lethal  action  very  effectually  on  the 
bronchial  parasites  which  attack  cattle  and  sheep.  The 
injection  is  effected  with  a  syringe  of  somewhat  larger  size 
than  that  used  for  hypodermic  purposes.  Intratracheal 
injections  intended  to  produce  general  effects  should  not  con- 
tain oil  or  fat,  and  the  quantity  should  not  exceed  half  an 
ounce.  Beyond  a  slight  gain  in  time,  intratracheal  injections, 
other  than  those  intended  to  act  locally,  have  no  advantage 
over  hypodermic  injections.  Drugs  have  occasionally  been 
injected  directly  into  the  lungs. 

4.  Intravenous  injection  of  medicines  is  resorted  to  when 
immediate  effects  are  desired.  In  this  way  salt-solution, 
barium  chloride,  silver  colloid,  and  a  few  other  remedies 
have  been  injected  into  the  jugular  vein.  The  injection 
should  be  diluted,  non-irritant,  and  introduced  slowly  with 
strict  attention  to  antiseptic  precautions.  The  introduction 
of  air,  the  formation  of  clots,  and  septic  contamination  must 
be  avoided. 

5.  On  the  skin  many  medicinal  agents  are  applied,  most 
of  them — such  as  counter-irritants,  caustics,  and  poultices — 
for  the  production  of  local  effects,  or  of  reflex  actions  exerted 
on  adjacent  or  distant  parts.  The  skin,  protected  by 
epidermis,  although  it  absorbs  oxygen  and  other  gases, 
excretes  carbonic  acid,  and  takes  up  water  from  baths  or 


HYPODERMIC    ADMINISTRATION  151 

from  wet  clothing,  especially  if  there  is  a  deficiency  of  fluid 
in  the  body,  does  not  absorb  drugs  unless  they  are  dissolved 
in  chloroform  or  other  agent  which  promotes  penetration 
(see  p.  16).  Drugs,  whether  in  alcoholic  or  watery  solution, 
are  absorbed  through  the  unbroken  skin  only  in  very  small 
amount  and  tardily;  but  when  the  epidermis  is  removed 
by  a  blister,  the  true  skin  readily  absorbs  drugs  placed  on 
it.  By  this  endermic  method,  morphine  was  wont  to  be 
used  for  the  production  of  its  general  anodyne  effects,  but 
the  hypodermic  method  is  more  convenient,  and  is  now 
generally  preferred. 

6.  The  hypodermic  administration  of  drugs  consists  in 
their  injection  in  solution  into  the  subcutaneous  cellular 
tissue,  or  occasionally  into  the  substance  of  a  muscle.  They 
thus  enter  the  blood-stream  unaltered  by  contact  with  the 
contents  or  secretions  of  the  digestive  canal.  They  escape 
the  changes  which  many  substances  undergo  in  the  liver, 
and  hence  act  more  certainly  and  rapidly.  Hypodermic 
injection  is  specially  indicated — 

(1.)  Where  rapid  energetic  effects  are  required,  as  in 
poisoning,  internal  ha-morrhage,  threatening  col- 
lapse, paroxysms  of  acute  pain,  and  convulsions. 
(2.)  Where  it  is  desired  that  the  drug  shall  act 
promptly  and  directly  on  the  diseased  part,  as  in 
neuralgia,  rheumatic  pains,  and  mammitis  in  cows. 
(3.)  Where  local  and  general  effects  are  desired  to  be 

conjoined,  as  in  reflex  spasms. 
(4.)  Where  administration  by  the  mouth  is  difficult, 
impossible,  or  unadvisable. 
The  druses  thus  used  should  be  neutral,  non-irritant,  and 
soluble  in  alcohol,  water,  or  glycerin.      Many  veterinarians 
now   use   morphine,   atropine,  ergotin,  physostigmine,  and 
other  active  drugs  hypodermically  for  arresting  or  controlling 
the  spasms  of  colic  and  chronic  cough,  the  sharp  twinges  of 
rheumatism,  the  inflammatory  pain  of  enteritis  and  pleurisy, 
as  well  as  for  combating  the  eftects  of  poisons.     Where  pain 
is  to  be  counteracted,  the  injection  is  made  deeply  near  the 
affected  spot,  or  over  the  nerve  which  is  believed  to  be  con- 
veying the  disordered  impression.      With  active  agents  it  is 


152  HYPODERMIC   INJECTION 

unwise,  without  careful  trial,  to  inject  subcutancously  more 
than  one-fourth  of  the  dose  Avhich  would  be  given  by  the 
mouth.  The  drug  is  thoroughly  dissolved  in  water,  alcohol, 
or  other  perfectly  bland  fluid.  There  is  less  risk  in  veterinary 
than  in  human  patients  of  subsequent  local  irritation,  but 
intramuscular  injection  of  ether  and  of  other  drugs  occa- 
sionally causes  temporary  motor  or  sensory  paralj^sis. 

The  hypodermic  syringe  has  a  glass  barrel,  on  the  nozzle 
of  which  a  hollow  needle  is  fitted.  It  is  essential  that  the 
syringe  be  perfectly  clean,  and  the  needle  sharp.  Hypo- 
dermic injection  is  very  simple.  Choice  is  generally  made 
of  a  situation  where  the  skin  is  thin,  and  the  subcutaneous 
tissue  loose,  as  behind  the  elbow,  or  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck.  A  fold  of  loose  skin  is  taken  up  between  the  finger 
and  thumb  of  the  left  hand ;  the  needle,  detached  from  the 
syringe,  is  passed  through  the  skin,  and  carried  about  an 
inch  obliquely  under  the  surface.  The  nozzle  of  the 
filled  syringe  is  then  attached  to  the  needle,  the  piston 
slowly  pushed  home,  and  the  instrument  cautiously  with- 
drawn. The  injection  of  air  can  be  prevented  by  seeing 
that  the  packing  of  the  piston  is  sufficient,  or  by  arresting 
the  piston  before  the  contents  of  syringe  have  been  wholly 
expelled.  The  puncture  requires  no  plaster  or  dressing. 
Convenient  tablets  or  pellets  of  the  various  drugs  used 
hypodermically  are  now  obtainable. 


Section  II. 

Inorganic  Materia  Medica 

WATER 

Aqua.     Hydrogen  Oxide  or  Monoxide.     HgO. 

Water  exists  in  the  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  forms.  It  is 
transparent,  neutral,  colourless,  odourless,  and  tasteless.  A 
minim  weighs  -91  grain ;  a  fluid  ounce,  437'5  grains.  It  is 
the  standard  of  comparison  for  specific  gravities  of  liquids, 
its  specific  gravity  being  represented  as  1  or  1000.  It  solidi- 
fies, freezes,  or  crystallises  at  32°  Fahr.,  expanding  and  giving 
out  latent  heat ;  it  reaches  its  greatest  density  at  39°'2  Fahr.; 
it  slowly  volatilises  at  all  temperatures;  at  212"  Fahr.  it 
boils,  rising  in  steam,  and  increasing  in  bulk  1700  times.  A 
cubic  inch  of  water  becomes  a  cubic  foot  of  steam.  When 
the  solid  ice  melts,  heat  is  absorbed  or  becomes  latent ;  when 
the  liquid  water  boils,  or  gives  off  gas,  still  more  heat  is 
absorbed.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  exjjanding  into  steam 
renders  latent  900°  of  heat.  The  melting  ice  and  evaporating 
water,  thus  abstracting  heat  from  bodies  in  contact  with 
them,  are  valuable  refrigerants. 

Water  is  a  universal  solvent;  it  readily  dissolves  many 
mineral  matters,  gases,  and  organic  substances.  From  soils 
and  rocks  through  which  it  passes  it  takes  up  salts,  espe- 
cially of  calcium,  magnesium,  and  sodium,  and  occasionally 
of  lead.  It  absorbs  atmospheric  air,  carbonic  acid,  and  other 
gases,  some  adding  to  its  sparkling,  refreshing,  and  palatable 
qualities,  others  rendering  it  disagreeable  and  unwholesome. 
Gases  are  more  soluble  in  cold  than  in  hot  water;  solids, 
conversely,  are  generally  more  quickly  and  freely  dissolved 
by  hot  than  by  cold  water.  Organic  matters  are  present, 
especially  in  river  and  marsh  waters,  causing  them  to  spoil 
rapidly  when  kept,  and  sometimes  to  produce  diarrhoea  and 
dysentery  in  animals  drinking  them.     Surface  drainage  and 


154  HARD   AND    SOFT   WATERS 

sewage  are  apt  to  introduce  vegetable  and  animal  parasites, 
spores  and  ova,  which  give  rise  to  dangerous  diseases  in 
animals  as  well  as  in  man. 

Even  in  potable  waters  the  nature  and  proportion  of  the 
solid  constituents  differ  materially.  Glasgow  derives  from 
Loch  Katrine  the  purest  water  supply  of  any  large  city 
in  the  world,  containing  only  three- fourths  of  a  grain  of 
organic  and  one  and  a  half  grains  of  inorganic  matters  to 
the  gallon.  The  water  of  the  Thames,  supplied  to  part  of 
London,  contains  about  three  grains  of  organic  and  sixteen 
grains  ot  inorganic  matters  to  the  gallon.  When  the  mineral 
constituents,  consisting  of  salts  of  calcium  and  magnesium, 
exceed  suVoth  part,  the  water  is  said  to  be  hard,  and  is  un- 
suitable for  many  pharmaceutic  and  domestic  purposes ;  it 
curdles  or  precipitates  soap,  instead  of  forming  with  it  a 
froth  or  lather ;  it  forms  a  brown  encrustation  on  the  kettles 
or  furnaces  in  which  it  is  boiled ;  it  is  not  so  well  liked  by 
animals,  and  is  apt  to  cause  diarrhoea  and  other  digestive 
derangements,  especially  in  subjects  unaccustomed  to  it. 
When  the  salts  do  not  amount  to  -g-oW^^  P^^''  ^^^^  water  is 
considered  soft. 

The  presence  of  the  more  dangerous  organic  and  organ- 
ised impurities  are  discovered  by  several  simple  tests — 
(1)  Half  a  pint  of  the  water  is  well  shaken  in  a  clean,  wide- 
mouthed  bottle ;  when  sewage  is  present  an  offensive  smell 
will  be  perceived  on  removal  of  the  stopper  or  cork.  (2)  In 
a  tumbler  of  water  two  or  three  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  are 
placed,  and  sufficient  Condy's  red  fluid  to  render  the  water 
pink.  When  allowed  to  stand  for  fifteen  minutes,  the  water, 
if  containing  organic  impurity,  will  have  become  colourless. 
(3)  Sewage  contaminated  water  usually  contains  common 
salt,  which  may  be  discovered  by  silver  nitrate  producing 
milkiness  (AgCl),  which  is  not  removed  by  a  few  drops  of 
nitric  acid. 

For  purifying  water  various  methods  are  adopted.  Sub- 
sidence and  dccantation  get  rid  of  grosser  mechanical  par- 
ticles. Filtration  through  sand,  charcoal,  gravel,  or  spongy 
iron  removes  coarse  and  organic  impurities.  Alum,  even  in 
minute  amount,  clears  turbid  water.     Oxidation  gradually 


WATER  156 

destroys  disagreeable  or  dangerous  foulness ;  hence  a  run- 
ning stream,  contaminated  even  by  sewage  several  hundred 
yards  lower  down,  may  again  become  clear  and  whole- 
some. Alkaline  permanganates,  by  similar  oxidation, 
promptly  destroy  organic  contamination.  Boiling  destroys 
most  noxious  vegetable  and  animal  matters,  drives  off  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  and  thus  throws  down  calcium  carbonate,  the 
cause  of  temporary  hardness.  Sodium  carbonate,  or  lime, 
as  in  Clarke's  process,  diffused  through  hard  water,  which  is 
then  allowed  to  settle,  abstracts  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  causes 
subsidence  of  calcium  and  magnesium  carbonates,  and  also 
reduces  the  permanent  hardness  produced  by  calcium 
sulphate.  For  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  jDurposes,  aqua 
destillata  is  requisite,  and  distillation  leaves  behind  all  im- 
purities except  a  trace  of  organic  matters,  and  one  to  two  per 
cent,  per  volume  of  air.  Such  distilled  or  other  pure  water 
is  understood  to  be  used  when  '  water '  is  ordered  in  pre- 
scriptions. 

Mineral  waters  are  unfit  for  general  use  on  account  of 
their  undue  proportion  of  mineral  matters  or  gases,  or  from 
their  being  at  a  higher  temperature  than  that  of  the  locality 
in  which  they  are  found.  The  most  common  mineral  waters 
are  those  containing  iron  and  salines.  Sea  water  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  1027  ;  an  imperial  pint  contains  about 
312  grains  of  solid  matters,  of  which  about  240  grains  are 
common  salt. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Water  is  nutrient,  diluent,  antipyretic, 
diuretic,  and  detergent.  Introduced  into  the  body  in  excess 
of  its  requirements,  it  is  removed  usually  within  six  hours, 
chiefly  by  the  kidneys,  and  in  less  amount  by  the  skin  and 
bowels.  When  given  cold,  the  kidneys  perform  the  main 
excretory  office ;  but  when  used  hot,  water  is  an  adjuvant 
diaphoretic,  cathartic,  and,  in  dogs  and  other  carnivora,  an 
emetic.  Water  applied  topically,  as  in  the  form  of  hot 
fomentation,  or  the  familiar  water-dressing,  is  emollient 
and  anodyne,  abates  congestion  of  circumscribed  inflamma- 
tion and  wounds,  and  its  beneficial  effects  are  also  reflexly 
propagated  to  adjacent  parts.  At  high  temperatures  water 
is  an  irritant.     But  steam  mixed  with  air  is  emollient  and 


156  NUTRIENT,    DILUENT,    AND    ANTIPYRETIC 

soothing.  Cold  water  is  refrigerant  and  tonic.  Ice  is  a 
prompt  and  effective  refrigerant ;  it  controls  congestion  and 
inflainmation,  especially  of  the  throat,  and  arrests  haemorrhage 
from  the  stomach,  lungs,  and  other  parts.  Baths  are  used 
not  only  for  comfort  and  cleanliness,  but  for  the  cure  of 
disease.     (See  Pharmacy.) 

Water  constitutes  from  fifty-five  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  the  higher  animals,  and  is  essential  for  digestion, 
absorption,  secretion,  excretion,  and  indeed  for  every  vital 
process.  It  is  largely  present  in  every  kind  of  food,  facili- 
tating its  digestion  and  assimilation,  and  replacing  the  loss 
of  fluid  constantly  taking  place  by  the  skin,  lungs,  and 
kidneys.  Insufficient  and  excessive  supplies  are  alike  injuri- 
ous ;  but  animals  in  health,  and  with  constant  free  access  to 
water,  rarely  take  more  than  is  good  for  them.  Excepting 
for  a  few  hours  previous  to  any  great  exertion,  and  when 
hungr}^,  overheated,  and  prostrated,  the  horse  in  health 
should  not  be  restricted  in  his  water  supply.  Indeed,  in 
many  well-managed  modern  stables  a  limited  amount  of 
water  is  constantly  at  the  horse's  head,  and  the  daily  quan- 
tity thus  drunk  is  actually  less  than  when  the  animal  is 
allowed  to  slake  his  thirst  three  or  four  times  daily.  Although 
a  moderate  amount  of  water  is  essential  for  digestion,  an 
excessive  quantity  injuriously  dilutes  the  intestinal  contents, 
and  favours  acid  fermentation. 

Horses,  especially  if  tired  and  hungry,  before  having  a 
little  hay — which,  being  eaten  slowly,  is  in  such  circum- 
stances preferable  to  grain — should  receive  some  water,  or, 
better  still,  a  gallon  of  gruel.  In  some  cab  and  carrying 
establishments,  each  hard- worked  horse,  on  his  return  to  the 
stable,  is  provided  with  a  supply  of  oatmeal  gruel,  which  is 
found  not  only  to  help  condition,  but  to  diminish  attacks 
of  colic  and  other  gastro-intestinal  derangements.  A  copious 
draught  of  Avater,  taken  immediately  after  a  rapidly-eaten 
meal,  hurries  the  imperfectly  digested  food  too  rapidly  into 
the  intestines,  where  it  is  apt  to  set  up  colic  and  inflamma- 
tion. Very  cold  water,  freely  drunk,  especially  by  hungry, 
exhausted  horses,  is  a  frequent  cause  of  gastro-intestinal 
disorder;    and   in   many  establishments  throughout  winter 


WATER  157 

Steam  or  hot  water  is  introduced  into  the  horse-troughs,  or 
the  buckets  are  filled  and  brought  into  the  stable  several 
hours  before  they  are  required  for  use. 

Water,  judiciously  used,  is  a  valuable  diluent,  febrifuge, 
and  evacuant,  serviceable  in  febrile  and  inflammatory 
diseases.  When  given  moderately  cold,  it  is  more  palatable 
and  satisfying  than  in  the  tepid  state  in  which  it  is  some- 
times presented  to  sick  horses.  Rendered  feebly  bitter  with 
a  little  cascarilla  or  quassia  infosion,  secretion  is  encouraged 
and  thirst  is  more  effectually  quenched.  Small  portions  of 
ice  placed  in  the  mouth  are  sucked  by  most  animals,  and 
promote  secretion,  abate  thirst,  and  also  relieve  congestion 
and  irritation.  Horses  greedy  of  water,  and  especially  those 
with  defective  wind  or  liability  to  acidity  or  diarrhoea,  should 
be  supplied  frequently  with  small  quantities,  while,  further  to 
relieve  thirst,  the  food  should  be  damped.  After  a  cathartic 
dose,  and  until  the  physic  has  ceased  to  operate,  even 
moderate  draughts  of  cold  water  in  many  horses  cause 
griping.  Calves  and  lambs,  feverish  and  purging,  some- 
times die  if  they  have  free  access  to  water. 

As  a  diluent,  water  mechanically  relieves  choking  and 
coughing ;  dilutes  corrosive  and  irritant  poisons ;  assists  the 
action  of  diaphoretics,  diuretics,  and  purgatives.  Tepid  water 
is  a  convenient  auxiliary  emetic  for  dogs  and  pigs.  Injected 
into  the  rectum,  warm  water  allays  irritabihty  of  the  bowels 
and  urino-genital  organs,  and  promotes  the  action  of  the^ 
bowels.  Water,  whether  cold  or  hot,  checks  bleeding ;  but  is 
most  effectual  at  a  temperature  of  about  120°  Fahr.  Injected 
into  the  vagina,  it  stays  the  discharge  of  leucorrha^a.  A 
good  scrubbing  with  tepid  water  and  soap  is  a  very  essen- 
tial preliminar}^  to  the  successful  treatment  of  mange  or  scab. 
It  removes  scales  and  dirt,  abounding  especiall}^  in  inveterate 
cases,  and  hence  facilitates  access  of  the  special  dressings  to 
the  burrows  of  the  parasites. 

Water  is  the  important  constituent  of  emollients  (p.  58). 
Hot  fomentations  moisten,  soften,  and  relax  dry  and 
irritable  textures,  and  relieve  tension,  tenderness,  and  pain. 
Applied  early,  and  continued  for  several  hours,  they  control 
or   relieve    congestion    and    inflammation    of    strains    and 


158      DETERGENT,  EMOLLIENT,  AND    COUNTER-IRRITANT 

contused  wounds.  Their  external  aj)plication,  by  reflex 
action,  often  soothes  irritated  or  inflamed  internal  parts.  In 
this  way  fomentations  allay  the  pain  of  colic  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels.  Steaming  the  head  and  throat  in  like 
manner  often  relieves  catarrh,  sore-throat,  and  strangles. 
Professor  Williams  insists  on  the  value  of  steaming,  and  hot 
fomentations  in  laryngitis,  and  bronchitis,  and  prefers 
fomentations  to  counter-irritants  in  pneumonia  and  pleurisy. 

Soothing  watery  vapour,  medicated,  if  need  be,  with 
laudanum,  belladonna,  ether,  vinegar,  sulphurous  acid,  or 
alkaline  hypochlorites,  is  readily  evolved  from  a  steam-kettle, 
from  a  well-made  bran-mash  placed  in  a  roomy  nose-bag,  or 
from  a  bucket  containing  freshly-steamed  hay. 

Water-dressings,  consisting  of  several  folds  of  lint  or  tow, 
saturated  with  hot  water,  and  covered  with  oiled  skin  or 
mackintosh  cloth  to  retard  evaporation,  or  a  sheet  of  well- 
soaked  spongio-piline,  are  frequently  substituted  for 
fomentations  and  poultices,  and  are  usually  preferable, 
especially  to  poultices,  on  account  of  their  lightness  and 
cleanliness. 

Water,  nearly  boiling,  is  a  prompt  and  powerful  counter- 
irritant,  especially  useful  in  cattle  practice.  When  applied 
to  the  chest  or  abdomen  of  horses  or  cattle,  several  folds  of 
thick  woollen  horse-rug  are  sometimes  placed  round  the 
patient,  and  hot  water  from  time  to  time  poured  on  the  folds. 
,Counter-irritation  thus  rapidly  developed,  in  careful  hands, 
does  not  blemish,  and  frequently  proves  of  service  in  the  first 
stages  of  pneumonia  and  pleurisy,  in  colic,  enteritis,  peritonitis, 
and  obstinate  constipation,  alike  of  horses  and  cattle. 

Cold  water  is  a  useful  refrigerant.  When  the  acute  con- 
gestion, heat,  and  tenderness  of  bruises,  strains,  and  wounds 
have  been  so  far  abated  by  hot  applications,  cold  exerts 
wholesome  refrigerant,  tonic,  and  constringing  effects.  Linen 
bandages,  constantly  wotted,  relieve  chronic  strains,  jars,  and 
windgalls  of  the  legs  of  horses.  Cold  water  is  also  service- 
able, after  disinfection,  in  broken  knees,  synovitis  and 
arthritis,  open  or  closed,  and  other  injuries  of  the  Imibs. 
Continuous  irrigation  is  readily  effected  through  a  small 
indiarubber  pipe,  connected  with   a  water  tap,  or  brought 


WATER — ICE  159 

from  a  supply  tank  on  a  higher  level.  Cold  water  similarly 
supplied  keeps  at  low  temperature  the  swabs  around  the 
coronets  and  feet  of  horses  suffering  from  laminitis.  Rugs 
dipped  in  cold  water  and  applied  to  the  chest  walls,  are 
successfully  employed  in  acute  congestion  of  the  lungs,, 
brought  on  by  over-exertion,  and  especially  in  hot  weather. 

Cold  water  dashed  over  the  head  and  neck  is  a  powerful 
stimulant,  serviceable  in  megrims,  sunstroke,  phrenitis,  con- 
vulsions, syncope,  and  the  comatose  stage  of  milk  fever  in 
cattle,  as  well  as  in  poisoning  with  alcohol,  chloroform, 
opium,  and  prussic  acid.  The  shock  is  increased  when  very 
cold  water  is  used,  and  when  it  falls  on  the  patient  from  a 
height  of  several  feet.  Such  cold  affusion  must  not, 
however,  be  long  continued,  as  it  quickly  abstracts  animal 
heat.  Equally  effectual  results  are  more  safely  attained  by 
alternately  douching  with  cold  and  warm  water. 

Ice  in  small  pieces,  placed  in  the  mouth,  is  readily  sucked 
by  most  animals,  and  often  relieves  congestion  of  the  throat, 
and  irritability  of  the  stomach,  especially  in  dogs.  Applied 
usually  in  a  bag  or  bladder,  it  is  serviceable  in  inflamed  and 
prolapsed  uterus  and  rectum,  in  piles,  hernias,  in  haemorrhage, 
which  sometimes  occurs  shortly  after  parturition,  as  well  as 
in  phrenitis  and  parturient  ajDoplexy  in  cows.  Two  parts 
of  ice  mixed  with  one  of  salt  form  a  powerful  freezing 
mixture  of  the  temperature  of  4°  Fahr.  Snow  or  ice  is 
applied  to  retard  the  sudden  rise  of  temperature  and  con- 
sequent gangrene  in  frost-bite,  to  arrest  circumscribed 
congestion  and  inflammation,  to  check  bleeding:  and  convul- 
sions.  Ice  maintained  in  contact  with  the  skin  for  six  or 
eight  minutes  diminishes  sensation,  and  facilitates  the 
performance  of  a  few  minor  operations;  but  for  inducing 
local  anaesthesia,  cocaine  is  preferable. 

OXYGEN 

Oxygen  is  a  colourless,  odourless  gas,  slightly  heavier  than 
atmospheric  air,  and  forming  about  one-fifth  of  its  volume. 
Twenty-five  volumes  of  water  dissolve  one  volume  of  oxygen 
It  has  a  wide  ran^j^e  of  chemical  afiinities. 


1 60  OXYGEN—  OZONE 

Actions  and  UsES.^Oxygen  has  slight  effect  on  the 
unbroken  skin,  but  stiniuLates  denuded  skin  and  mucous 
surfaces.  Oxygenated  solutions  have  been  applied  to  atonic 
wounds  and  ulcers.  Such  solutions,  when  swallowed,  aid 
oxidation  of  waste  products  in  the  alimentary  canal.  The 
breathing  of  the  gas  has  been  recommended  in  asthma, 
pneumonia,  and  various  respiratory  difficulties,  as  well  as  in 
cardiac  failure.  Six  gallons  inhaled  by  human  patients  have, 
however,  no  notable  effect.  Only  limited  quantities  can  be 
retained  by  the  blood ;  the  serum,  when  saturated,  retains 
one-fifteenth  of  the  amount  the  red  globules  can  take  up, 
and  hence  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  tissue  oxidation  can 
be  effected  by  inhalation  of  oxygen.  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton 
states  that  small  animals  confined  in  jars  of  oxygen  become 
excited,  tetanised,  and  die  {Pharmacology). 

OZONE 

When  electric  sparks  are  passed  through  air,  the  molecules 
of  oxygen,  represented  by  two  atoms  (Og),  are  split  up,  and 
rearranged  in  triad  atoms,  constituting  ozone  (O3).  It  is  also 
produced  by  the  slow  oxidation  of  phosphorus  in  the  pre- 
sence of  water,  and  by  the  action  of  protoplasm.  It  is 
unstable,  being  readily  converted  into  oxygen.  It  is  distin- 
guished by  its  peculiar  smell,  and  by  its  decomposing 
potassium  iodide  solution,  and  when  mixed  with  damp 
starch,  producing  the  blue  starch  iodide. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  oxidises  more  actively  than  oxygen, 
destroys  the  coagulability  of  albumin,  decomposes  many 
organic  substances,  and  kills  micro-organisms.  In  virtue  of 
its  chemical  actions  it  is  a  powerful  irritant.  When  inhaled 
it  induces  excitement,  succeeded  by  exhaustion  and  some- 
times by  convulsions.  It  has  been  used  for  most  of  the 
cases  in  which  oxygen  has  been  given,  notably  for  the  de- 
struction of  micro-parasites  in  diphtheria  and  other  similar 
diseases  (Brunton). 


AMMONIUM    SALTS  161 


AMMONIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

Ammonii   Chloridum.      Sal-ammoniac.     Chloride  of  Am- 
monium.    N  H^  CI. 

This  salt,  from  Avhich  most  ammonium  compounds  are 
derived,  may  be  Ibrmed  by  neutralising  crude  solution  of 
ammonia  or  ammonium  carbonate  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  purifying  the  product  (B.P.).  The  salt  thus  prepared 
occurs  in  inodorous  colourless  crystals,  or  in  translucent, 
tough,  fibrous  masses.  It  has  a  saline,  acid  taste,  a  slightly 
acid  reaction  on  colouring  matter;  is  soluble  in  one  part 
boiling,  or  three  of  cold  water,  and  in  60  parts  alcohol  (90 
per  cent.).  During  solution  it  abstracts  much  heat,  and  is 
consequently  an  ingredient  of  many  freezing  mixtures. 
Heated  it  sublimes  unchanged.  Mixed  with  lime  or  potash 
it  evolves  ammonia. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Expectorant,  cholagogue,  diuretic  and 
refrigerant.  Large  doses  exhibit  the  stimulant  and  subse- 
quent paralysing  effects  of  ammonium  salts.  Two  ounces 
given  to  a  horse  caused  muco-enteritis  (Moiroud) ;  two 
drachms  destroyed  a  small  dog  in  an  hour.  The  alimentary 
mucous  membrane  was  found  congested  and  swollen  (Orlila). 
The  symptoms  described  as  occurring  in  dogs  are  '  muscular 
weakness,  slow  breathing,  violent  action  of  the  heart,  and 
tetanic  spasms '  (Christison). 

Medicinal  Doses  stimulate  the  alimentary  and  respiratory 
mucous  membranes,  promote  their  secretions,  and  relieve 
gastric  as  well  as  bronchial  catarrh,  especially  in  patients 
where  pyrexia  has  not  been  serious,  or  has  abated.  They 
are  also  recommended  in  torpidity  of  the  liver  and  in  rheu- 
matism. 

Doses. — Horses,  5ij-  to  5jv. ;  cattle,  5jv.  to  §j. ;  sheep  and 
pigs,  grs.  XXX.  to  5j-;  (logs,  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  x.  In  bolus,  pill 
or  drench. 

One  part  of  chloride  dissolved  in  ten  to  twenty  parts  of 
water  or  spirit  is  used  as  a  stimulant  gargle,  and  refrigerant 
lotion  for  inflammatory  swellings,  bruises,  and  sprains.     A 


162  LIQUOR   AMMONIA 

coolino-  mixture,  stated  to  lower  the  thermometer  from  50° 
to  10"  Fahr.  (Pereira),  is  made  with  four  ounces  each  of  sal- 
ammoniac  and  nitre,  dissolved  in  eight  ounces  of  water  ;  but 
for  ordinary  refrigerant  purposes,  six  or  eight  times  this 
amount  of  water  may  be  used. 

Liquor  Ammonia  Fortis.  Strong  Solution  of  Ammonia. 
Caustic  Ammonia.     Hartshorn. 

An  aqueous  solution  containing  32 '5  per  cent,  by  weight 
of  ammonia,  NHg.  It  may  be  obtained  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  ammonium  chloride,  and  slaked  lime,  and 
passing  the  resulting  ammonia  into  distilled  water  (B.P.). 

Traces  of  ammonia  exist  in  the  air,  and  in  rain.  It 
occurs  in  the  excretions  of  living  animals,  from  the  breaking 
down  of  their  nitrogenous  tissues,  and  is  evolved  from  the 
putrefaction  and  destructive  distillation  alike  of  vegetable 
and  animal  matters.  But  the  coal  beds  are  the  great  com- 
mercial source  of  ammonia  and  its  compounds.  Coal,  when 
distilled  in  the  making  of  gas,  leaves  a  waste  liquor,  which 
if  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  yields  ammonium  chloride 
or  sal-ammoniac. 

Properties. — The  liquor  ammoniae  fortis  is  colourless, 
pungent,  and  caustic.  Specific  gravity  0891.  One  fluid 
drachm  contains  15'83  grains  of  gaseous  ammonia.  Purity 
is  ensured  when  the  sample,  diluted  with  four  times  its 
volume  of  distilled  water,  gives  no  precipitate  with  solution 
of  lime,  ammonium  sulphide,  or  copper  ammonio-sulphate, 
and,  when  treated  with  an  excess  of  nitric  acid,  it  is  not 
rendered  turbid  by  silver  nitrate  or  barium  chloride.  It 
is  very  strongly  alkaline,  and  unites  with  fats  and  oils,  form- 
ing soaps  and  liniments. 

For  most  medicinal  and  pharmaceutical  purposes  the 
liquor  ammoniae  fortis  is  too  concentrated,  and  a  diluted 
solution  is  made  by  adding  to  one  measure  of  liq.  ammon. 
fortis,  two  measures  of  distilled  water.  This  medicinal 
solution  is  entitled  liquor  ammoniae,  contains  10  per  cent, 
by  weight  of  ammonia  NH3,  and  has  the  specific  gravity 
0.959. 

A  spirit  of  ammonia  of  corresponding  strength,  contain- 


ACTION    OF    AMMONIUM    SALTS  1G3 

ing  10  per  cent,  of  gas  in  rectified  spirit,  is  recognised  by 
the  U.S.P. 

Aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  popularly  known  as  sal- 
volatile,  is  a  solution  of  liquor  ammonias  fortis  and  am- 
monium carbonate  in  rectified  spirit  and  water,  flavoured 
with  oil  of  nutmeg  and  lemon. 

General  Action  of  Ammonium  Salts. — They  resemble  potas- 
sium and  sodium  salts,  but  being  more  volatile  are  more 
prompt  and  powerful.  Unlike  caustic  potash  and  soda, 
liquor  ammonias  does  not  dissolve  the  epidermis,  and 
consequently  does  not  cauterise,  but  if  evaporation  be  pre- 
vented, it  passes  through  the  epidermis,  irritates  the  dermis 
and  vesicates. 

Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  thus  describes  their  actions : — '  Am- 
monium is  considerably  modified  by  the  acid  radicle  with 
which  it  is  combined.  All  the  ammonium  salts  have  an 
action  on  the  spinal  cord,  motor  nerves,  and  muscles,  and,  in 
advanced  poisoning,  paralyse  these  structures.  They  do  not, 
however,  affect  all  these  structures  with  equal  readiness. 
The  organ  first  affected,  and  consequently  the  symptoms  of 
poisoning,  vary  with  the  salt  employed.  Some  salts  affect 
the  spinal  cord  first,  others  the  motor  nerves.  .  .  .  They 
appear  to  form  a  series,  at  one  end  of  which  the  members 
stimulate  the  spinal  cord,  and  have  no  marked  paralysing 
action  on  the  motor  nerves ;  while  those  at  the  other  end 
have  no  marked  stimulating  action  on  the  cord,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  have  a  marked  paralysing  action  both  on  the  cord 
and  on  motor  nerves.  At  the  stimulating  end  of  this  series 
are  ammonia  and  ammonium  chloride,  and  at  the  paralysing 
end  ammonium  iodide ;  whilst  the  bromide,  phosphate,  and 
sulphate  lie  between.' 

In  their  primary  stimulation  and  secondary  paresis, 
ammonium  salts  resemble  the  mono-hydric  alcohols  and 
ethers ;  but  they  act  more  markedly  on  the  cord  and  motor 
centres,  and  less  on  the  higher  cerebral  centres.  Their 
antidotes  are  dilute  acids,  milk,  and  oils.  Ammonium  salts 
increase  the  secretion  of  the  bronchial  and  intestinal  glands, 
and  also  of  the  sweat  glands  and  kidneys,  by  which  they  are 
mainly  excreted.    In  the  blood  of  mammals  ammonia  is  con- 


164  AMMONT.K   LIQUOR 

verted  almost  entirely  into  urea,  in  the  blood  of  birds  into 
uric  acid.  It  increases  the  formation  of  glycogen  in  the 
liver,  and  of  acidity  in  the  urine  (Brimton). 

Actions  and  Uses  of  Ammonia. — Ainmonia  causes  topical 
irritation.  Tolerably  concentrated  solutions  abstract  water 
from  the  tissues,  dissolve  their  epidermal  or  epithelial  scales, 
liquefy  their  albumin,  and  saponify  their  fats.  They  hence 
act  as  caustics.  Full  doses  stinuilate  the  spinal  cord,  motor 
nerves,  and  muscles,  and  subsequently  paralyse  the  cord,  but, 
unlike  ammonium  chloride,  do  not  markedly  paralyse  motor 
nerves.  Ammonia  gas  entering  the  air-passages  causes 
suffocation.  Strong  solutions  swallowed  produce  gastro- 
enteritis, while,  from  absorption,  paralysis  of  the  ])rain  centres 
and  coma  occasionally  ensue.  Reflexly,  when  applied  to  the 
nostrils  or  stomach,  it  stimulates  the  vaso-motor  centre,  and 
raises  blood-pressure,  and,  after  absorption,  directly  stimu- 
lates the  circulatory  and  respiratory  nerve-centres,  and 
promotes  secretion  alike  from  the  mucous  surface  and  skin. 
It  is  administered  as  an  antacid,  diffusible  stimulant,  and 
antispasmodic,  and  used  externally  as  a  stimulant  and 
counter-irritant. 

Toxic  Effects. — Hertwig  found  that  half  an  ounce  of  the 
strong  solution,  given  diluted,  had  no  bad  effects  on  horses, 
but  that  one  ounce  proved  fatal  in  sixteen  hours,  and  three 
ounces  in  fifty  minutes,  the  latter  quantity  causing  violent 
cramps  and  difficult  breathing.  Half  a  drachm  introduced 
into  the  stomach,  and  retained  by  tying  the  oesophagus, 
destroyed  a  dog  in  twenty-four  hours,  causing  much  uneasi- 
ness, agitation,  and  stupor,  and  leaving  after  death  slight 
redness  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  (Orfila). 
The  most  effectual  antidotes  are  vinegar  and  other  diluted 
acids,  with  diluents  and  demulcents. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Its  antacid  and  stimulant  properties 
reconuncnd  ammonia  in  indigesti(m,  tympanites,  and  spas- 
modic colic  in  ruminants.  Stimulating  the  vaso-motor  and 
respiratory  centres,  it  is  valuable  in  antagonising  syncope  in 
intluenza  and  similar  complaints.  As  in  human  practice, 
ammonia  fumes  are  occasionally  used  to  rouse  animals  from 
shock,  collapse,  or  chloroform  intoxication,  but  must  be  used 


MEDICINAL    USES  AND    DOSES  165 

cautiously,  lest  excessive  irritation  of  the  respiratory  mucous 
membrane  be  produced.  It  is  a  promptly-acting  antidote  in 
poisoning  by  opium,  aconite,  digitalis,  and  other  narcotic  and 
sedative  drugs.  It  may  be  administered  much  diluted  in  the 
usual  way,  injected  subcutaneously  and  intravenously,  and 
also  applied  externally  in  the  treatment  of  snake-bites ;  Init  its 
success  is  uncertain,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  cobra  and 
other  venomous  snakes.  On  account  of  its  promoting  bron- 
chial secretion,  and  assisting  in  its  expulsion,  ammonia  is 
serviceable  as  a  stimulating"  expectorant.  To  develop  its 
more  general  effects,  it  is  frequently  prescribed  with  alcoholic 
stunulants,  as  in  the  convenient  form  of  aromatic  spirit  of 
ammonia. 

External  Uses. — In  the  form  of  liniment  of  ammonia,  or 
of  compound  liniment  of  camphor,  ammonia  proves  a  useful 
counter-irritant  for  muscular  strains  and  rheumatism,  for 
stiff  joints,  for  sore  throat  and  bronchitis,  for  maintaining  the 
stimulation  provoked  by  mustard  or  cantharides  in  pneu- 
monia, pleurisy,  and  influenza,  and  for  preventing  the  rapid 
chilling  of  fomented  surfaces.  A  pledget  of  lint  saturated 
with  ammonia,  applied  to  the  skin  and  covered  with  oiled 
silk  quickly  vesicates.  It  relieves  the  irritation  caused  by 
nettles,  and  by  bites  and  stings  of  insects. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  liquor  ammonise  as  a  diffusible  stimulant 
and  antispasmodic,  horses  take  f5ij.  to  f5iv. ;  cattle,  f5iv.  to 
fgi. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f5ji-;  and  dogs,  Til  v.  to  Til  ^-  '^^^ 
aromatic  spirit  is  given  in  proportionally  larger  doses.  In 
order  to  sustain  their  transient  effects  they  require  to  be 
repeated  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours.  On  account  of 
their  pungency,  they  must  be  largely  diluted  with  water,  or, 
hetter  still,  with  cold  gruel  or  mucilage.  A  useful  stimulant 
draught,  either  for  horses  or  cattle,  is  made  with  half  an 
ounce  each  of  liquor  ammonia9,  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  and 
tincture  of  gentian,  given  in  a  quart  of  ale  or  of  cold  gruel. 
For  cohc  and  indigestion  in  horses,  a  draught  composed  of 
half  an  ounce  of  solution  of  ammonia,  with  four  or  five 
drachms  of  aloes,  given  in  water,  has  been  recommended. 
For  external  application  the  liquor  ammoniae  is  gener- 
ally used,  mixed  with  live  to  ten  parts  of  oil.     A  convenient 


166  AMMONIUM    CARBONATE 

stimulating  liniment  is  made  with  one  part  each  of  strong 
solution  of  ammonia,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  water,  mixed 
with  four  to  six  parts  of  linseed  oil.  A  drachm  of  liquor 
ammonia)  fortis,  with  half  a  pint  of  soap  liniment,  makes  a 
useful  stinuilaut  embrocation  for  sore-throat.  The  B.P. 
liniment  of  ammonia  consists  of  one  part  solution  of 
ammonia  (10  per  cent.),  one  part  of  almond  oil,  and  two 
parts  of  olive  oil.  The  popular  '  White  Oil '  is  made  with  one 
ounce  of  camphor,  four  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  a  pint  of 
olive  oil,  and  two  ounces  solution  of  ammonia. 

Ammonii  Carbonate.    Carbonate  of  Ammonia.    Ammonium 
Carbonate. 

A  variable  mixture  of  Ammonium  hydrogen  carbonate, 
NH^  HCO3,  with  ammonium  carbonate,  NH^  NH.,  CO^,  pro- 
duced on  heating  ammonium  sulphate  or  chloride  Avith 
calcium  carbonate  (B.P.). 

It  occurs  in  colourless,  translucent,  fibrous,  crj^stalline 
masses,  with  a  pungent  alkaline  taste,  and  a  strong  am- 
moniacal  odour.  Soluble  in  four  parts  of  cold  water ;  rather 
less  of  tepid  water ;  in  two  hundred  of  alcohol ;  and  in  five 
of  glycerin.  Decomposes  in  boiling  water,  with  evolution  of 
ammonia  and  carbonic  acid;  sublimes  when  heated,  and 
when  exposed  to  the  air  becomes  opaque,  friable,  and  covered 
Avith  a  white  efiiorescence. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  carbonate  closely  resembles  liquor 
ammonise,  but  is  less  volatile,  less  powerful,  and  rather  more 
permanent  in  its  effects.  Large  doses  produce,  however,  the 
same  primary  stimulation,  and  secondary  paralysis  of  the 
spinal  cord  and  motor  centres.  Orfila  records  that  two  and 
thalf  drachms  given  to  a  dog  caused  gastric  inflammation, 
aetanic  convulsions,  and  death. 

Medicinal  Uses. — It  is  given  to  all  animals  in  atonic 
dyspepsia ;  conjoins  the  actions  of  an  antacid  and  diffusible 
stimulant;  in  small  doses  promotes  secretionof  gastric  juice, 
and  in  larger  relieves  tlatulcnce  and  spasm.  A  few  doses 
materially  help  the  extra  rug,  warm  bran  mash,  and  other 
hygienic  remedies  in  combating  chill,  blowing,  and  other 


AMMONIUM    ACETATE  167 

premonitory  symptoms  of  disease  of  the  air-passages  in  hard- 
worked  horses.  It  stimulates  both  cardiac  and  respiratory 
functions,  and  hence  is  prescribed  in  influenza,  and  in  the 
later  stages  of  various  acute  debilitating  inflammatory  com- 
plaints, in  many  of  which  it  may  be  substituted  for  or 
conjoined  with  alcoholic  stimulants.  In  respiratory  disease, 
while  sustaining  the  action  of  the  heart,  it  promotes  secretion 
and  expectoration,  and  hence  relieves  bronchial  congestion, 
being  especially  serviceable  when  the  lower  bronchi  are 
choked  with  tough  mucus,  and  cardiac  action  is  weak.  It  is 
sometimes  given  to  dogs  as  a  stimulant  emetic ;  acts  without 
nausea,  and  usually  promptly ;  but  as  it  is  somewhat  uncer- 
tain is  best  used  in  conjunction  with  ipecacuanha,  or  other 
emetic.  It  sometimes  averts  epileptic  fits  in  weakly  dogs. 
It  neutralises  the  poison  of  wasps'  stings  and  insects'  bites. 
A  useful  dressing  for  removing  the  scales  of  psoriasis  is  made 
by  adding  one  part  to  ten  of  unguentum  simplex. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  5\j-  to  5iv. ;  cattle  5iy-  to  5vj. ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  Ix. ;  dogs,  grs.  iij.  to  grs.  viij. 
It  is  given  either  in  bolus  with  linseed  meal,  or  dissolved  in 
gruel,  which,  to  prevent  coughing  from  liberation  of  ammonia, 
must  be  used  cold.  Where  prompt  stimulant  effects  are 
required,  ammonium  carbonate  is  conjoined  with  alcohol  or 
ether :  where  febrifuge  and  expectorant  effects  are  sought,  it 
is  prescribed  with  spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  potassium  chlorate, 
and  camphor;  while  in  chronic  gastric  derangements  it  is 
given  with  gentian,  ginger,  or  cinchona  bark. 

Smelling  salts  are  prepared  by  adding  to  the  carbonate 
half  its  weight  of  solution  of  ammonia,  and  mixing  some 
bergamot,  lavender,  or  other  aromatic  oil. 


Liquor  Ammonii  Acetatis.    Solution  of  Ammonium  Acetate. 
Mindererus  Spirit. 

Is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  ammonium  car- 
bonate in  ten  times  its  weight  of  distilled  water,  neutralising 
with  acetic  acid,  and  adding  sufficient  distilled  water  to  pro- 
duce one  pint  of  the  solution  (B.P.).  It  is  clear,  colourless, 
and  nearly  odourless,  but  has  a  mawkish,  unpleasant  taste. 


1(38  AMMONIUM    ACETATE   SOLUTION 

Incompatiblcs,  potash,  soda,  and  their  carbonates,  acids,  lead 
and  silver  salts,  and  lirac  water. 

Actions  and  Uses.— Aminoniiim  acetate,  although  not  so 
powerful  a  stimulant  as  liquor  ainmonia?  or  the  carbonate,  is 
a  valuable  diaphoretic  and  antipyretic,  and  a  mild  diuretic 
and  expectorant.  It  is  much  used  in  febrile  and  inflamma- 
tory attacks,  especially  aifecting  the  respiratory  organs — 
catarrh,  bronchitis,  and  pneuuionia,  and  in  influenza, 
strangles,  and  purpura.  In  these  and  other  cases  it  abates 
fever,  promotes  cutaneous  and  bronchial  secretion,  and 
helps  to  clean  the  tongue  and  improve  the  appetite.  In 
the  onset  of  local  inflammation  in  horses,  when  pyrexia  is 
considerable,  two  to  four  ounces  of  liquor  ammonii  acetatis 
are  given,  with  a  drachm  of  potassium  nitrate  or  chlorate 
three  or  four  times  daily.  When  the  bowels  are  confined 
and  the  urine  high-coloured,  two  or  three  ounces  of  Epsom 
salt  are  added  to  the  febrifuge  mixture.  When  bronchial 
secretion  is  scanty  the  acetate  is  conjoined  with  ipecacuanha 
or  potassium  iodide,  and  itsbeneticial  effects  may  be  increased 
by  inhalations  of  moist  warm  air  and  by  hot  applications  to 
the  chest.  When  the  smaller  bronchial  tubes  are  choked 
with  mucus,  balsams,  turpentine,  and  squill  are  useful  addi- 
tions, along  with  moderate  external  stimulation.  When 
there  is  sore  throat  and  cough,  belladonna  extract  and  cam- 
phor are  serviceable  adjuncts.  In  many  forms  of  troublesome 
cough  opium  is  appropriate.  In  convalescence,  when  the 
appetite  is  indifferent,  powdered  gentian  or  cinchona  bark 
may  be  combined  or  alternated  with  acetate  and  salines. 
When  the  patient  is  weak  and  exhausted,  alcohol  and  ether 
are  fitting  additions.  In  cerebro-spinal  fever  Professor 
Robertson  prescribed  iodine  and  strychnine  with  the 
acetate  of  ammonia. 

For  cattle  similar  prescriptions  are  suitable,  given  usually 
in  somewhat  larger  doses.  In  dog's,  the  diuretic  action  of 
ammonium  acetate  is  more  notable  than  the  diaphoretic.  A 
convenient  antipyretic  and  expectorant  is  made  with  liquor 
ammonii  acetatis  f§iv. ;  spiritus  oetheris  nitrosi  f^ij.;  spiritus 
camphora3  fgi.  For  large  dogs  the  dose  is  half  a  fluid  ounce ; 
for  small  animals  a  fluid  drachm,  in  either  case  given  diluted 


POTASSIUM    COMPOUNDS  169 

with  five  or  six  parts  of  water.  This  mixture  is  adapted  for 
special  canine  cases  by  additions  similar  to  those  indicated 
for  horses. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses  ai^  cattle  the  dose  of  liquor 
ammonii  acetatis  is  fgij.  to  fgiv. ;  for  dogs,  f5ij.  to  f5iv., 
given  in  five  or  six  parts  of  water,  diluted  spirit,  or  linseed 
tea.  Many  horses  and  cattle  readily  take  it  in  their  drinking 
water.  Like  the  chloride,  the  solution  of  the  acetate  is 
sometimes  used  externally  as  a  refrigerant  discutient. 


POTASSIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

Potassium  salts  are  obtained  from  (1)  carnallite,  a  chloride 
of  potassium  and  magnesium  (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O)  overlying 
the  rock-salt  in  the  mines  of  Stassfurt  in  Saxony ;  (2)  from 
the  crude  potashes  got  from  wood  ashes ;  and  (3)  from  the 
argol  deposited  during  the  fermentation  of  wine  (p.  186). 
Most  are  soluble  in  water.  They  are  identified  in  solution 
by  their  negative  reaction  with  the  several  group  tests  for 
the  metals,  while  moderately  strong  neutral  solutions  rather 
slowly  form,  with  sodium  hydrogen  tartrate,  a  white  crystal- 
line precipitate  (KHC^H^Og),  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid 
and  in  caustic  potash.  Evaporated  to  dryness,  and  ignited 
with  alcohol,  they  produce  a  distinctive  violet-coloured  flame, 
which  gives  on  the  spectrum  two  lines — one  intense  on  the 
red,  the  other  transient  on  the  violet. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  alkalies  comprise  salts  of  potas- 
sium, sodium,  lithium,  and  ammonium.  They  are  the 
opposites  of  the  acids.  They  combine  with  acids,  dissolve 
albumin,  aijd  saponify  fats,  and  in  virtue  of  these  affinities 
are  irritant  and  caustic.  They  are  destitute  of  astringency, 
and  in  dilute  solution  relax  and  soothe  the  tissues  with 
which  they  come  into  contact.  They  increase  acid  and 
diminish  alkaline  secretions,  and  are  prescribed  in  cases  of 
dyspepsia,  ^eing  given  half  an  hour  before  feeding.  They 
are  also  used  to  neutralise  excessive  acidity  developed  from 
undue  fermentation,  in  which  case  being  administered 
an  hour  after  eating.  They  promote  elimination  of  lactic 
acid  in  rheumatism,  and  to  some  extent  prevent  the  pre- 


170  POTASSIUM    SALTS 

cipitation  of  uric  acid  in  the  bladder.  The  alkalies  and  their 
salts  alter  osmosis  in  animal  membranes,  and  hence  promote 
both  catharsis  and  diuresis.  When  absorbed,  they  increase 
the  alkalinity  of  the  blood  and  urine,  encourage  oxidation 
processes,  and  promote  other  alterative  effects. 

Potassium  salts  are  protoplasmic  poisons,  and  when  applied 
sufficiently  long,  or  in  sufficiently  strong  solution,  destroy 
muscles,  nerve-centres,  and  nerves.  They  are  more  soluble, 
more  readily  absorbed  and  diffused,  but  are  also  more  quickly 
excreted  than  most  sodium  salts.  As  muscle  irritants  they 
are  more  powerful.  They  paralyse  the  reflex  centres  of  the 
cord,  usually  after  transitory  excitement.  They  paralyse  the 
heart,  especially  when  injected  into  the  veins.  On  the  cir- 
culation their  action  somewhat  resembles  that  of  digitalis. 
Large  doses  cause  a  rapid  fall  of  blood-pressure  and  pulse 
rate.  Small  doses,  after  a  slight  fall,  raise  both  pressure 
and  pulse  rate,  depending,  it  is  believed,  on  constriction  of 
the  arterioles  (Brunton). 

They  occur  in  plants  and  animals,  and  are  essential  con- 
stituents of  the  food  of  both.  Their  removal  from  the  food 
of  dogs  impairs  nutrition  and  growth  more  decidedly  than 
deprivation  of  the  corresponding  sodium  salts.  In  animal 
bodies  potash  salts  occur  chiefly  in  the  solid  textures,  notably 
in  the  muscles;  sodium  salts  in  the  nutrient  fluids.  Dr. 
Ringer  teaches  that  potash  salts  have  a  high  diffusive  power, 
rapidly  enter  the  blood,  increase  its  alkalinity,  promote 
oxidation  and  tissue  metamorphosis,  are  solvents  of  albu- 
minoids, and  in  one  or  another  of  these  ways  help  to  abate 
febrile  and  inflammatory  attacks.  They  are  alteratives,  and 
antidotes  to  poisoning  by  barium  salts.  They  are  quickly 
excreted,  mainly  by  the  kidneys;  increase  chiefly  the 
watery  parts  of  the  urine,  neutralise  its  acidity,  and  often 
exert  soothing  effects  on  the  urino-gcnital  mucous  surfaces. 
In  febrile  complaints  they  are  eliminated  in  amounts  three 
or  four  times  larger  than  in  health,  and  in  larger  proportion 
than  the  soda  salts,  which  are  excreted  more  largely  during 
convalescence. 

Recollection  of  the  uses  of  the  several  potassium  salts 
is  facilitated  by  dividing  them  into  three  groups.     First : 


CLA.SSIFIED    IM   THREE    GROUPS  171 

Salts  which  are  corrosive,  antacid,  antihthic,  and  alterative 
— such  as  the  hydrate  and  carbonates.  The  salts  of  the 
weaker  vesretable  acids — tartrates  and  citrates — in  their 
passage  through  the  body  are  decomposed  into  carbonates, 
renderino-  the   urine   alkaline.      Second :   Salts    which    are 

o 

cathartic,  diuretic,  alterative,  febrifuge,  and  refrigerant — 
such  as  the  sulphate,  acetate,  tartrate,  nitrate,  chlorate,  and 
permanganate.  Third :  Salts  which  exhibit  prominently 
the  actions  of  their  acid  or  salt  radical  constituent — such 
as  potassium  sulphide,  iodide,  bromide,  bichromate,  and 
cyanide. 

Potassium    Hydroxide.     Potassa    Caustica.     Hydrate    of 

Potash.     Caustic  Potash.     KHO. 
Potassium  Hydrate  Solution.     Liquor  Potassa3.     Caustic 
Potash  Solution. 

When  impure  potassium  carbonate  is  boiled  with  calcium 
hydrate,  calcium  carbonate  (CaCOg)  is  precipitated,  and 
potassium  hydrate  (KHO)  remains  in  solution,  twenty- 
seven  grains  being  present  in  the  fluid  ounce  of  the  liquor 
potassse.  This  is  a  dense,  oily-like  fluid,  of  specitic  gravity 
1"058,  colourless  and  odourless,  with  an  intensely  acrid, 
alkaline,  soapy  taste,  and  an  alkaline  reaction.  Boiled  with 
oils  and  fats,  it  forms  soaps;  mixed  with  acids,  it  forms 
neutral,  soluble,  crystallisable  salts.  It  softens  and  dissolves 
soft  animal  and  vegetable  tissues.  Although  little  used 
in  medicine,  it  is  of  much  importance  in  chemistry  and 
pharmacy.  When  boiled  until  a  drop  removed  on  a  stirrer 
becomes  hard  on  cooling,  and  poured  into  pencil-like  moulds, 
there  are  formed  the  grey  or  white  deliquescent,  hard, 
crystalline  sticks  of  caustic  potash. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Full  doses  of  potassium  hydrate  are 
actively  dehydrating,  irritant,  and  corrosive,  and  also  cardiac 
sedatives.  Medicinal  doses  are  antacid,  alterative,  febrifuge, 
and  diuretic.  Externally,  potassium  hydrate,  whether  in  sub- 
stance or  in  concentrated  solution,  is  a  penetrating  caustic. 

Toxic  Effects. — Large  doses,  when  swallowed,  soften,  cor- 
rode, and  inflame  the  oesophagus  and  stomach,  sometimes 
so  severely  as  to  cause  perforation;  while  great  depression 


172  POTASSIUM   HYDRATE 

accoiiipaiiics  the  local  lesions.  Hertwig  records  that  two 
drachms,  dissolved  in  six  ounces  of  water,  killed  a  horse, 
with  symptoms  of  colic,  in  thirty-two  hours.  Orfila  gave 
ft  dog  thirty-two  grains,  which  caused  violent  vomiting, 
restlessness,  and  death  in  three  days.  Post-mortem  dis- 
covered the  mucous  coat  of  the  oesophagus  and  stomach 
red  and  black  from  extravasation  of  blood,  with  a  perfora- 
tion measuring  three-quarters  of  an  inch  near  the  pylorus, 
surrounded  by  a  hard  thickened  margin  (Christison  On 
Poisons).  The  blood  is  dark-coloured  and  generally  fluid, 
owing  to  the  solvent  action  of  the  alkali.  Smaller  or  more 
diluted  doses  gradually  impair  digestion  and  assimilation, 
and  destroy  life  by  inanition.  The  antidotes  are  diluted 
acids  which  form  mild  salts,  and  oils  which  produce  soaps 
— the  latter  serving  as  demulcents,  and  in  men  and  dogs 
as  auxiliary  emetics.  Irritation  is  also  relieved  by  milk 
and  gruel. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Dr.  John  Shortt,  Madras,  used  the 
diluted  solution  both  internally  and  externally  as  an  anti- 
dote for  the  poison  of  snakes.  Half  a  drachm,  repeated 
twice  daily,  has  been  prescribed  for  sheep  affected  with 
vesical  and  urethral  calculi ;  but  the  carbonate  is  milder 
and  equally  effectual.  It  is  occasionally  added  to  cough 
mixtures  when  bronchial  secretion  is  scanty. 

Caustic  potash  is  used  for  eradicating  warts  and  fungous 
growths,  and  cauterising  poisoned  wounds.  On  account  of 
its  deliquescence  and  liability  to  spread,  it  must,  however, 
be  applied  cautiously,  and  any  excess  of  alkali  neutralised 
by  subsequent  Avashing  with  a  weak  acid.  Mixed  with  one- 
third  lime,  constituting  Vienna  paste,  it  is  less  deliquescent 
and  more  manageable. 

Potassium   Carbonate.     Potassii  Carbonas.     Carbonate  of 

Potash.     K,C03. 
Potassium  Bicarbonate.     Potassii  Bicarbonas.     Potassium 

Hydrogen  Carbonate.     KHCO3. 
Potassium  carbonates  are  got  by  several  processes — (1)  the 
American  pot  or  wood   ashes,   in   their   partially  puritied 
condition  of  pearl  ashes,   contain  about   eighty  per  cent. 


CARBONATES    OF    POTASSIUM  173 

of  potassium  carbonate,  with  twenty  per  cent,  of  potassium 
sulphate  and  chloride,  which,  being  less  soluble,  are  got 
rid  of  by  dissolving  the  pearl  ashes,  with  brisk  agitation, 
in  an  equal  weight  of  water,  pouring  off  the  solution,  and 
evaporating  it  to  dryness.  (2)  From  the  sulphate  they 
are  obtained  by  a  process  similar  to  that  followed  in  making 
sodium  carbonate.  (3)  A  pure  carbonate  is  got  by  burning 
potassium  tartrate  with  charcoal. 

The  carbonate  occurs  in  crystals,  as  a  crystalline  powder, 
but  more  generally  in  grains.  It  is  white,  opaque,  and 
inodorous,  with  a  strong  alkaline  taste,  and  an  alkaline 
reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  its  own  weight  of  water  at 
60^"  Falir.,  deliquesces  rapidly  in  the  air;  but  as  it  gradu- 
ally absorbs  carbonic  acid,  it  again  slowly  dries  up.  Ex- 
posed to  a  red  heat,  it  loses  water  of  crystallisation  to  the 
amount  of  sixteen  per  cent. 

Potassium  bicarbonate,  or  acid  carbonate  of  potash,  is 
prepared  by  passing  carbonic  anhydride  into  a  strong 
aqueous  solution  of  the  neutral  carbonate.  It  occurs  in 
transparent,  colourless,  right  rhombic  prisms;  has  a  mild, 
saline,  and  slightly  alkaline  taste;  dissolves  in  about  four 
times  its  weight  of  water  at  60°  Fahr. ;  when  heated  to 
redness,  it  gives  off  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  is  con- 
verted into  the  neutral  carbonate.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  neutral  carbonate  by  its  milder  non-acrid  taste,  its  less 
solubility  in  water,  its  more  abundant  effervescence  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  its  not  deliquescing  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  by  giving,  in  diluted  solution,  no  precipitate 
with  Epsom  salt  or  corrosive  sublimate. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  two  carbonates  have  the  potassium 
group  actions  and  differ  only  in  degree.  Both  resemble 
the  hydrate,  but  have  their  activity  tempered  and  diminished 
by  combination  with  carbonic  acid.  The  neutral  carbonate, 
in  concentrated  solution,  has  much  of  the  corrosiveness  of 
the  hvdrate.  Two  drachms  oiven  to  a  doff  caused  vomitinof, 
great  agony,  and  death  in  twenty-five  minutes  (Orfila). 
Three  ounces  are  said  to  be  fatal  to  horses  or  cattle  (Kauf- 
mann).  Its  antidotes  are  the  same  as  those  of  caustic 
potash.    The  bicarbonate  has  no  irritant  or  corrosive  action, 


174  POTASSIUM    CARBONATES 

is  preferable  as  an  antacid,  and,  in  virtue  of  its  liberating 
carbonic  acid,  exerts  soothing  effects  on  the  irritable  gastric 
membrane.  It  is  less  of  an  alkali  and  more  of  a  pure 
saline.  Both  carl)onatos  are  antacid  antidotes  for  over- 
doses of  acids,  and  are  alterative  and  diuretic. 

Medicinal  Uses. — rotassium  bicarbonate  is  occasionally  sub- 
stituted for  sodium  bicarbonate  to  aid  the  emulsionising  of 
fats,  and,  on  account  of  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid,  to 
soothe  the  irritable  stomach.  Prescribed  usually  with  a 
bitter,  and  before  meals,  it  increases  secretion  of  gastric 
juice ;  given  after  meals,  it  neutralises  excess  of  acid' 
resulting  from  undue  secretion  of  gastric  fluid,  or  from 
such  acid  fermentation  of  starch,  sugar,  or  fats  as  occurs 
among  carelessly  fed  calves.  In  rheumatism,  small  repeated 
doses  of  alkaline  bicarbonates  sometimes  prove  beneficial, 
apparently  by  promoting  metamorphosis  of  albuminoids, 
neutralising  excess  of  sarco-lactic  acid,  and  encouraging 
the  action  of  the  kidneys.  In  such  cases  it  is  conjoined, 
according  to  circumstances,  with  oil  of  turpentine,  salicylic 
acid,  quinine,  or  potassium  iodide.  Similar  antacid  treat- 
ment is  also  successful  in  nettle-rash,  and  occasionally  in 
eczema,  a  diluted  solution  being  also  applied  externally  to 
raw,  weeping,  painful,  or  itching  surfaces.  Potassium  bi- 
carbonate is  specially  suitable  for  preventing  or  removing 
uric  acid  deposits,  which  occasionally  occur  in  dogs;  and 
the  potassium  is  much  more  soluble  than  the  sodium  urate. 
Calculi  and  deposits  occur  in  the  bladder  and  urethra  of 
highly-fed  rams  and  wethers.  In  the  treatment  of  these 
cases,  Mr.  Litt,  Shrewsbury,  with  exercise  and  laxative  diet, 
recommends  castor  oil,  fgij.  to  f§viij.,  with  belladonna  ex- 
tract, grs.  viij.  to  grs.  xvj.,  followed  by  potassium  bicarbonate, 
3ss.  to  5j>  repeated  thrice  daily,  freely  dissolved  in  water 
or  other  diluents.  As  diuretics,  the  carbonates  are  less 
certain  than  the  nitrate  or  acetate.  Both  the  carbonates 
and  hydrate,  as  well  as  the  corresponding  sodium  salts, 
increase  the  activity  of  aconite  when  given  along  with  it 
(Walley). 

Externally,  the  carbonates  are  applied  as  stimulants  and 
detergents.     Used  with  soap  and  hot  water,  they  soften  and 


ANTACIDS,  DIURETICS,  AND    DETERGENTS  175 

remove  skin  incrustation  whetlaer  consisting  of  sebaceous 
matters,  thickened  scales,  abnormal  discharges,  or  dirt. 
Diluted  Avith  100  to  200  parts  of  water,  along  with  a  little 
glycerin,  the  carbonate  forms  a  soothing  dressing  lor  the 
earlier  weeping  stages  of  eczema,  especially  in  dogs.  The 
itching  parts  should  be  kept  continually  wetted,  while,  to 
prevent  evaporation,  the  wet  lint  should  be  covered  with 
gutta-percha  tissue.  Cases  of  itching  which  are  not  relieved 
by  alkaline  lotions  should  be  dressed  with  a  dilute  acid,  and 
such  alternation  is  sometimes  successful,  when  neither  the 
alkaline  nor  acid  treatment  alone  succeeds.  The  bicarbonate 
proves  a  serviceable  injection  in  leucorrhoea  in  all  patients. 
In  the  Cape  Colonies  a  ley  made  from  wood  ashes  is  used 
successfully  as  a  remedy  for  scab,  either  alone  or  mixed  with 
sulphur. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  either  carbonate,  horses  and  cattle  take  §ss. 
to  ^. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  5ss.  to  5j- ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xl., 
repeated  several  times  a  day,  liberally  diluted  with  water. 
For  stimulating  gastric  secretion  they  are  given  half  an  hour 
before  eating;  but  in  most  dyspeptic  cases  acids  are  more 
permanently  effectual. 

PoTAssA  SuLPHURATA. — Sulphurated  Potash.  Potassium 
Sulphide.  A  mixture  of  salts  of  potassium,  of  which 
the  chief  are  sulphides.     (B.P.) 

One  part  of  sulphur  and  two  of  potassium  carbonate  are 
mixed  and  heated  until  fusion  occurs,  poured  on  a  stone 
slab  and  cooled.  There  is  produced  a  liver-brown,  bitter, 
acrid,  alkaline  substance  which  is  odourless  when  dry,  but 
when  moistened  smells  of  hydrogen  sulphide.  It  readily 
dissolves  in  water,  forming  a  yellow  solution. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  conjoins  the  action  of  a  sulphide  and 
a  potassium  salt.  Large  doses  are  irritant  and  narcotic. 
Medicinal  doses  are  laxative,  and,  like  other  sulphides, 
stimulate  the  secretions  of  the  skin  and  respiratory  mucous 
membrane,  and  are  alterative.  Externally,  it  is  occasion- 
ally applied  as  a  substitute  for  sulphur  in  the  treatment 
of  chronic  skin  diseases,  and  as  a  rubefacient,  resolvent,  and 
antiparasitic. 


176  POTASSA    SULPHURATA 

Toxic  Effects. — Two  ounces  are  stated  to  have  destroyed 
a  horse  (Boiichardat);  six  drachms  and  a  half,  introduced 
into  the  stomach  of  a  dog,  and  retained  by  ligature  on  the 
(esophagus,  occasioned  death  with  tetanic  symptoms  in  seven 
minutes ;  a  drachm  and  a  half  in  small  fragments,  introduced 
into  the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  of  dogs,  caused  exten- 
sive inflammation,  coma,  and  death  in  thirteen  hours 
(Christison).  It  appears  to  act  much  in  the  same  manner  as 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  decomposing  the  haemoglobin  of  the 
blood,  and  causing  nervous  and  muscular  paralysis. 

Medicinal  Uses. — It  has  been  used  in  chronic  cough, 
rheumatism,  and  skin  diseases,  in  doses  of  5i-  to  5iij->  for 
horses  and  cattle,  and  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  x.  for  dogs.  Once  a 
panacea  for  all  kinds  of  poisoning,  it  is  now  used  only  in 
poisoning  by  lead,  which  it  converts  into  a  black,  insoluble, 
and  almost  inert  sulphide. 

Potassium  Sulphate.  Potassii  Sulphas.   Sulphate  of  Potash. 

K,SO,. 
Potassium  Bisulphate.     Bisulphate  of  Potash.     KHSO^. 

Potassium  sulphate  is  got  from  certain  salt  mines,  and 
from  the  mineral  kainite,  which  is  a  double  sulphate  of 
potassium  and  magnesium.  It  occurs  in  transparent,  colour- 
less, rhombic  prisms,  which  have  a  sharp,  saline,  bitter  taste, 
are  hard  and  difficult  to  powder,  and  dissolve  in  ten  parts  of 
cold  water,  and  in  four  parts  of  boiling  water. 

The  bisulphate  is  the  residue  in  the  preparation  of  nitric 
acid  from  nitre  and  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  colourless,  crystal- 
line, and  soluble,  with  an  acid  taste,  and  an  acid  reaction. 
It  is  distinguished  from  the  neutral  sulphate  by  its  small 
flat  prisms,  its  greater  fusibility  and  solubility  in  water,  its 
acid  taste  and  reaction,  and  its  decomposing  carbonates  with 
effervescence  —  a  property  which  has  led  to  its  being 
occasionally  substituted  for  tartaric  acid  in  making  effer- 
vescent powders. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  sulphates  are  the  most  irritant  of 
the  potash  salts.  They  arc  cathartic,  cholagogue,  and 
diuretic.  As  cathartics  they  cause  both  hydragogue  and 
peristaltic  actions,  while  as  diuretics  they  ar^  less  certain 


POTASSIUM    IODIDE  177 

than  tlie  nitrate  or  acetate.  Professor  Eutherford  found  that 
potassium  sulphate  has  a  distinct  stimulant  effect  on  the 
liver,  shared  by  sodium  sulphate,  but  not  by  magnesium 
sulphate.  On  account  of  its  hardness  and  inaptness  to 
absorb  moisture,  it  is  used  for  facilitating  trituration  of  such 
tough  vegetable  substances  as  opium,  ipecacuanha,  and  jalap. 

Potassium  Iodide.    Potassii  lodidum.    Potassic  Iodide.    KI. 

The  iodide  is  prepared  by  slowly  adding  iodine  to  a  solu- 
tion of  potash,  until  it  acquires  a  brown  colour,  evaporating 
to  dryness,  mixing  the  residue  with  one- tenth  of  its  weight 
of  powdered  charcoal,  and  fusing  in  a  red-hot  crucible.  The 
fused  mass  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  filtered  and  evaporated 
until  a  film  appears  on  the  surface,  when  it  is  set  aside  to 
crystallise. 

Properties. ^Cubical  crystals,  colourless,  generally  opaque, 
with  a  faint  odour  of  iodide,  a  saline  taste,  decrepitating 
when  heated,  fusing  at  a  red-heat,  at  a  higher  temperature 
volatilising  unchanged,  soluble  in  two-thirds  of  its  weight  of 
cold  water,  in  twelve  parts  of  rectified  spirit,  and  in  three 
parts  of  glycerin.  These  agents  dissolve  iodine  freely,  and 
are  hence  useful  vehicles  for  its  exhibition. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Potassium  iodide  closely  resembles 
iodine,  but  is  less  powerful  and  devoid  of  local  irritant 
action.  It  stimulates  the  lymphatic  system.  Medicinal 
doses  are  antiseptic,  alterative,  deobstruent,  expectorant,  and 
diuretic.     Sodium  iodide  has  the  same  actions. 

It  is  readily  soluble,  and  is  quickly  absorbed;  in  the 
tissues  it  undergoes  decomposition  ;  the  iodine,  when  liber- 
ated,apparently  combines  with  albuminoids,  and  acts  specially 
on  lymphatic  glands  and  vessels,  modifying  nutrition, 
hastening  metabolism,  and  promoting  absorption.  It  is 
doubtless  in  this  way  that  it  also  unites  with  lead  and 
mercury  deposited  in  the  tissues,  renders  them  soluble, 
carries  them  into  the  circulation,  and  causes  their  elimina- 
tion. It  is  quickly  excreted  by  the  mucous  and  skin 
surfaces,  and  by  the  kidneys.  Pull  doses  increase  both  the 
solids  and  fluids  of  the  urine. 

Toxic    Effects. — Large   doses,   such   as    three    ounces    in 

M 


178        ALTERATIVE,  DEOBSTRUENT,  AND    DIURETIC 

horses  or  cattle,  or  a  drachm  in  dogs,  enfeeble  the  heart,  and 
also  the  spinal  and  cerebral  functions.  It  causes  iodism, 
especially  when  it  is  mixed  with  iodates ;  but  this  chronic 
poisoning  is  much  rarer  in  animals  than  in  man.  Dogs 
receiving  two  to  three  drachms  dissolved  in  water  vomited, 
showed  great  depression,  and  died  in  a  few  days;  rabbits 
were  similarly  affected  by  one  drachm ;  three  drachms, 
injected  beneath  the  skin  of  the  back  of  a  dog,  caused 
extensive  subcutaneous  inflammation,  and  death  in  three 
days.  Iodine  is  detected  after  death  in  the  blood  and  urine, 
in  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  in  most  of  the  internal  organs, 
and  even  in  the  muscles  and  bones  (Cogswell). 

Medicinal  Uses. — It  is  given,  either  alone  or  with  iodine,  to 
promote  absorption  of  morbid  products,  as  in  lymphangitis 
in  horses,  pleuritic  and  other  serous  effusions,  enlarged  glands 
and  lung  consolidations  in  all  animals.  For  such  purposes 
full  doses  are  generally  prescribed  twice  or  thrice  daily  for  a 
fortnight,  and,  where  the  lesions  are  superficial,  iodine  and 
soap  liniments  are  also  used  externally.  M.  Trasbot,  from 
fourteen  years'  study  of  the  action  of  potassium  iodide,  is 
satisfied  that  in  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  pulmonary 
congestion,  especially  in  horses,  a  few  doses  diminish  the 
frequency  and  force  of  the  pulse,  the  difficulty  and  quick- 
ness of  breathing,  and  the  abnormal  temperature.  These 
benefits  are  ensured,  and  congestion  and  dryness  of  the 
bronchial  membrane  relieved,  by  conjoining  the  iodide  with 
ammonium  acetate  solution.  Trasbot  further  states  that, 
like  digitalis,  potassium  iodide  is  serviceable  in  troublesome 
cough  and  in  chronic  cardiac  cases.  These  latter  effects 
probably  depend  mainly  upon  its  action  as  a  potassium  salt. 
In  roaring.  Professor  liobertson  prescribed  potassium  iodide 
and  arsenic.  Thomassen,  of  Utrecht,  and  Professor  Nocard, 
after  extensive  experience,  trust  implicitly  to  the  iodide  in 
actinomycosis,  especially  in  those  hitherto  unsatisfactory 
cases  afiecting  the  tongue  of  cattle.  Ninety  grains  in  about 
a  pint  of  water  are  given  daily  for  eight  or  nine  days ;  within 
that  period  swelling  and  pain  abate,  the  animal  is  able  to 
eat,  and  the  cure  is  'always  successful,'  usually  within  a 
month.     Similar  treatment  has  proved  beneficial  in  disco- 


POTASSIUM    NITRATE  179 

mycosis  of  the  testicular  cord,  withers,  and  poll,  and  in  oases 
of  chronic  abscess  of  the  shoulder.  Dieckerhoff  recom- 
mends the  intratracheal  injection  of  dilute  iodine  solutions 
in  equine  purpura  hsemorrhagica,  and  other  German  practi- 
tioners have  approved  of  the  treatment.  The  solution  used 
consists  of  five  parts  potassium  iodide,  one  part  iodine,  and 
100  parts  water.  Five  drachms  of  the  solution  are  injected 
into  the  trachea  with  a  hypodermic  syringe.  It  constitutes 
the  chief  agent  in  Schmidt's  treatment  of  parturient  apo- 
plexy in  cows.  Grains  110  to  160  of  the  iodide  are  dissolved 
in  35  ounces  of  boiling  water ;  and  a  fourth  part  of  the  solu- 
tion, cooled  to  lilood  heat,  is  injected  into  each  teat.  Asthma, 
rheumatism,  and  eczema  are  frequently  benefited  by  a  course 
of  the  iodide.  In  chronic  poisoning  with  lead  or  mercury 
it  removes  the  metal  from  the  tissues  and  from  the  body. 
It  should  not  be  prescribed  with  bismuth  subnitrate,  liquorice, 
nitrous  ether  or  any  drug  containing  starch. 

Externally,  usually  with  soap  liniment  and  laudanimi,  it  is 
applied  to  painful,  swollen  rheumatic  joints,  and  to  inflamed 
udder  in  cows  and  ewes.  A  solution  of  five  grains  in  one 
ounce  of  water  is  recommended  as  an  application  for  recent 
corneal  opacities.  It  is  much  used  for  increasing  the  solu- 
bility of  iodine,  both  in  water  and  alcohol. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  gij-  to  gvj. ;  sheep  and 
pigs,  grs.  XX.  to  grs.  Ix. ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx.,  repeated  tAvo 
or  three  times  a  day,  and  given  either  in  bolus  or  solution, 
in  water  or  spirit.  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  suggests  that  its 
effects  are  increased  when  it  is  given  with  common  salt,  more 
iodine  being  thus  liberated.  A  convenient  solution  for  intra- 
tracheal  use  is  made  with  30  grains  of  iodine,  2i-  drachms 
potassium  iodide,  dissolved  in  4  ounces  of  distilled  water.  The 
dose  is  111,30  to  TltGO,  mixed  with  an  equal  measure  of  water. 

P0TAS.SIUM    Bromide.      Potassii    Bromidum.      KBr.      (See 

'  Bromine  and  Bromides.') 
Potassium  Nitrate.     Potassii  Nitras.     Nitrate  of  Potash. 

Nitre.     Saltpetre.     KNO3. 
In  the  East  Indies,  Persia,  Egypt,  Spain,  and  other  dry 
climates,  a  brown  incrustation,  consisting  largely  of  nitre, 


180  ALTERATIVE,  FEBRIFUGE,  AND    DIURETIC 

covers  considerable  tracts  of  country.  It  is  dissolved  in 
water,  mixed  with  impure  potassium  carbonate,  and  purified 
by  repeated  solution  and  crystallisation.  By  decomposing 
sodium  nitrate  with  potassium  chloride,  nitre  is  also 
prepared. 

Properties. — White,  opaque,  crystalline  masses,  or  trans- 
parent, colourless,  anhydrous,  slender,  six-sided  prisms,  with 
a  sharp,  cooling,  saline  taste,  undergoing  no  alteration  in  the 
air,  deflagrating  when  thrown  on  flame.  It  is  soluble  in 
3i  parts  of  cold  water,  and  one-third  of  its  weight  of  boiling 
water ;  during  solution  much  heat  is  abstracted ;  it  is  in- 
soluble in  alcohol.  Warmed  in  a  test-tube,  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  copper  filings,  it  evolves  ruddy  fumes  of  nitric 
peroxide;  heated  to  fusion,  the  melted  mass  forms,  on 
cooling,  the  hard,  white,  fibrous  sal-prunelle.  None  of  its 
conunon  impurities  interfere  with  its  medicinal  actions. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Large  doses  irritate  both  the  bowels 
and  kidneys.  IMedicinal  doses  are  alterative,  febrifuge,  diur- 
etic, and  feebly  cathartic.  It  is  excreted  by  the  bronchial 
meml)rane,  the  skin  and  kidneys,  increasing  the  secretions 
of  these  organs.  Used  externally,  it  is  stinuilant  and 
refrigerant. 

Toxic  Effects. — Large  doses  cause,  in  man  and  carnivora, 
fatal  gastro-enteritis,  Avith  vomiting,  weakness,  and  arrest 
of  circulation,  partly  depending  on  reflex  action,  partly  on 
direct  action  on  the  heart  (Brunton).  Dr.  Paul  Guttmann, 
experimenting,  chiefly  upon  dogs,  states  that,  in  common 
with  other  potash  salts,  poisonous  doses,  besides  in-contact 
irritation,  paralyse  the  spinal  cord,  cause  dyspnwa,  and 
occasionally  convulsions  and  muscular  weakness,  first  over- 
taking the  hind  extremities,  and  lessen  the  frequency  and 
force  of  the  heart-beat,  which  in  fatal  cases  ceases  in  diastole. 
Although  an  ounce  has  proved  fatal  in  human  patients, 
two  ounces  have  no  permanent  injurious  eftect  on  horses  or 
cattle.  Mr.  Morton,  indeed,  gave  a  healthy  horse  2  pounds, 
dissolved  in  (3  pounds  water,  and  found  that  it  acted  both 
on  the  kidneys  and  bowels,  but  that  its  eflects  ceased  in 
twenty-four  hours  {Vctermarian,  1837).  Moiroud,  however, 
reports  that  half  a  pound  given  to  horses,  and  two  or  three 


rOTASSIUM    NITRATE  181 

drachms  to  dogs,  inflame  the  alimentary  canal  and  urinary 
organs,  causing  depression  and  death,  usually  within  twenty- 
four  hours.  Kaufmann  states  six  ounces  as  the  toxic  dose 
for  horses  and  cattle,  six  drachms  for  sheep,  and  seventy-tive 
grains  for  dogs. 

Medicinal  Uses. — It  is  soluble,  diffusible,  and  quickly 
enters  the  blood ;  but  its  action  on  living  blood  and  on 
tissue  metamorphosis  has  not  been  clearly  explained.  As  a 
potash  salt,  and  also  as  a  nitrate,  it  reduces  cardiac  action. 
It  promotes  bronchial,  cutaneous,  and  urinary  secretion. 
Clinical  experience  accords  it  notaUe  alterative  and  febri- 
fuge properties.  In  conjunction  with  ammonium  acetate 
solution,  it  is  prescribed  in  catarrhal  disorders,  in  which  it 
has  the  twofold  advantage  of  promoting  discharge  from  the 
dry  respiratory  membrane  and  abating  fever.  American 
practitioners  use  nitre  freely  in  laminitis,  which,  owing  to 
careless  feeding  and  long  fasts,  is  still  common  in  America ; 
they  give  two  ounces,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  repeated 
thrice  daily,  and  assure  me  that  fever  and  pain  are  abated 
and  exudation  controlled.  One  fourth  of  this  dose  would 
be  safer,  and  perhaps  equally  effectual.  Repeated  doses, 
conjoined  with  quinine,  are  given  in  purpura.  It  is  service- 
able in  rheumatism,  being  frequently  prescribed  with  the 
carbonate  or  iodide,  or  with  salicylic  acid. 

Nitre,  when  dissolving  in  water,  abstracts  heat,  and  is 
hence  sometimes  used  externally  as  a  refrigerant ;  its  cooling 
effects  are  increased  by  admixture  with  sal-ammoniac.  Five 
ounces  each  of  nitre  and  sal-ammoniac,  dissolved  in  sixteen 
of  water,  reduce  the  temperature  from  50°  to  10°  Fahr. 
(Pereira).  For  such  purposes  ice,  however,  is  cheaper,  and 
more  convenient. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  diuretic,  horses  take  §ss.  to  §j. ;  cattle, 
gj.  to  §ij. ;  sheep,  5j.  to  gij. ;  pigs,  gss.  to  5j. ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to 
grs.  XXX.  Soap,  resin,  with  other  diuretics,  and  free  solution 
in  water,  hasten  and  increase  the  action  of  nitre  on  the 
kidneys. 

A  diuretic  mass  is  thus  made : — Take  soap  and  nitre,  of 
each  lbs.  ij. ;  resin,  lbs.  iij. ;  Venice  turpentine,  lbs.  ij.;  oil  of 
turpentine,  f§viij.      Melt  the  soap  and  resin  over  a  slow  fire; 


182  FEBRIFUGE    PRESCRIPTIONS 

remove  the  mixture  from  the  heat,  and  when  it  has  some- 
what cooled  stir  in  the  other  constituents.  The  dose  of  this 
mass  is  §ij.  The  balls  are  made  up  with  a  little  linseed 
meal  or  flour. 

As  an  alterative  and  febrifuge  nitre  is  given  in  about 
half  the  doses  used  to  cause  diuresis,  is  repeated  several 
times  a  day,  and  is  generally  conjoined  with  other  medicines. 
A  febrifuge  and  la.xative  ball  for  the  horse  is  prepared 
with  an  ounce  of  nitre,  a  drachm  of  aloes,  and  twenty 
grains  of  calomel.  For  a  horse  with  catarrh  and  impaired 
appetite,  a  useful  draught  is  made  with  Epsom  salt  two 
ounces,  and  nitre  and  ammonia  acetate  solution,  of  each  an 
ounce,  dissolved  in  gruel  or  ale.  Catarrhal  symptoms  and 
sore-throat  are  relieved  by  four  drachms  nitre  and  one 
drachm  each  of  ipecacuanha,  camphor,  and  belladonna  ex- 
tract, made  into  bolus,  and  repeated  every  four  or  six  hours. 
An  ounce  each  of  potassium  nitrate  and  carbonate,  with  two 
drachms  iodide,  are  useful  in  rheumatism.  Amongst  cattle 
similar  combinations  are  serviceable.  For  them  a  convenient 
alterative  is  made  with  two  ounces  each  of  nitre,  sulphur, 
and  ginger,  given  in  treacle  and  water,  or  in  ale. 

For  the  dog  a  good  febrifuge  consists  of  five  grains  each 
of  nitre  and  Dover's  powder,  and  one  grain  calomel,  placed 
upon  the  tongue,  or  bolted  in  a  piece  of  meat,  or  made  into 
a  pill.  Mr.  Mayhew  recommends  three  to  eight  grains  nitre, 
one  to  four  grains  James's  powder,  and  the  same  quantity  of 
belladonna  extract,  made  into  pill  with  confection  of  roses. 
Cats  take  about  half  the  dose  requisite  for  dogs. 

Potassium  Chlorate.  Potassii  Chloras.  Chlorate  of  Potash. 
KCIO3. 
Chlorine  gas  is  passed  rapidly  into  a  strong  solution  of 
potassium  carbonate  and  calcium  hydrate.  The  hypo- 
chlorate  first  formed  is  decomposed  by  the  heat  evolved. 
The  mass,  when  charged  with  chlorine,  as  indicated  by  its 
acquiring  a  pink  colour,  is  boiled,  and  the  crystals  formed  in 
cooling  are  purified  by  re-solution  in  boiling  water.  They 
are  colourless  rhomboidal  plates,  have  a  cool  saline  taste,  are 


POTASSIUM    CHLORATE  183 

soluble  in  sixteen  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  two  parts  at 
212°  Fahr.  The  salt  readily  parts  with  its  oxygen;  thrown 
on  red-hot  coal  it  deflagrates;  triturated  with  sulphur  or 
phosphorus  it  explodes.  Explosive  gases  are  also  evolved 
when  it  is  heated  with  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Potassium  chlorate  is  antiseptic,  altera- 
tive, sialagogue,  and  diuretic;  used  externally,  it  is  anti- 
septic, mildly  stimulant,  and  refrigerant.  It  is  less  soluble 
than  sodium  chlorate,  which  it  closely  resembles. 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  chlorate  does  not  exhibit  the  charac- 
teristic actions  of  potassium  salts,  but  it  readil}*  parts  with 
chloric  acid  and  oxygen,  and  in  some  of  its  actions  resembles 
the  nitrites.  Poisonous  doses  highly  oxidise  the  hsemoglobin 
of  the  blood,  converting  it  into  methasmoglobin,  which  holds 
oxygen  firmly,  and  thus  interferes  with  aeration  of  blood  in 
the  remote  capillaries.  Resjiiration  accordingly  is  impaired, 
blood-pressure  falls,  hsematuria  and  asphyxial  convulsions 
precede  death.  A  small  quantit}"  mixed  with  recently- 
drawn  blood  increases  its  coagulability  and  keeping  pro- 
perties. Used  as  a  wash  or  gargle,  it  stimulates  the  salivary 
and  buccal  glands,  moistening  the  dry,  parched  mouth.  It 
soothes  and  heals  aphthous  eruptions  and  ulcerations  of  the 
mouth  and  throat;  while  in  catarrh,  sore-throat,  and  bron- 
chitis it  thins  the  secretions  and  promotes  expectoration. 

It  is  readil}'  absorbed,  and  in  febrile  and  blood-poisoning 
cases  is  believed  to  exert  antiseptic  effects,  depending  upon 
its  sahne  properties,  and  on  its  readily  parting  with  oxygen 
and  chloric  acid.  But  this  explanation  is  not  altogether 
satisfactory,  for  it  is  excreted  in  great  part  unchanged,  small 
doses  being  removed  by  the  kidneys,  and  larger  by  the 
bowels.  Like  other  salines,  in  febrile  and  inflammatory 
cases,  whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  it  is  believed  to  lower 
pulse  and  temperature,  clean  the  tongue,  improve  appetite, 
gently  stimulate  the  bowels,  and  render  the  evacuations 
more  natural  and  less  coated  with  mucus.  It  is  frequently 
prescribed  with  Epsom  salt,  gentian,  or  ether.  Hard-worked 
horses,  overdone  or  suffering  from  catarrh,  are  usually 
benefited  by  half  an  ounce,  given  night  and  morning,  with 
gentian  and  ether.     In  the  catarrhal  epizootic  of  horses. 


184  PERMANGANATE    OF   POTASH 

Principal  Robertson  ordered  it  with  sweet  spirit  of  nitre  and 
camphor.  In  the  treament  of  purpura,  Professor  Williams 
prescribes  it  usually  Avitli  iron  salts,  and  believes  that  it 
increases— as  it  does  outside  the  body — the  coagulability  of 
blood.  He  gives  an  ounce  daily,  divided  into  two  or  three 
doses,  but  after  the  second  day  finds  that  smaller  doses 
suffice.  It  is  rapidly  eliminated  in  the  urine — rendering  it 
acid  even  in  herbivora — and  also  in  the  sweat,  bile,  milk, 
and  saliva. 

Solutions  of  six  to  twenty  grains  to  tlic  ounce  of  water 
and  glycerin  are  used  as  antiseptic  stimulants  for  unhealthy 
wounds. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  5j-  to  5iv.;  cattle,  5ij.  to  5yj.; 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  Ix. ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv., 
repeated  two  or  three  times  daily,  given  either  in  bolus  or 
solution,  alone  or  conjoined  Avith  other  salines,  bitters,  tonics, 
or  stimulants.  Most  horses  of  their  own  accord  will  take  an 
ounce  daily,  dissolved  in  water  or  gruel.  As  a  soothing 
electuary  for  sore-throat  it  is  conjoined  with  camphor,  bella- 
donna, and  treacle. 


Potassium  Permanganate.    Potassii  Permanganas.   Condy's 
Red  Fluid.     (KgMngOg.) 

Potassium  permanganate  is  obtained  by  the  interaction 
of  manganese  dioxide,  potassium  hydrate,  and  potassium 
chlorate.  In  dark  purple  crystals,  with  a  sweet,  astringent, 
disagreeable  taste.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  cold  water, 
producing  a  deep-red  solution.  So  readily  does  it  part 
with  oxygen  that  when  mixed  with  such  easily  oxidised 
substances  as  sugar  and  glycerin  it  takes  fire  or  explodes 
spontaneously.  The  solution  also  readily  evolves  oxgyen 
and  hence  is  an  effectual  bleacher  and  deodoriser.  Condy's 
red  disinfecting  fluid  is  a  mixture  of  potassium  and  sodium 
permanganates,  and  is  about  half  the  strength  of  the  B.P. 
liquor  potassii  permanganatis,  which  contains  about  one  per 
cent,  of  the  salt. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  permanganates,  in  virtue  of  their 
power  of  oxidation,  are  deodorisers,  and  also  topical  stimu- 


POTASSIUM    PERMANGANATE  185 

lants.  Strong  solutions  are  irritant  and  caustic.  Their 
power  of  breaking  up  various  unstable  organic  substances 
is  further  illustrated  when  they  are  mixed  with  the  cobra 
poison,  which,  thus  treated,  loses  its  deadly  power,  and  may 
with  impunity  be  injected  subcutaneously.  When  an  animal, 
however,  has  been  bitten  by  a  cobra,  the  permanganate  solu- 
tion, hypodermically  injected,  appears  to  be  decomposed 
before  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  poison,  and  has  no 
antidotal  effect.  Fifteen  minims  of  a  one  per  cent,  solution, 
injected  into  the  bitten  part,  is  more  reliable.  When 
swallowed  it  does  not  seem  to  exert  the  alterative  or 
febrifuge  effects  of  the  nitrate  or  chlorate.  It  is  an  antidote 
to  poisoning  by  opium. 

Potassium  permanganate,  although  it  has  not  the  anti- 
septic power  of  corrosive  sublimate,  effectually  destroys 
bacteria,  and  Koch  found  that  a  five  per  cent,  solution 
arrested  development  of  the  spores  of  anthrax  soaked  in  it 
for  one  day.  It  is  used  to  deodorise  and  disinfect  foetid 
wounds,  the  nostrils  in  ozena,  the  mouth  in  aphtha,  the 
throat  when  ulcerated,  the  uterus  in  retention  of  the  fcetal 
membranes,  and  also  to  cleanse  hands  and  instruments 
that  have  been  in  contact  with  decomposing  or  contagious 
matters. 

Permanganate  solutions,  in  the  convenient  form  of  Condy's 
fluid,  are  frequently  placed  in  shallow  vessels  about  build- 
ings to  be  deodorised  :  or  cloths,  saturated  with  one  part  of 
the  fluid  to  fifty  or  sixty  of  water,  are  suspended.  But  for 
thorough  disinfection  such  a  non-volatile  body  is  not  so 
trustworthy  as  chlorine,  sulphurous  acid,  or  the  volatile  tar 
acids.  Effectual  results  are,  however,  obtained  when  the 
permanganates  are  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  the 
injurious  organic  particles.  Thus,  four  ounces  of  Condy's 
red  disinfecting  fluid,  added  to  100  gallons  of  stale-smelling, 
unsightly  rain-water  left  in  a  foul  cistern,  usually  precipi- 
tates all  impurities,  and  after  some  hours  the  clarified  water 
becomes  sweet  and  fit  for  use.  The  rapidity  with  which  a 
known  quantity  of  the  permanganate  solution  parts  with 
oxygen  and  loses  its  purple  or  pink  colour,  is  a  test  of  the 
amount  of  organic  contamination  in  water,  other  fluids,  or 


186        POTASH    ACETATE,    CITRATE,    AND   TARTRATE 

even  in  air.      Its  expense,  however,  precludes  its  general  use 
in  veterinary  practice. 

Doses,  etc. — Potassium  permanganate  has  been  given  to 
horses  and  cattle  as  an  alterative  and  febrifuge  in  drachm 
doses ;  but  observation  does  not  justify  its  preference  to  the 
nitrate  or  chlorate.  For  antiseptic  and  deodorant  purposes 
Condy's  red  fluid  is  dissolved  in  50  to  100  parts  of  water. 

Potassium  Acetate.     Potassii  Acetas.    Acetate  of  Potash. 
Potassium  Citrate.     Potassii  Citras.     Citrate  of  Potash. 

Potassium  acetate  is  prepared  by  fusing  the  product  of 
the  interaction  of  acetic  acid  and  potassium  carbonate.  In 
Avhite,  foliaceous,  satiny  masses,  or  in  granular  particles,  very 
deliquescent,  and  freely  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  In 
their  actions  and  uses  the  acetate  and  citrate  closely  re- 
semble the  nitrate.  Without  action  on  the  gastric  juice, 
they  render  the  urine  and  other  secretions  strongly  alkaline. 
Like  other  alkaline  salts  containing  a  vegetable  acid,  when 
they  enter  the  body  they  are  mainly  converted  into  the 
carbonate,  and  are  eliminated  in  the  urine,  producing 
diuresis.  The  acetate  and  citrate  of  potassium  are  the  in- 
organic diuretics  most  frequently  prescribed  in  human 
medicine.  The  doses  for  horses,  cattle,  etc.  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  nitrate. 

Acid  Potassium  Tartrate.   Potassii  Tartras  Acidus.   Cream 
of  Tartar.     KHC^H.O,. 

Potassium  Tartrate.     Potassii  Tartras.     KgC^H^Og.HgO. 

The  crude  tartar  or  argol,  obtained  from  the  interior  of 
wine-casks,  when  purified  by  solution  and  crystallisation, 
occurs  in  white,  hard,  crystalline  masses,  with  a  sharp,  acid 
taste.  When  administered  it  retains  water  with  avidity,  and 
is  slowly  absorbed ;  although  it  does  not  cause  intestinal 
irritation  or  peristalsis,  doses  of  several  ounces  given  to 
horses  or  cattle  render  the  ftuces  fluid,  and  arc  mildly 
laxative.  Smaller  doses,  like  those  of  the  alkaline  salts  of 
most  organic  acids,  are  converted  in  the  body  into  the  car- 
bonate, and  excreted  mostly  in  the  urine,  causing  diuresis. 


SODIUM    SALTS  187 

The  normal  potassium  tartrate  is  obtained  by  neutral- 
ising acid  potassium  tartrate  with  potassium  carbonate.  It 
occurs  in  small,  colourless  four-  or  six-sided  prisms.  It 
resembles  the  acetate  and  nitrate ;  in  small  doses  is  diu- 
retic, in  larger  purgative.  Professor  Robertson  used  to 
recommend  it  witli  magnesium  or  sodium  sulphate  for 
anremic  young  horses  affected  with  congested  liver. 

SODIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

Sodium  salts  abound  in  the  ashes  of  marine  and  maritime 
plants.  They  occur  native  in  the  Chili  nitre  beds  and  in 
borax,  but  their  chief  commercial  source  is  the  chloride 
obtained  from  rock-salt  deposits,  or  from  the  evaporation  of 
sea-water.  They  are  soluble,  with  the  single  exception  of 
the  antimoniate,  which  goes  down  very  slowly  from  solution. 
They  are  distinguished  by  their  negative  reaction  with  the 
several  group  tests,  and  by  their  communicating  to  the  flame 
of  burning  alcohol  a  bright  yellow  colour. 

Actions  and  Uses.— SodiuTn  salts,  chiefly  as  albuminates, 
chlorides,  and  phosphates,  are  constituents  of  the  blood,  bile, 
serous  fluids,  and  indeed  of  all  animal  secretions  and  tex- 
tures. The  more  soluble  salts,  in  small  doses  and  diluted 
solution,  are  chiefly  execreted  by  the  kidneys  ;  while  the 
less  soluble,  in  larger  doses  and  more  concentrated  solution, 
are  removed  by  the  bowels. 

Like  potassium  salts,  they  may  be  grouped  as  follows : — 

1.  The  hydrate,  carbonates,  and  salts  of  organic  acids, 
which  in  the  body  are  converted  into  carbonates,  are  antacid, 
alterative,  and  slightly  diuretic.  The  hydrate  and  carbonate 
are  caustics.  Sodium  ethylate  solution  contains  18  per  cent, 
of  the  solid  salt  (NaC^H^O),  is  a  colourless,  syrupy  liquid, 
becoming  brown  by  keeping,  and  is  used  as  a  caustic. 

2.  The  chloride,  sulphate,  and  nitrate  act  as  soluble  crys- 
talloids, are  antiseptic,  febrifuge,  and  refrigerant ;  small  doses 
are  slightly  diuretic,  while  large  doses  are  cathartic. 

3.  The  borate,  benzoate,  hyposulphite,  sulpho-carbolate 
chlorate,  salicylate,  and  valerianate  resemble  their  acid  or 
salt  radical  rather  than  their  base. 


188  SODIUM    CARBONATES 

Sodium    Hydroxide.      Sodium    Hydrate.      Caustic    Soda. 
NaHO. 

Sodium  Carbonate.     Sodii  (Jarbonas.     Carbonate  of  Soda. 
Na,CO3.10Aq. 

Sodium  Bicarbonate.      Sodii  Bicarbonas,     Bicarbonate  of 
Soda.     NaHCOg. 

Sodium  hydrate  and  solution  of  caustic  soda  resemble  in 
their  preparation  and  general  properties  the  corresponding 
potassium  compounds,  but  are  little  used  in  veterinary 
practice. 

The  carbonate  was  formerly  obtained  by  lixiviating  the 
ashes  of  marine  plants,  and  from  the  native  sesqui-carbonate 
or  natron  found  as  an  efflorescence  on  the  margins  of  lakes 
in  warm  climates.  It  is  now  obtained  from  common  salt, 
by  heating  it  in  furnaces  with  sulphuric  acid ;  the  sulphate 
thus  prepared  is  converted  into  sulphide,  and  thence  into 
carbonate,  by  roasting  with  coal  or  slack  and  limestone ; 
lixiviating,  calcining,  and  crystallising.  From  a  saturated 
solution  of  this  soda  ash  there  separate  large  transparent, 
colourless,  laminar,  rhombic  crystals  of  hydrated  carbonate 
(Na.2CO3.lOAq.).  The  water  may  be  driven  off  by  heating 
to  120'  Fahr.,  when  the  dried  granular  sodium  carbonate 
remains.  The  carbonate  in  its  several  forms  is  alkaline  to 
taste  and  reagents,  efflorescent,  and  soluble  in  one  to  two 
parts  of  water. 

The  bicarbonate  produced  by  saturating  the  carbonate 
with  carbonic  anhydride  occurs  as  a  white  crystalline  powder, 
or  aggregation  of  irregular  opaque  scales,  has  a  saline,  slightly 
alkaline,  not  unpleasant  taste,  is  soluble  in  about  ten  parts 
of  cold  water,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  carbonate  by  its 
feeble  alkalinity,  and  its  giving  a  colourless  instead  of  a 
coloured  precipitate  with  corrosive  sublimate.  Soda  water, 
as  ordinarily  sold,  is  simply  aerated  water,  but  it  should 
contain  in  every  pint  thirty  grains  of  bicarbonate,  and  be 
saturated  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  dissolved  under  pressure 
of  four  atmospheres. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Sodium  carbonate  and  bicarbonate  are 
antacids  and  alteratives.     They  differ  only  in  the  degree  of 


ANTACID    AND    ALTERATIVE  189 

their  action,  and  resemble  the  corresponding  potassium 
salts. 

Medicdial  Uses. — Small  doses  given  a  quarter  to  half  an 
hour  before  meals  increase  secretion  of  gastric  juice.  Given 
with  or  after  food,  they  aid  the  eraulsionising  and  digestion 
of  fats,  and  neutralise  the  acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  as  well  as 
any  acid  produced  by  excessive  fermentation  of  food.  They 
are  hence  sometimes  serviceable  in  relieving  indigestion  and 
flatulence,  their  ethcacy  being  increased  by  administration 
with  aromatics  or  stimulants.  Young  calves  fed  on  stale 
skim  milk,  and  suffering  from  atonic  dyspepsia,  are  often 
relieved  by  one  to  two  drachms  of  sodium  bicarbonate  and 
30  grains  of  bismuth  carbonate,  dissolved  in  each  meal  of 
milk.  Dieckerhoff  and  others  have  successfully  treated 
hasmoglobinuria  with  half  a  pound  to  a  pound  daily  given  in 
doses  of  two  ounces  every  hour.  Xormal  alkalinity  of  blood 
and  muscle  is  believed  to  be  secured,  and  further  solution 
of  ha?moglobin  arrested  {Veieriv avian,  1896).  They  are 
antidotes  in  poisoning  by  mineral  and  other  acids;  being 
less  irritant  than  the  corresponding  potassium  salts,  they 
are  preferred  for  stimulating  secretion  of  gastric  juice  and 
neutralising  acids  in  the  alimentary  canal,  Avhile  potassium 
carbonates  are  more  effectual  antacids  in  rheumatism  or 
acidity  of  the  urine,  and  are  more  active  diuretics. 

Sodium  carbonate  solutions  lessen  irritation  of  urticaria, 
lichen,  and  other  skin  eruptions,  but  are  not  so  effectual  as 
potassium  carbonates.  In  more  chronic  cases  the  alkaline 
dressings  are  alternated  with  tar  or  oil  of  cade.  Leucorrhcea 
is  usually  arrested  by  two  or  three  injections  of  diluted 
sodium  bicarbonate.  A  stronger  solution  abates  the  pain 
of  burns. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  carbonate,  horses  and  cattle  take  5j-  to 
5ij. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  1. ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv. 
The  bicarbonate,  although  less  active  than  the  carbonate,  is 
more  convenient  for  general  use,  and  is  given  in  double  these 
doses,  either  in  bolus  or  solution.  It  is  frequently  given 
dissolved  in  the  drinking  water  to  dyspeptic,  diabetic,  or 
febrile  horses. 


190  SODIUM    BIBORATE 

Borax.     Sodium  Biborate.     Sodium  Pyroborate.     NagB^O^. 
lOAq. 

Borax  occurs  native  in  certain  Austrian  mineral  waters,  as 
an  incrustation  on  the  cdf^es  of  various  lakes  in  Thibet  and 
Persia,  and  in  streams  in  Southern  California,  As  crude 
borax  or  tincal,  it  is  imported  from  Calcutta  in  greenisli 
pieces,  moistened  with  oil  to  prevent  efHorescence.  It  is 
purified  by  calcining  and  recrystallising.  Borax  is  now  got 
by  calcining  together,  in  proper  proportions,  boric  acid  and 
sodium  carbonate. 

In  colourless  crystals,  with  a  saline,  cooling  taste,  soluble 
in  25  parts  of  cold  and  two  of  hot  water,  and  in  one  of 
glycerin  ;  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Heated,  it  melts  in  its  water 
of  crystallisation,  and  swells  into  the  porous  borax  usta; 
at  a  red-heat  it  becomes  the  transparent  glass  or  anhydrous 
borax  used  as  a  flux. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Borax  is  antiseptic,  parasiticide,  slightly 
astringent,  and  alkaline,  and  is  used  to  relieve  irritation  of 
the  skin  and  mucous  membranes. 

It  has  notable  antiseptic  powers ;  one  part  in  100  of  water 
arrests  the  action  of  emulsin,  diastase,  and  ptyalin:  while 
one  part  in  1000  of  water  prevents  the  action  of  rennet ;  it 
requires,  however,  according  to  Koch,  one  part  in  forty-eight 
of  water  to  kill  developed  bacteria. 

It  has  been  prescribed  in  the  same  doses  as  the  bicar- 
bonate in  gastric  irritation.  It  is  a  useful  antiseptic  in 
aphthous  and  ulcerated  conditions  of  the  mouth  and 
fauces,  is  sometimes  conjoined  with  potassium  chlorate,  and 
applied  either  in  powder  or  with  '  Sanitas,'  or  glycerin  and 
water.  It  allays  irritation  and  itching  in  many  cases  of 
erythema,  intertrigo,  eczema,  and  psoriasis.  It  is  prefer- 
able to  more  active  and  poisonous  remedies  for  dogs,  which 
are  apt  to  lick  their  dressings.  In  acute  eczema  one  part 
each  of  borax  and  alum  is  used,  dissolved  in  fifty  parts  of 
water.  It  is  an  elVcctual  injection  for  leucorrha'a.  In 
America  it  is  used  for  the  destruction  of  cockroaches.  It  is 
a  good  solvent  for  salicylic  and  benzoic  acids.  Glycerin  of 
borax  is  made  with  one  part  of  borax  and  six  of  glycerin. 


SODIUM    SULPHATE  191 

Mel  Boracis  is  composed  of  2  parts  borax,  1  of  glycerin,  and 
16  of  honey. 

Sodium   Sulphate.      Sodii    Sulphas.      Sulphate    of   Soda. 
Glauber's  Salt.     Na.SO^.lOAq. 

The  sulphate  effloresces  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in 
various  parts  of  India,  occurs  in  masses  in  Spain,  and  is 
a  constituent  of  sea-water,  of  many  aperient  mineral  waters, 
of  various  plants,  and  of  several  animal  secretions.  When 
two  parts  sodium  chloride  are  heated  with  one  part  sul- 
phuric acid,  hydrochloric  acid  is  evolved,  and  sodium  sul- 
phate crystallises  from  the  solution.  It  occurs  in  colourless, 
transparent,  oblique  prisms,  which  effloresce  on  exposure  to 
air,  have  a  saline,  bitter  taste,  and  at  60°  Fahr.  are  soluble 
in  less  than  their  own  weight  of  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  exhibits  the  typical  actions  of  the 
alkaline  group,  is  cathartic,  slightly  diuretic,  febrifuge,  and 
cholagogue. 

Unlike  the  magnesium  sulphate,  it  has  no  toxic  effect 
when  injected  into  the  circulation.  Like  other  saline  purga- 
tives, it  has  a  low  diffusive  power ;  it  impedes  absorption  of 
fluids  present  in  the  intestines,  increases  both  secretion  and 
peristalsis,  and  thus  augments  the  quantity  and  fluidity  of 
the  dejections.  Not  only  does  it  carry  away  bile  lodged  in 
the  duodenum,  and  thus  prevent  its  reabsorption,  but  Pro- 
fessor Rutherford,  experimenting  on  fasting  dogs,  found  that, 
unlike  the  magnesium  sulphate,  it  acts  upon  the  hepatic 
cells  and  augments  secretion  of  bile.  The  phosphate  of 
soda  has  a  similar  moderate  cholagogue  action,  and  both  are 
accordingly  with  reason  used  in  congested  conditions  of  the 
liver.  While  large  doses  of  Glauber  salt  are  removed  b}^  the 
bowels,  small  doses,  freely  diluted,  pass  off,  in  great  part 
unchanged,  by  the  kidneys.  Although  little  used  for 
horses,  it  is  still  prescribed  for  cattle  and  sheep,  for  the 
same  purposes  as  Epsom  salt,  with  Avhich  it  is  sometimes 
conjoined.  Catharsis  is  seldom,  however,  produced  within 
twenty-four  hours.  It  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by  car- 
bolic acid  and  barium  chloride.     In  dogs  it  acts  both  as  an 


192  SODIUM    SULPHITES 

emetic  and  purgative.     It  abstracts  heat  when  treated  with 
a  mineral  acid. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  purgative  cattle  take  lb.  j.  to  lb.  jss. ; 
sheep,  ^^ij.  to  §iv.,  given  with  ginger  and  treacle,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  liberal  supplies  of  chilled  water.  As  a  febrifuge 
for  horses  §ij.  to  §jv.  may  be  given. 

Sodium  Sulphite.     Normal  Sulphite.     Sodii  Sulphis.     Na^ 
SOg.TAq. 

Sodium    Hyposulphite.      Hyposulphite    of    Soda.      Sodii 
Hyposulphis.     NagSgOg.SAq. 

Sodium  sulphite  may  be  obtained  by  the  interaction  of 
sulphurous  acid  and  sodium  carbonate.  In  colourless 
crystals,  efflorescent,  inodorous,  with  a  saline  taste. 

Sodium  hyposulphite  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  sul- 
phur in  a  boiling  solution  of  sodium  sulphite  and  crystal- 
lising. The  hyposulphite  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and 
fusible.     It  is  more  permanent  than  the  sulphite. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  sulphite  and  hyposulphite  are 
antiseptics,  deodorisers,  and  insecticides.  In  the  presence 
of  acids,  without  and  also  within  the  body,  they  give  off 
sulphurous  acid,  which  they  therefore  resemble.  They  de- 
stroy ferments  and  bacteria,  and  remove  offensive  smells — 
properties  greatly  increased  when  they  are  used  along  with 
the  tar  acids.  When  standing  long  in  contact  with  water 
the  sulphite  decomposes  and  gives  off  hydrogen  sulphide. 

General  Actions. — Sodium  sulphite  and  hyposulphite, 
when  swallowed,  are  absorbed,  remove  noisome  smells  and 
acridity  from  unhealthy  secretions,  and  are  excreted  mostly 
as  sulphates.  Professor  PoUi,  of  Milan,  made  upwards  of 
three  hundred  experiments  with  acid  sulphite,  mostly  upon 
dogs,  and  found  that  it  materially  diminished  the  effects 
of  animal  poisons.  He  gave  dogs  225  grains  daily  for  a 
fortnight ;  very  moderate  doses  were  detectable  in  twenty- 
four  hours  in  the  blood,  liver,  and  m-ine  ;  two  ounces  of 
blood  drawn  from  dogs,  which  for  five  days  had  received 
daily  with  their  food  thirty  grains  of  sulphite,  kejjt  fresh 
for  three  weeks ;    while  blood  taken   from   dogs   similarly 


SODIUM    SULPHITE    SOLUTION  193 

fed,  but  receiving  no  sulphite,  became  putrid  within  a  few 
days.  Full  doses,  given  previous  to  death,  retarded  or  pre- 
vented putrefaction  of  the  body. 

Professor  Polli  injected  fifteen  grains  of  foetid  pus  from 
an  abscess  into  the  thighs  of  two  dogs,  and  next  day  re- 
peated the  injection.  Both  dogs  were  stupefied,  reeled, 
and  tottered  when  made  to  walk,  while  their  pulse  and 
breathing  were  much  quickened.  For  five  days  previously 
both  dogs  had  been  treated  exactly  alike,  with  this  differ- 
ence only,  that  one  had  received  daily  thirty  grains  of 
sodium  sulphite,  which  was  continued  throughout  the 
experiment.  In  four  days  after  the  injection  this  dog  was 
again  eating,  and  the  wound  in  his  thigh  healing.  The 
other,  receiving  no  sulphite,  daily  became  worse,  gangrene 
set  in,  and  in  ten  days  he  died,  exhausted.  Similar  results 
followed  injection  into  the  femoral  vein  of  bullock's  blood 
kept  for  four  months,  and  offensively  putrid.  Dogs  that 
had  previously  received  the  sulphite  recovered  their  appe- 
tite, and  were  almost  well  in  three  days ;  while  those 
managed  in  the  same  manner,  but  not  receiving  sulphite, 
died  comatose  in  five  days,  suffering  from  low  fever  and 
gangrene.  Forty -five  grains  of  the  muco- purulent  dis- 
charge from  a  glandered  horse  were  injected  into  the 
femoral  veins  of  two  strong,  healthy  dogs,  one  of  which  for 
several  daj-s  had  received  two  drachms  daily  of  sodium 
sulphite,  and  although  at  first  seeming  to  suffer  most,  in 
a  few  hours  was  able  to  eat,  and  was  next  day  in  tolerable 
health.  The  other,  however,  was  fevered  and  prostrate,  the 
limb  became  tender,  oedematous,  and  gangrenous,  a  purulent 
discharge  ran  from  the  nose  and  eyes,  and  death  occurred 
on  the  sixth  day. 

Medicinal  Uses. — These  experiments  held  out  great  hopes 
that  septicaemia  might  be  prevented  or  cured  by  sulphites. 
But  repeated  careful  clinical  observation  has  not  justified 
the  high  expectations  formed  of  them,  and  their  adminis- 
tration does  not  appear  to  arrest  or  materially  alter  the 
course  of  febrile,  contagious,  or  zymotic  diseases.  Amongst 
horses  they  have  been  given  in  febrile  e^ttacks,  and  in  such 
cases  many  American  practitioners  have  given  me  favourable 

N 


194  SODIUM   HYPOSULPHITE   SOLUTION 

reports  of  them.  Reasoning  from  their  physiological 
actions,  they  should  be  serviceable  in  inveterate  skin  dis- 
orders, tedious  cases  of  strangles,  and  rheumatism.  They 
relieve  acidity  and  flatulence  occurring  in  badly-fed  young 
calves.  The  sul})hitG,  in  ounce  doses, given  thrice  daily,  lowers 
temperature,  and  relieves  the  breathing  in  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia of  cattle.  In  cattle  plague  it  has  been  given 
both  by  the  mouth  and  injected  into  the  veins,  and  although 
it  did  not  cure,  it  abated  fever,  lowered  excessive  tempera- 
ture, and  prolonged  life.  Mixed  with  treacle  and  placed 
within  the  lips,  it  diminishes  irritation,  smell,  and  acrid 
dischargee  in  foot-and-mouth  disease.  Used  alone,  and 
occasionally  with  potassium  chlorate,  it  has  been  given 
to  young  cattle  to  prevent  attacks  of  black-leg,  half-ounce 
or  ounce  doses  for  this  object  being  administered  with 
the  ordinary  food  for  three  or  four  days  consecutively 
during  every  fortnight.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  precise 
value  of  such  preventives,  adopted,  as  they  often  are,  in 
conjunction  witli  more  careful  feeding  and  management. 
In  distemper  in  dogs,  ten  to  twenty  grains  of  sulphite,  or 
hyposulphite,  are  given  twice  daily  to  regulate  the  bowels 
and  abate  the  fever. 

Dr.  A.  J.  Harrison,  at  the  British  Medical  Association 
Meeting  at  Nottingham  in  1892,  reported  the  successful 
treatment,  in  the  Clifton  Zoological  Gardens,  of  monkeys 
suffering'  from  lupus,  by  saturating  the  affected  parts,  daily 
or  as  required,  with  a  solution  of  forty  grains  of  sodium 
hyposulphite  to  the  ounce  of  water,  and  subsequently  apply- 
ing a  solution  of  five  drops  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  to 
the  ounce  of  water.  Hyposulphurous  and  sulphurous  acid 
gases  are  thus  produced.  Their  nascent  condition,  it  is 
urged,  increases  their  efficacy.  The  ulceration  rapidly  heals ; 
one  serious  case,  which  had  gone  too  far  for  operation, 
cicatrised  in  six  months  ;  ten  consecutive  cases  were  success- 
fully treated.  Further  experiments  on  these  lines  should  be 
made  not  only  in  lupus,  but  in  actinomycosis  and  other 
diseases  depending  upon  micro-organisms.  Other  germicides 
besides  sodium  hyposulphite  may,  moreover,  exhibit  special 
potency  when  their  active  constituents  exert  their  effects  in 


ARRESTS    LUPUS    ULCERATION  195 

a  nascent  state.  A  solution  of  ten  grains  hyposulphite  to 
the  ounce  of  water  is  an  excellent  aj^plication  for  corneal 
ulcers  and  recent  opacities. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  sulphite,  horses  and  cattle  take  §ss.  to 
§j.;  sheep  and  pigs,  5ss.  to  5ij-  ;  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  Ix.  Of 
the  hyposulphite,  somewhat  smaller  doses  suffice.  Either 
drug  is  prescribed  in  powder  or  solution,  and  may  be 
repeated  several  times  daily.  Having  little  taste,  they  may 
usually  be  taken  mixed  Avith  the  food.  They  may  be 
conjoined  with  ginger,  gentian,  camphor,  or  ammonium 
carbonate. 

Sodium  Chloride.  Sodii  chloridum.  Chloride  of  Sodium. 
Common  Salt.     NaCl. 

Salt  is  found  in  extensive  rock  deposits  in  Poland,  Spain, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  this  country  in  Cheshire 
and  Worcestershire.  It  exists  in  variable  amount  in  every 
soil,  and  hence  in  every  water,  is  the  largest  saline  con- 
stituent of  the  ocean,  and  abounds  in  the  tissues  and  fluids 
of  plants  and  animals.  It  is  obtained  for  medicinal  and 
domestic  purposes  by  quarrying  the  solid  beds  of  rock-salt, 
or  by  evaporating  brine  springs  or  sea- water. 

It  forms  crystals,  which  vary  in  size  according  to  the 
rapidity  of  their  formation.  When  pure,  it  occurs  in  small, 
white,  crystalline  grains,  or  transparent  cubical  crystals  free 
from  moisture,  and  has  a  purely  saline  taste.  From  the 
presence  of  magnesium  and  calcium  chlorides,  many  samples 
are  deliquescent.  It  is  soluble  in  about  two  and  three- 
quarter  parts  of  water  at  all  temperatures.  It  is  rather 
more  than  twice  as  heavy  as  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Salt  is  an  essential  article  of  food; 
small  doses  are  restorative,  stomachic,  and  antiseptic ;  larger 
doses  are  irritant,  cathartic,  and  emetic ;  it  is  used  externally 
as  a  stimulant,  antiseptic,  and  refrigerant. 

General  Actions. — So  essential  is  the  regular  or  frequent 
use  of  salt  for  the  maintenance  of  health,  that  animals, 
especially  vegetable  feeders,  in  a  state  of  nature  instinctively 
travel  many  miles  to  saline  springs,  the  sea-shore,  or  incrus- 
tations or  beds  of  salt.     M.  Boussingault,  experimenting  on 


196  SODIUM   CHLORIDE 

its  dietetic  value,  selected  six  cattle,  as  equal  as  possible  in 
weight  and  appearance,  and  fed  them  in  exactly  the  same 
manner,  except  that  three  received  each  12  ounce  of  salt 
daily,  whilst  the  other  three  got  none.  In  about  six  months 
the  skin  and  hair  of  those  without  salt  became  rough,  dry, 
and  staring,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  the  smooth, 
shining  coats  of  the  others,  which,  although  little  heavier 
than  their  neighbours,  were  more  lively,  and  of  so  much 
better  appearance  that  they  brought  a  somewhat  higher 
price.  The  cattle  receiving  salt  exhibited  throughout  greater 
appetite  and  relish  for  their  food,  consumed  it  in  a  shorter 
time,  and  also  drank  larger  quantities  of  water. 

A  piece  of  rock  salt  should  constantly  lie  in  the  horse's 
manger,  the  ox's  crib,  and  the  sheep's  trough.  It  is  specially 
necessary  when  the  diet  consists  largely  of  cooked  grains  or 
roots,  in  the  preparation  of  which  part  of  the  salt  is  apt  to 
be  dissolved  out.  The  condiment  not  only  gratifies  the 
palate,  but  also,  as  indicated,  serves  important  nutritive 
purposes.  It  increases  secretion  of  saliva  and  gastric  juice, 
furnishes  hydrochloric  acid  for  the  gastric  juice,  and  soda 
salts  for  the  bile ;  assists  the  diffusion  of  fluids  through 
membranes,  while  four  to  six  parts  per  1000  are  present  in 
the  blood  serum,  contributing  to  the  solution  of  the  globulins. 
Around  an  inflamed  spot,  notably  in  pneumonia,  common 
salt  accumulates,  and  its  subsequent  increase  in  the  urine 
often  marks  the  subsidence  of  the  attack  (Bartholow). 
During  convalescence  from  acute  disease  the  chloride  and 
other  sodium  salts  are  removed  from  the  body  in  unusual 
amount,  and  most  animals  then  instinctively  take  salt  freely. 
Besides  furnishing  an  essential  constituent  of  the  animal 
fluids  and  solids,  it  appears  to  assist  in  the  assimilation  of 
nutritive  matters.  On  the  absorption  of  calcium  salts  it  has 
a  marked  effect,  for  when  withheld  from  dogs  with  fractured 
limbs  repair  and  union  are  tardy.  It  is  excreted  by  the 
kidneys  and  mucous  membranes. 

In  common  with  other  cathartic  salines,  it  exerts  an 
excito-secretory  action  on  the  glands  of  the  intestines  ;  it 
besides  impedes  absorption  of  fluid  from  the  bowels,  which 
thus  become  mechanically  distended  with  fluid.     Their  con- 


ESSENTIAL   TO    HEALTHY   NUTRITION  197 

tents  are  softened  and  peristalsis  is  encouraged.  The  blood 
not  only  does  not  obtain  from  the  bowels  its  usual  supply  of 
fluid,  but  pours  serous  secretion  into  the  bowels.  Within  an 
hour  or  two  after  administration  of  a  saline  cathartic  the 
blood  becomes  concentrated,  and  thereafter  gradually  recoups 
itself  from  the  tissues,  thus  promoting  absorption  of  fluid 
and  waste  materials.  Professor  Rutherford's  experiments  on 
fasting  dogs  indicate  that  common  salt  slightly  increases 
secretion  of  bile,  in  this  respect  resembling  sodium  sulphate 
rather  than  magnesium  sulphate. 

On  horses  the  cathartic  action  of  common  salt  is  uncertain, 
often  violent,  and  usually  accompanied  by  considerable 
irritation  of  the  kidneys.  On  dogs  it  usually  operates  both 
as  an  emetic  and  cathartic.  Small  and  freely  diluted  doses 
increase  the  secretion  of  urine  and  the  proportion  of  urinary 
solids.  On  pigs  it  acts  as  a  purgative,  but  is  scarcely  so 
safe  or  certain  as  oil,  jalap  and  calomel,  or  aloes. 

Toxic  Effects. — In  the  Veterinarian  for  1839  and  1862, 
cases  are  recorded  of  pigs  eating  about  four  and  a  half 
ounces,  repeated  during  several  days.  They  suffered  from 
flatulence,  diarrhoea,  vertigo,  convulsions,  and  paralysis,  and 
died  in  eight  to  twenty-four  hours.  The  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels  was  found  after  death  highly 
injected  and  inflamed.  Sir  Charles  Cameron,  Dublin,  in 
1871  reported  the  poisoning  of  thirty-one  pigs  conveyed  by 
rail  in  a  salt-truck,  from  the  sides  of  which  they  had  licked 
the  salt.  For  many  hours  they  had  been  deprived  of  water. 
They  appeared  in  a  state  of  asphyxia;  emetics  and  sub- 
sequently stimulants  were  ordered,  and  eleven  recovered. 
The  carcases  of  those  that  died  exhibited  '  signs  of  gastro- 
intestinal inflammation;  the  brain  was  greatly  congested, 
and  there  was  considerable  extravasation  of  blood  in  the 
cerebellum  and  medulla'  {Veterinarian  1871).  Even  cattle 
and  sheep,  for  which  it  is  generally  a  suitable  cathartic, 
occasionally  suffer  from  overdoses.  I  have  seen  dangerous 
effects  produced  by  several  ounces  given  to  young  and 
delicate  calves,  for  which  oil  is  a  more  suitable  purge.  Mr. 
Dobson  reports  that  one-pound  doses  given  in  four  quarts  of 
water  to  healthy  yearlings  in  half  an  hour  induced  irritation, 


198  SODIUM   CfiLOETDE 

excitement,  staggering,  paralysed  hind-quarters,  and  death 
( Veterinarian,  1805). 

Nitrate  of  soda,  much  used  as  a  manure,  has  irritant  and 
cathartic  properties,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  common 
salt ;  has  sometimes  killed  both  horses  and  cattle  that  have 
licked  it,  or  eaten  grass  strongly  saturated  by  a  large,  recently 
applied  dressing  {Veterinarian,  1876). 

A  number  of  cattle  died  rather  suddenly  on  a  farm  in 
South  Lincolnshire,  and  an  inquiry  into  the  circumstances 
of  the  case  left  no  doubt  that  death  arose  from  nitrate  of 
soda  which  the  animals  obtained  from  bags  which  had  been 
used  in  conveying  this  fertiliser  into  the  field,  and  had 
afterwards  been  left  lying  about.  Recently,  on  a  farm  in 
Massachusetts,  eleven  cows  out  of  a  herd  of  fifteen  died  as  a 
result  of  having  had  given  to  them  nitrate  of  soda  in  mistake 
for  common  salt.  The  fifteen  cows  had  been  out  at  sfrass  all 
day,  and  were  driven  to  the  stalls  in  the  evening,  when  an 
attendant  gave  to  all  except  two  what  he  supposed  to  be 
common  salt,  thoroughly  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
wheat  bran.  Apparently,  all  the  animals  ate  heartily.  Two 
hours  later  the  cows  attracted  notice  by  the  noise  they  were 
making,  and  when  examined  they  were  found  to  be  uneasy 
and  evidently  in  pain,  and  several  died  within  an  hour  or 
two.  The  only  skilled  advice  obtainable  was  that  of  a 
medical  practitioner  who,  thinking  the  case  was  one  of 
arsenic  poisoning,  prescribed  accordingly,  but  before  morning 
eleven  of  the  cows  were  dead.  An  examination  of  samples 
of  material  collected  from  the  mangers  revealed  the  presence 
of  large  quantities  of  nitrate  of  soda,  but  no  common  salt. 
An  analysis  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  failed  to  discover 
any  trace  of  arsenic,  lead,  or  other  ujineral  poison. 

Nearly  twenty  years  ago  somewhat  similar  cases  were 
recorded  in  the  Archives  Veterinaires.  A  horse  had  drunk 
freely  of  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  exhibited  many  of 
the  symptoms  that  were  subsequent!}'  noticed  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts cattle ;  the  administration  of  strong  infusions  of  coffee 
and  alcohol  and  irritant  clysters  relieved  the  animal,  which 
in  a  few  days  completely  recovered.  In  another  case  four 
bags  of  nitrate  of  soda  had  been  jjhiced  on  a  grass  field  and 


CATHARTIC,  STOMACHIC,  AND    ANTISEPTIC  199 

allowed  to  remain  some  five  hours  before  being  applied. 
Meanwhile,  some  of  the  nitrate  had  become  washed  by  rain 
from  the  bags  upon  the  groimd.  Three  days  later  cows  were 
turned  into  the  pasture  and  obtained  the  salt  by  licking  it 
from  the  herbage.  They  showed  symptoms  of  poisoning, 
but  ultimately  recovered.  One  other  case  worth  noticing  is 
that  in  which  two  hundred  bags  which  had  contained  nitrate 
of  soda  were  washed  in  large  tubs  of  water  close  to  which 
the  cattle  passed  on  their  way  to  the  pasture.  A  few  hours 
afterwards  many  of  the  cows  were  seen  to  be  ill,  and  within 
eight  hours  two  of  them  had  died.  These  proved  to  be  the 
first  two  that  had  left  the  stalls,  and  consequently  had  time 
to  drink  more  of  the  solution  than  the  others. 

Medicinal  Uses. — For  vigorous  cattle  and  sheep  common 
salt  is  a  useful  purgative,  resembling  in  its  effects  Epsom 
and  Glauber  salts.  It  is,  however,  more  soluble,  moderate 
doses  are  more  quickly  absorbed,  and  hence  it  is  frequently 
desirable  to  conjoin  common  and  Epsom  salts.  Full  doses 
of  such  salines  cause  thirst,  induce  the  animal  to  drink 
water  or  other  bland  fluids  freely,  thus  softening  and  carry- 
ing onwards  the  hard,  dry,  impacted  food,  which  is  apt  to 
accumulate  in  the  first  and  third  stomachs  of  ruminants. 
For  such  patients  salt  is  administered  to  unload  the  bowels 
in  impaction  of  the  rumen  and  omasum,  as  well  as  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  diarrhoea  depending  on  over- feeding,  or  kept 
up  by  the  presence  of  irritating  matters  in  the  canal.  It  is 
given  to  relieve  irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  eyes, 
brain,  respiratory  organs,  or  limbs;  and  in  such  cases  not 
only  beneficially  empties  the  stomachs  and  bowels,  but  frees 
the  blood  of  peccant  matters.  It  controls  excessive  action  of 
silver  salts. 

Small  and  repeated  doses  are  stomachic,  are  prescribed 
for  all  animals  suffering  from  indigestion  and  irregular 
appetite,  and  may  be  conjoined  with  gentian,  ginger,  or 
spirits  and  water.  It.  obviates  to  some  extent__the  effects  j 
of  damp  and  badly  kept  fodder,  and,  given  with  nutritive  / 
dry  food,  prevents  or  retards  the  progress  of  ascites  in 
sheep.  Systematically  given  salt  lessens  the  liability  to 
intestinal  worms,  and  an  injection  of  two  or  three  ounces 


200  SODIUM    CHLORIDE   SOLUTION 

to  a  pint  of  water  often  brings  away  ascarides  from  the 
rectum.  It  is  frequently  added  to  laxative  clysters.  A 
one  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  is  injected  subcutaneously 
in  collapse  from  hemorrhage,  serious  operation,  or  from 
exhausting  disease.  Injections  of  a  quart  or  more  may  be 
made  daily  with  marked  benefit  in  many  cases. 

Dissolved  in  ten  to  twenty  parts  of  water,  it  proves  a 
serviceable  antiseptic  and  stimulant  gargle  in  relaxed  and 
ulcerated  sore-throat  of  horses  and  other  patients;  such  an 
application  increases  the  activity  of  the  cilia  of  the  bronchial 
mucous  membrane.  Salt-water  baths  exert  curative  effects 
on  animals  as  well  as  on  man.  For  stuping  or  cleansing 
wounds,  a  one  per  cent,  warm  watery  solution,  in  virtue 
of  its  stimulant  and  antiseptic  properties,  is  preferable  to 
plain  water,  and  less  apt  to  sodden  the  parts  or  weaken 
their  vitality.  Salt  solutions  are  applied  cold  as  stimulants 
and  refrigerants  for  strains  and  chronic  inflammation  of 
the  joints  and  feet,  particularly  amongst  cattle  and  sheep. 
For  a  cooling  mixture,  one  part  each  of  salt,  nitre,  and 
sal  ammoniac  is  dissolved  in  thirty  to  forty  parts  of  water; 
or  one  part  of  salt  is  mixed  with  two  of  pounded  ice. 
Such  freezing  mixtures  require,  hoAvever,  to  be  used  warily, 
for  their  prolonged  application  dangerously  lowers  vitality. 

For  preventing  and  arresting  putrefaction,  salt  is  cheap 
and  effectual.  Dr.  Angus  Smith  with  two  ounces  of  salt  jire- 
served  one  hundredweight  of  night  soil  for  thirty-four  days, 
with  scarcely  any  putrefaction.  For  antiseptic  purposes  salt 
is  advantageously  conjoined  with  carbolic  acid.  To  disinfect 
skins  and  other  such  animal  matters,  a  pound  of  salt  and 
two  ounces  of  carbolic  acid  are  used,  dissolved  in  a  gallon 
of  water.  Waste  chlorides,  knoAvn  as  Cooper's  salts,  are 
used  to  preserve  for  manure  the  meat  seized  at  markets 
as  unfit  for  human  food.  Top  dressings  of  pastures  with 
salt  have  diminished  cases  of  red  water,  louping-ill,  and 
fluke  disease. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  purgative  the  ox  or  cow  takes  lb.  -^  to 
lb.  j. ;  sheep,  §j.  to  giij.  Instead  of  using  comm.on  salt  by 
itself,  I  prefer — as  inore  prompt  and  effectual — half  doses 
of  common   and   Epsom    salts,  dissolving   the   mixture   in 


CHLORINATED   SODA  201 

al)Out  two  quarts  of  tepid  water,  and  adding  two  ounces  of 
powdered  ginger,  anise,  or  other  aromatic,  and  a  pound 
of  treacle.  Some  cattle  readily  drink  the  mixture  thus 
sweetened,  and  the  trouble  of  drenching  may  be  saved. 
To  hasten  and  increase  the  effects  of  salines  other  purga- 
tives are  sometimes  added.  Along  with  half  a  pound  each 
of  common  and  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  water  with 
aromatics  and  treacle,  may  be  given  ten  or  twenty  croton 
beans  in  powder;  or  gamboge,  §ss.  to  §i.  Where  such  a 
dose  fails  to  act  in  twenty  or  tw^enty-four  hours,  it  may 
be  repeated,  or  a  pint  or  two  of  linseed  oil  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  salts.  But  large  doses  of  drastic  physic 
are,  however,  to  be  avoided,  for  they  induce  nausea  and 
depression,  which  prevent  purgation.  When  a  patient  has 
had  tw^o  full  doses  without  effect,  he  should  have  frequent 
clysters,  plenty  of  treacle,  and  as  much  salt  and  water,  or 
simple  w^ater,  as  he  will  drink  of  his  own  accord,  but  rarely 
any  more  cathartic  medicine. 

As  a  stomachic  and  alterative  for  horses  or  cattle,  tW'O 
or  three  ounces  of  salt  are  given,  usually  with  aromatics, 
bitters,  or  vegetable  tonics.  As  an  emetic  for  the  dog,  the 
dose  varies  from  one  to  four  drachms,  dissolved  in  tepid 
water.  A  still  more  effectual,  readily-obtained  emetic  for 
a  medium-sized  dog  consists  of  a  tablespoonful  of  salt  and 
half  a  teaspoonful  of  mustard  flour,  dissolved  in  three 
or  four  ounces  of  water.  More  prompt  results  are  secured 
by  adding  a  few  grains  of  zinc  or  copper  sulphate,  or  of 
tartar  emetic. 


Liquor  Sod^e  Chlorinate.     Solution  of  Chlorinated  Soda. 
NaCl,  NaClO. 

Admixture  and  subsequent  filtration  of  solutions  of  sodium 
carbonate  and  chlorinated  lime  produce  the  B.P.  liquor  sodse 
chlorinatse,  known  also  as  Labarraque's  disinfecting  fluid. 
It  is  a  colourless  alkaline  liquid,  with  an  astringent  taste, 
and  a  feeble  odour  of  chlorine.  Like  the  analogous  solution 
of  bleaching  powder,  it  contains  chlorides,  chlorates,  and 


202  CALCIUM   SALTS 

hypochlorites,  and,  acted  on  by  air  or  acids,  gives  off 
chlorine  and  chlorine  compounds. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  antiseptic,  stimulant,  and  antacid, 
and  is  also  used  as  a  disinfectant  and  deodorant.  It  is 
applicable  to  the  same  purposes  as  solution  of  chlorinated 
lime  and  liquor  chlori. 

It  arrests  the  action  of  yeast  and  other  ferments,  and 
kills  bacteria.  When  administered  internally,  it  has  been 
credited  with  the  power  of  oxidising  urea  and  other  pro- 
ducts of  tissue  metamorphosis,  and  of  hastening  their 
excretion;  and  outside  the  body  it  certainly  oxidises  such 
substances  (Royle's  Materia  Medica).  It  has  been  prescribed 
in  fever  and  purpura  in  horses,  and  as  an  antidote  in 
poisoning  by  hydrogen  sulphide,  the  hydro-sulphides,  and 
prussic  acid. 

It  is  chiefly  serviceable  as  an  external  antiseptic  for 
stimulating  and  deodorising  foul  wounds  and  ulcers,  check- 
ing excessive  noisome  discharges  from  the  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces,  controlling  the  earlier  stages  of  eczema,  and  for 
douching  from  an  atomiser  relaxed  and  irritable  sore-throat. 
As  an  antiseptic,  although  more  expensive,  it  is  for  some 
purposes  preferable  to  chlorinated  lime,  inasmuch  as,  upon 
exposure,  it  becomes  converted  into  common  salt — itself  a 
valuable  antiseptic,  and  more  permanent  and  convenient 
than  the  deliquescent,  moist  calcium  chloride,  which  remains 
when  bleaching  powder  is  used. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  B.P.  solution,  which  contains  about  2^ 
per  cent,  of  available  chlorine,  horses  and  cattle  take  f^, 
to  fgij. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  fgj.  to  f5ij. ;  dogs,  Tlixv.  to  ■n[xxx., 
dissolved  in  water. 


CALCIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 

Calcium  belongs  to  the  group  of  alkaline  earths,  which 
includes  also  barium  and  strontium.  Its  salts  resemble 
chemically  and  physiologically  those  of  magnesium  and 
aluminium.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  the  great  source  of  the 
calcium  salts.  They  are  detectable  in  solution  by  their 
yielding  no   precipitate   with   hydrochloric  acid,  hydrogen 


QUICKLIME  203 

sulphide,  or  ammonium  hydro-sulphide :  a  white  precipitate 
with  an  alkaline  carbonate:  an  immediate  and  abundant 
white  precipitate  with  oxalic  acid,  insoluble  in  acetic  but 
soluble  in  h^-drochloric  and  nitric  acids;  but  no  precipi- 
tate with  ammonia,  which  precipitates  the  compounds  of 
aluminium  and  magnesium.  Calcium  salts  give  a  reddish- 
yellow  tinge  to  flame. 

Calcium  compounds  have  little  affinit}'  for  animal  textures, 
and  are  slowly  absorbed  and  diffused.  As  with  other  metals, 
the  oxide  and  carbonate  nearly  resemble  each  other,  and 
are  antacid  and  desiccant.  The  phosphate  is  a  restorative 
and  tonic  in  some  forms  of  malnutrition.  The  hypo-phos- 
phate is  recommended  in  anaemia  and  debility.  The  chloride, 
persevered  with  for  weeks  or  months,  is  said  to  reduce 
enlarged  lymphatic  glands  and  tubercular  deposits,  and 
promote  the  healing  of  ulcers.  Given  for  a  few  days  it 
increases  the  plasticity  of  the  blood  and  thus  lessens  risk 
from  ha?morrhage  in  operations.  Calx  chlorinata  is  stimulant, 
disinfectant,  and  deodorant.  Calx  sulphurata,  consisting 
of  calcium  sulphide  with  calcium  sulphate  and  carbon,  has 
been  credited  with  the  power  of  checking  formation  of  pus 
and  hastening  its  discharge.  Calcium  sulphate  rendered 
nearly  anhydrous  by  heat,  is  employed  in  making  plaster 
bandages  for  fractures. 

Calcium  Oxide.     Lime.     Quick-lime.     Calx.     CaO. 

When  limestone,  chalk,  marble,  or  other  form  of  calcium 
carbonate  is  mixed  wdth  coal  and  thoroughly  burned,  its 
carbonic  acid  is  driven  off,  and  the  metallic  oxide  or 
quicklime  is  left.  It  occurs  in  greyish-white  irregular 
masses,  has  an  alkaline,  caustic  taste,  and  gi-eat  affinity 
for  water.  It  combmes  with  about  24  per  cent,  of  water, 
giving  off  much  heat,  and  forming  calcium  hydroxide,  or 
slaked  lime,  Ca(H0)2.  A  pint  of  water  at  82°  Fahr.  dis- 
solves 13-25  grains  of  lime;  a  pint  at  69°  Fahr.,  11-6  grains; 
a  pint  at  212^  Fahr.,  67  grains.  The  presence  of  sugar 
increases  fully  twelve  times  the  solubility  of  lime  in  water. 
Lime-water  (aqua  Calcis),  is  prepared  by  adding  two  ounces 


204  LIME   WATER, 

of  washed  Calcium  hydroxide  to  one  gallon  of  distilled 
water,  agitating  briskly,  allowing  undissolved  matters  to 
subside,  and,  after  a  few  hours,  syphoning  off  the  clear 
solution.  As  it  readily  absorbs  carbonic  acid,  it  should  be 
kept  in  closely-stoppered  bottles. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Lime  is  irritant,  astringent  by  contact 
antacid,  and  sedative.  It  is  a  natural  constituent  of  the 
animal  textures,  in  which  it  occurs  mainly  in  combination 
with  phosphoric  and  carbonic  acids ;  but,  being  present  in 
most  articles  of  food,  extra  supplies  are  seldom  required. 
When  swallowed,  there  is  probably  deposited  on  the  gastric 
mucous  membrane  a  film  of  carbonate,  which  is  dissolved  by 
hydrochloric  or  lactic  acid,  slowly  absorbed  as  chloride  or 
lactate,  reconverted  in  the  blood  into  carbonate,  held  in 
solution  by  the  free  carbonic  acid,  and  ultimately  excreted 
by  the  kidneys,  increasing  the  alkalinity  of  the  urine, 
diminishing  its  irritant  qualities,  and  perhaps  exerting 
astringent  effects  on  the  urinary  mucous  membrane.  Lime, 
especially  when  unslaked,  and  in  contact  with  mucous  and 
abraded  skin  surfaces,  attracts  water,  forms  a  coating  of 
carbonate,  and  possibly  combines  with  albumin,  and,  in 
considerable  amount,  it  irritates  and  superficially  corrodes. 
Orfila  mentions  that  1}  drachms  administered  to  a  small 
dog  caused  vomiting  and  considerable  irritation,  which 
lasted  for  about  a  day;  and  that  three  drachms  caused 
vomiting,  pain,  languor,  and  death  in  five  days. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Lime-water  is  used  as  an  antacid  and 
sedative  in  indigestion  and  diarrhoea  in  all  classes  of  patients. 
Young  animals,  with  Avhicli  undiluted  milk  happens  to  dis- 
agree, are  usually  benefited  by  mixing  the  milk  with  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  of  lime  water,  which  prevents  acidity  and 
coagulation  of  the  casein  in  large  tough  masses.  Lime- 
water  is  appropriate  for  gastric  derangement,  while  the  less 
soluble  chalk,  retaining  longer  its  antacid  and  desiccant 
properties,  is  better  adapted  for  intestinal  acidity.  When 
acidity  concurs  with  constipation,  sodium  bicarbonate  is 
preferable  in  the  proportion  of  a  drachm  to  the  pint  of 
milk.  Lime-water  is  occasionally  given  as  an  antidote  in 
poisoning  by  the  mineral  acids  and  by  carbolic  and  oxalic 


ANTACID   AND    SEDATIVE  205 

acids.  By  itself,  but  better  still  when  conjoined  with  tur- 
pentine, it  destroys  bronchial  filarise,  often  so  troublesome 
in  calves  and  lambs,  and  in  the  form  of  enema,  brings 
away  ascarides  lodged  in  the  lower  bowels.  Mixed  with  oil, 
glycerin,  or  vaseline,  with  a  little  boric  or  carbolic  acid,  it 

applied  in  aphtha,  and  is  occasionally  substituted  for  zinc 
oxide  in  cases  of  eczema.  Scalds  and  burns  are  often  treated 
with  Carron  oil  which  consists  of  lime-water  mixed  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  linseed  oil.  The  more  recent  treatment 
consists  in  the  immediate  application  of  layers  of  cotton 
wadding,  Avith  gentle  and  equable  pressure.  Lime  in  solu- 
tion is  used  for  cleansing  and  deodorising  stables,  cow-houses, 
and  piggeries. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  quicklime,  horses  and  cattle  take  5i-  to  3ij- ; 
sheep,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx.  Of  lime- 
water  the  larger  patients  take  f  §iv:  to  f  §v. ;  and  the  smaller, 
f  5ij.  to  f  §i.,  given  alone,  or  with  glycerin,  oil,  or  milk.  Two 
ounces  each  of  lime-water  and  gentian  infusion,  repeated 
twice  or  thrice  daily,  often  checks  diarrhcea  in  feeble 
calves;  half  the  dose  answers  for  sheep.  For  calves  and 
dogs,  saccharated  lime-water  is  used  as  an  antacid  and 
stomachic.  It  is  made  by  rubbing  an  ounce  of  slaked  lime 
with  two  ounces  of  sugar,  transferring  the  mixture  to  a 
bottle  containing  a  pint  of  water,  shaking,  and  separating 
the  clear  solution  with  a  syphon.  It  conveniently  renders 
the  milk  alkaline,  without  diluting  it  as  does  lime-water. 

Calcium  Carbonate.     Calcii  Carbonas.     Carbonate  of  Lime. 
Chalk.     CaCOg. 

Calcium  carbonate  occurs  in  the  several  forms  of  limestone, 
marble,  calcareous  spar,  and  chalk.  When  chalk  is  triturated 
with  a  little  water,  agitated  with  a  larger  quantity  of  water, 
and  the  mixture  allowed  to  stand,  the  coarser  fragments 
and  foreign  matters  subside.  The  clear  liquid  is  poured  or 
syphoned  oft',  and  slowly  deposits  an  impalpable  powder, 
which,  when  dried  in  blocks,  constitutes  whiting,  and  when 
in  smaller  conical  rolls  is  creta  praeparata.  Precipitated 
chalk  is  obtained   by  the  interaction  of  calcium  chloride 


206  CALCIUM    CARBONATE 

and  sodium  carbonate.  It  is  a  dull- white,  micro-crystalline, 
tasteless  powder,  adheres  to  the  tongue,  owing  to  its  porosity 
and  its  affinity  for  water,  and  eftcrvesces  with  acids.  Calcium 
carbonate  is  a  constituent  of  the  bones  of  animals,  of  shells, 
and  of  corals.  It  is  the  common  source  of  hardness  in  drink- 
ing water,  which,  when  pure,  holds  about  two  grains  dissolved 
in  the  gallon ;  but  carbonic  acid  increases  the  solvent  power 
of  the  water.  Sixteen  grains  are  sometimes  taken  up,  and 
in  chalk  districts  much  more ;  but  when  such  hard  waters 
are  boiled,  the  carbonic  anhydride  is  driven  off,  and  calcium 
carbonate  is  deposited  in  the  kettles  and  boilers. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Chalk  is  a  cheap  and  convenient 
antacid,  much  used  for  the  domesticated  animals  in  the 
treatment  of  indigestion  and  chronic  diarrhcua.  It  reseuibles 
lime,  but  is  less  irritant,  and  its  effects  extend  beyond  the 
stomach,  throughout  the  intestines,  neutralising  acidity,  and 
leaving  a  protecting  film  of  carbonate.  It  is  an  antidote  for 
oxalic,  carbolic,  and  the  mineral  acids.  In  a  dry  and  finely- 
divided  state  it  is  used  as  a  desiccant  and  astringent  for 
abraded  skin  surfaces,  burns,  and  ulcers. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses,  §i.  to  §ij.;  for  cattle,  §ij.  to  §iv, 
for  sheep,  5ij-  to  5iv. ;  for  pigs,  5i-  to  5ij- ;  for  dogs,  grs.  viij. 
to  grs.  xij.  It  is  conveniently  given  in  bolus,  or  suspended 
in  milk,  gruel,  or  mucilage.  When  administered  in  large  or 
frequently-repeated  doses  the  bowels  should  be  kept  open, 
in  order  to  prevent  its  accumulation  in  the  intestines.  It  is 
frequently  conjoined  with  catechu,  kino,  and  other  vegetable 
astringents  to  arrest  excessive  discharges ;  with  ginger  and 
other  carminatives,  to  control  indigestion  and  diarrhea ;  with 
opium  or  belladonna,  to  diminish  irritability  or  pain;  and 
with  salicylic  acid,  or  bismuth,  in  diarrhoea  and  hemorrhagic 
gastritis  in  dogs.  The  following  formukc  prove  serviceable 
as  antacids,  carminatives,  and  mild  astringents: — For 
horses,  half  an  ounce  each  of  chalk,  gentian,  and  ginger  is 
made  up  in  the  usual  way  with  linseed  meal  and  treacle,  or 
with  glycerin  ;  or  chalk  §i.,  opium  5i-.  ^rid  creosote  ■n[x.,  are 
made  into  bolus;  or,  again,  half  an  ounce  each  of  chalk, 
catechu,  and  ginger  are  conjoined  with  one  drachm  of  opium. 
For  cattle,  similar   prescriptions   are   given,  frequently  in 


CALCIUM    PHOSPHATE  207 

draught.  For  sheep,  the  like  combinations  are  used,  in  about 
one-fourth  the  dose.  For  dogs,  a  convenient  pill  is  made 
with  chalk  and  ginger,  of  each  grs.  x. ;  with  opium,  grs.  ij. ; 
and  aromatic  confection,  q.s.  A  draught  of  similar  action  is 
made  with  chalk,  grs.  x.,  laudanum  and  ether,  of  each  "n^xv., 
given  in  a  little  milk  or  soup.  Any  of  these  prescriptions 
may  be  repeated  several  times  daily.  Where  it  is  sought  to 
act  chiefly  upon  the  stomach,  such  medicines  are  fittingly 
given  dissolved  in  starch  solution  as  prepared  by  the  laun- 
dress, or  in  spirits  and  water,  administered,  according  to 
circumstances,  either  hot  or  cold.  Where  the  effects  are  to 
be  extended  throughout  the  intestines,  the  drugs  are  gener- 
ally given  in  the  solid  form.  For  dyspeptic  and  diabetic 
horses  suffering  from  acidity,  a  piece  of  chalk  should  be 
placed  in  the  rack  or  manger,  or  in  the  drinking  water. 

Calcium    Phosphate.       Calcii   Phosphas.      Phosphate    of 
Lime.     Ca3(PO,)2- 

Calcium  phosphate  is  prepared  by  roasting  bone  ash  until 
animal  and  carbonaceous  matters  are  removed,  dissolving 
the  residue  in  diluted  hydrochloric  acid,  precipitating  the 
phosphates  by  ammonia  solution,  and  washing.  Thus  puri- 
fied, it  is  a  light,  tasteless,  white,  amorphous  powder,  insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  without  effervescence  in  hydrochloric 
and  nitric  acids. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Calcium  phosphate  is  present  in  bones, 
nerves,  and  other  animal  textures ;  occurs  abundantly  in  the 
intercellular  fluid,  and  wherever  cell-crrowth  is  most  active ; 
and  is  hence  an  essential  constituent  of  food  and  a  restora- 
tive. Its  absence  in  the  dietary  is  shown  by  M.  Chossat  to 
induce  softening  of  the  bones  and  general  Avastiny-;  it  is 
deficient  in  the  bones  of  pregnant  animals.  Milne-Edwards 
found  that,  when  supplied  to  dogs  whose  bones  had  been 
intentionally  fractured,  more  rapid  union  occurred. 

It  conjoins  the  actions  of  calcium  and  phosphorus,  is 
specially  useful  in  chronic  diarrhoea,  amemia,  and  other 
forms  of  malnutrition,  especially  in  young  animals.  It  is 
serviceable     for     rapidly-growing,     rickety     subjects,    and 


208  CHLORINATED    LTME 

conjoined  with  iron,  for  anaemic,  badly-nourished,  scouring 
animals,  beneficially  restoring  the  phosphates,  which  in  such 
cases  are  sometimes  too  freely  removed.  For  pregnant 
animals  in  a  weakly  state  it  is  also  prescribed.  Bran  and 
bruised  oats  owe  in  part  their  notable  dietetic  value  for 
young  stock  to  the  large  amount  of  calcium  phosphate  which 
they  contain. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  5ij-  to  ^iw;  cattle,  '^iv.  to  §ij.; 
sheep  and  pigs,  5j-  to  5ij- ;  dogs,  grs.v.  to  grs,  x.  Small  doses 
are  preferable  to  large,  which  sometimes  derange  the  bowels. 
They  are  conveniently  given  mixed  with  food,  and  in  com- 
bination with  an  iron  salt. 


Calx  Chlorinata.     Chlorinated  Lime.     Bleaching  Powder. 
(CaCl2  O2,  CaClg). 

Large  quantities  of  this  valuable  bleaching  agent  are  made 
in  Glasgow,  where  it  was  first  prepared  by  Messrs.  Tennant 
and  Mackintosh  in  1798.  It  is  obtained  by  exposing  slaked 
lime  to  the  action  of  chlorine  gas  until  absorption  ceases. 

Properties. — It  is  a  dull-white  powder,  with  a  char- 
acteristic smell,  and  an  acrid  taste.  When  exposed  to  the 
air  it  becomes  moist  and  gradually  decomposes.  When 
heated  or  mixed  with  an  acid,  chlorine  is  rapidly  given  off. 
It  is  partially  soluble  in  water,  a  portion  of  the  lime  remain- 
ing undissolved.  The  solution  evolves  chlorine  copiously 
upon  the  addition  of  an  acid.  The  intensity  of  its  odour  and 
the  degree  of  its  solubility  are  simple  approximative  tests  of 
its  strength  and  purity,  and  a  good  specimen  yields  at  least 
33  per  cent,  of  chlorine. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Bleaching  powder  is  irritant,  stimulant, 
astringent,  antiseptic,  and  alterative ;  it  is  seldom  given  in- 
ternally, but  externally  it  is  stimulant,  antiseptic,  deodorant, 
disinfectant,  and  parasiticide,  and  owes  its  several  actions 
mainly  to  the  hypochlorous  acid  and  chlorine  it  so  readily 
evolves. 

Toxic  Effects. — 'Hertwig  gave  horses  and  cattle  one  ounce 
to  two  pounds ;  sheep  and  goats  one  to  eight  drachms ;  and 
dogs  half  a  drachm  to  four  drachms.    The  smaller  quantities 


STIMULANT,  ANTISEPTIC,  AND    DISINFECTANT       209 

produced  scarcely  any  effect :  the  larger,  besides  local  irrita- 
tion, caused  acceleration  of  the  pulse,  difficult  breathing, 
increased  warmth  in  the  mouth,  weeping  eyes,  abundant 
secretion  of  urine,  having  a  curious  odour  of  chlorine  or 
prussic  acid,  and  a  white  sediment,  frequent  copious  alvine 
discharges,  and  in  dogs,  vomiting.  In  horses  the  effects 
usually  began  in  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  and  lasted  two 
to  five  hours.  Considerable  doses,  given  repeatedly,  did  not 
impair  appetite,  but  caused  thirst  and  gradual  emaciation. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Youatt  recommended  bleaching  powder 
for  hoven  in  cattle,  and  tympanites  in  horses,  in  doses  vary- 
ing from  two  to  four  drachms,  and  ascribed  its  supposed 
good  effects  to  its  decomposing  the  gases  evolved  in  the 
alimentary  canal.  But  repeated  careful  trials  made  at  the 
Edinburgh  Veterinary  College  indicate  that  it  is  of  little,  if 
any,  service  in  the  majority  of  cases  of  hoven  or  tympanites, 
whether  in  cattle  or  horses.  It  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning 
by  hydrogen  sulphide  and  ammonium  hydrosulphide ;  and, 
with  a  respirator  filled  with  bleaching  powder,  Mr.  Roberts 
explored  in  safety  the  sewers  of  the  Bastille,  which  had  not 
been  opened  for  thirty-seven  years,  and  were  full  of  hj-drogen 
sulphide  and  other  noxious  gases. 

Externally,  it  is  used  as  a  stimulant  and  deodorant  for 
unhealthy  wounds,  for  removing  the  foetor  of  foul  discharges, 
and  for  destroying  the  fungus  of  ringworm,  the  parasites  of 
mange,  and  for  grease.  Diluted  solutions  have  been  recom- 
mended for  checking  conjunctival  ophthalmia,  and  other 
circumscribed  and  superficial  inflammations;  but  are  not  so 
effectual  as  lead  or  zinc  lotion.  Although  it  does  not  arrest 
the  action  of  enzymes,  or  prevent  the  reproduction  of 
developed  bacteria  or  their  spores  as  promptly  and  effec- 
tually as  corrosive  sublimate,  it  is  superior  as  an  antiseptic 
to  sulphurous  acid,  bromine,  iodine,  salicylic  acid,  and  the 
permanganates  (Wernitz  and  Koch).  Its  active  gaseous 
products,  moreover,  readily  attack  and  break  up  the 
products  of  putrefaction,  and  it  hence  proves  an  effectual 
deodoriser. 

Chlorinated  lime,  in  powder  or  in  10  per  cent,  solution,  is 
spread  about  cow-houses  and  premises  where  contagious  or 

o 


210  MAGNESIUM    SALTS 

epi/ootic  diseases  prevail.  When  free  and  rapid  evolution  of 
the  hypochlorous  and  chlorine  gases  is  desired,  vessels  con- 
taining the  powder  are  set  about,  and  sulphuric  acid  poured 
over  them ;  a  more  gradual  evolution  is  effected  when  cloths 
saturated  with  a  strong  solution  are  suspended  inside  the 
infected  dwellings.  Solutions  varying  from  one  to  ten  per 
cent,  are  emplo3'ed  for  disinfecting  hides,  flesh,  or  excreta  of 
diseased  animals.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  a  sickly  smell, 
which  is  disliked  both  by  horses  and  cattle ;  it  is  gradually 
converted  into  calcium  chloride,  which,  having  great  aflinity 
for  water,  leaves  the  floors,  walls,  and  other  surfaces  to  which 
the  deodoriser  has  been  applied  in  an  unsatisfactorily  moist 
state;  whilst  its  decomposing  ammonia,  urea,  and  such  other 
unstable  nitrogen  compounds,  greatly  diminishes  the  agricul- 
tural value  of  any  manure  to  which  it  is  added.  Scattered 
about  stables  or  cow-houses,  it  drives  away  flies ;  while  neither 
rats  nor  mice  frequent  places  where  it  is  sprinkled,  especially 
when  mixed  with  sulphur. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  3'-  to  5ij-;  cattle,  5ij-  to  ^\v.; 
sheep,  5ss.  to  5i-;  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  v.,  given  either  in  bolus, 
or  with  cold  gruel,  mucilage,  or  milk. 

MAGNESIUM  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 

Magnesium  salts  are  obtained  from  dolomite  or  magnesian 
limestone,  magnesite,  a  native  carbonate,  talc,  meerschaum, 
and  other  silicates,  and  from  sea-Avater. 

Magnesium  salts  when  swallowed  are  not  rapidly  absorbed, 
and  do  not  cause  any  toxic  effects.  The  oxides  and  carbon- 
ates arc  antacid  and  laxative;  the  sulphate  is  purgative 
and  febrifuge. 

Magnesium  Oxides.     Magnesia.    Calcined  Magnesia.     MgO. 

Light  Calcined  Magnesia.     Magnesia  levis. 

Heavy  Calcined  Magnesia.     Magnesia  ponderosa.    (B.P.) 

Light  Magnesium  Oxide,  ^IgO,  is  prepared  l)y  expos- 
ing liglit  magnesium  carbonate  to  a  dull-red  heat.  Heavy 
magnesium  oxide,  MgO,  is  prepared  by  exposing  heavy 
magnesium  carbonate  to  a  dull-red  heat.     Magnesium  oxide 


MAGNESIUM   OXIDES    AND    CARBONATES  211 

is  a  bulky  white  powder  differing  from  heavy  magnesia  only 
in  its  greater  lightness,  the  volumes  corresponding  to  the 
same  weight  being  to  each  other  in  the  ratio  of  three  and  a 
half  to  one  (B.P.).  Magnesia  is  odourless,  with  a  slightly 
earthy  taste;  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  dissolved  by 
acids. 

Magnesium  Carbonates.    SCMgCOg),  Mg(HO)„  4H,0. 
Light  Magnesium  Carbonate.     Magnesii  Carbonas  Levis. 
Heavy  Magnesium  Carbonate.     Magnesii  Carbonas  Pon- 
derosus. 

When  sodium  carbonate  is  mixed  with  a  solution  of  mag- 
nesium sulphate,  magnesium  carbonate  and  magnesium 
hydrate  are  precipitated.  The  manner  of  preparation  affects 
the  weight,  but  not  the  other  properties.  Diluted  solutions, 
boiled,  yield  the  light  carbonate.  Tolerably  concentrated 
solutions,  mixed  without  heat,  yield  the  heavy  carbonate, 
which  is  three  and  a  half  times  heavier  than  the  other,  more 
dense,  loose,  and  granular;  and,  under  the  microscope,  is 
found  to  be  partly  amorphous,  with  intermixture  of  numerous 
slender  prisms.  Both  varieties  are  white,  odourless,  and 
tasteless,  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  readily  dissolve  in 
diluted  mineral  acids.  Fluid  magnesia  usually  contains  in 
every  ounce  ten  grains  of  carbonate,  dissolved  in  water 
charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Actions  and  Uses. — ^tlagnesia  is  antacid  and  laxative.  The 
oxide  and  carbonate  are  sparingly  absorbed,  chiefly  as 
chlorides.  They  resemble  potash,  soda,  and  their  carbonates, 
but  lack  their  stimulating  effect  upon  the  mucous  membrane, 
and  their  diffusive,  solvent,  and  diuretic  properties.  Their 
laxative  effect  and  absence  of  causticity  distinguish  them 
from  corresponding  lime  salts. 

Magnesia  does  not  purge  either  horses  or  cattle,  but  is  a 
gentle  laxative  for  dogs  and  cats,  to  vs-hich  it  is  occasionally 
prescribed  Avith  calomel,  jalap,  or  buckthorn.  Its  laxative 
effects  are  increased  when  the  bowels  contain  acid  secretions. 
For  foals  and  calves  suffering  from  acidity  and  flatulence,  acids 
and  bitters  are  usually  the  appropriate  treatment ;  magnesia, 


212  MAGNESIUM   SULPHATE 

however,  is  soTnotinies  prescribed,  but  must  not  be  too  freely 
or  continuously  used,  as  it  is  apt  to  concrete  and  accunuilate 
in  the  bowels.  It  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by  oxalic  and 
the  mineral  acids.  It  removes  arsenic  from  solution,  and  for 
this  purpose  is  most  effective  in  the  form  of  the  gelatinous 
hydrate  made  by  adding  caustic  potash  to  a  solution  of  the 
sulphate.     It  is  occasionally  applied  as  a  desiccant. 

Doses,  etc. — Foals  and.  calves  three  or  four  months  old 
take,  as  an  antacid,  5ss.  to  gi- ;  dogs  and  cats,  grs.  v.  to  3ss. 
It  is  given  suspended  in  milk  or  gruel,  and  conjoined  with 
carminatives. 

Magnesium  Sulphate.      Magnesii   Sulphas.      Epsom  Salt. 
MgS04.7H.p. 

Magnesium  sulphate  is  present  in  various  rocks  and  soils 
in  the  proportion  of  iifteen  to  twenty  grains  in  the  pint  of 
sea-water,  and  in  some  mineral  springs.  It  derives  its  ver- 
nacular name  from  the  mineral  springs  of  Epsom.  It  may 
be  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  the  native  magnesium 
carbonates  and  diluted  sulphuric  acid;  or  by  purifying  the 
native  sulphate.     (B.  P.) 

Properties. — Epsom  salt  occurs  in  transparent,  colourless, 
minute,  rhombic  prisms.  It  has  a  cooling,  saline,  nauseous, 
bitter  taste;  is  insoluble  in  alcoliol,  but  soluble  in  its  own 
weight  of  water.  It  resembles  zinc  sulphate,  from  which, 
however,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  saline,  bitter  taste,  by 
absence  of  metallic  astringency,  and  by  its  neutral  solution 
giving  no  precipitate  with  hydrogen  sulphide.  Epsom  salt 
is  distinguished  from  Glauber  salt  by  its  neither  efflorescing 
when  exj)osed  to  air,  nor  comnmnicating  any  yellow  colour 
to  the  flame  of  alcohol.  From  oxalic  acid  (for  whicli  it  has 
been  sometimes  mistaken)  it  is  distinguished  by  its  finer 
and  more  needle-like  crystals,  its  bitter  taste,  devoid  of 
acidity,  and  its  precipitating  alkaline  carbonates  without 
effervescence. 

Actions.  AND  Uses. — Epsom  salt  is  purgative,  alterative,  and 
febrifuge,  and  is  also  feebly  diuretic  and  diaphoretic.  As  a 
purgative  it  resembles  common  and  Glauber  salts,  and  is 
uiore  active  than  potassium  bitartrate  or  sodium  phosphate. 


PURGATIVE,   ALTERATIVE,    AND    FEBRIFUGE         213 

General  Actions. — When  swallowed,  it  causes  outpouring 
of  secretion  from  the  walls  of  the  small  intestines,  most 
quickly  produced,  and  abundant  when  the  bowels  have  been 
partially  emptied  by  several  hours'  fasting.  Neither  pan- 
creatic tluid  nor  bile  is  materially  increased.  But  Epsom  salt 
has  a  low  diffusing  power.  It  is  slowly  absorbed,  and,  more- 
over, retards  diffusion  and  absorption  of  fluid  present  in  the 
canal.  In  this  twofold  manner — by  increased  secretion, 
and  retarded  absorption — the  fluid  contents  of  the  bowels 
are  increased,  producing  more  or  less  mechanical  distension, 
and  provoking,  like  other  salines,  slight  peristalsis.  The 
retarded  removal  of  accumulating  liquid  is  apt  to  induce 
flatulence,  which  is  relieved  by  conjoining  carminatives; 
while  eftectual  removal  of  the  intestinal  fluids  is  attained  by 
using  with  the  saline  some  aloes,  oil,  or  calomel. 

In  the  small  intestine  some  of  the  magnesium  sulphate  is 
decomposed ;  its  acid  portion  is  more  readily  absorbed  than 
its  basic ;  part  is  returned  into  the  intestine,  but  the  greater 
part  is  excreted  in  the  urine.  Meanwhile,  unchanged  portions 
of  the  salt  also  undergo  slow  and  gradual  absorption;  but 
this  is  checked  when  purgation  occurs.  After  a  few  hours 
the  free  acid  and  undecomposed  salt  are  excreted  by  the 
kidneys,  and  more  or  less  diuresis  ensues.  A  smaller  amount 
is  also  removed  by  the  skin,  notably  in  men  and  horses, 
when  the  activity  of  this  excretory  channel  is  increased  by 
warm  clothing. 

Free  secretion  from  the  intestinal  walls,  and  the  sub- 
sequent more  limited  excretion  from  the  kidneys,  necessarily 
remove  both  fluid  and  saline  matters  from  the  blood,  and 
within  a  few  hours  this  loss  is  in  great  part  made  good  by 
absorption  of  fluid  from  the  tissues.  Mainly  in  this  manner 
result  the  febrifuge  and  alterative  effects  of  salines,  in  reduc- . 
ing  abnormal  temperature,  and  removing  dropsical  effusions. 

Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  demonstrated,  experimentally,  the 
effect  of  Epsom  salt  in  causing  outpouring  of  mucous  fluid 
from  the  intestinal  walls.  He  placed  four  ligatures  round 
the  intestines  of  a  cat,  so  as  to  make  three  separate  closed 
sacs  from  five  to  seven  inches  long.  Into  the  two  outside 
sacs  water  alone  was  introduced ;  into  the  central  one  were 


214  MAGNESIUM    SULPHATE 

injected  seven  grains  Epsom  salt,  dissolved  in  105  minims 
of  water.  The  cat  was  killed  four  hours  later,  and  although 
the  two  outside  sacs  were  quite  empty,  the  middle  one,  into 
whicli  the  purgative  had  been  injected,  contained  820  minims 
ol  pale  amber  Huid,  of  the  nature  of  a  secretion  rather  than 
an  albuminous  exudation.  In  two  similar  experiments,  425 
and  250  minims  of  fluid  were  found,  four  and  five  hours  after 
injection  of  85  and  90  minims  of  saturated  solution  of  Epsom 
salt.  No  congestion  or  inflammation  was  noticed.  The  loops 
on  either  side,  which  had  been  filled  with  the  same  quantity 
of  water.,  were  empty.  Croton  oil,  elaterium,  and  gamboge, 
tested  by  like  experiment,  all  caused  similar  secretion,  but 
none  so  abundant  as  Epsom  salt,  which  yielded  42  to  56 
minims  per  square  inch  of  intestine  acted  on  by  the 
purgative. 

Professor  Rutherford's  experiments  on  dogs  demonstrate 
that  magnesium  sulphate,  unlike  sodium  and  potassium  sul- 
phates, has  no  stimulant  action  on  the  liver.  It  nevertheless 
notably  counteracts  '  biliousness,'  alike  in  men  and  animals, 
by  sweeping  away  bile,  which  is  generally  present  in  the 
duodenum,  and  which,  unless  removed,  becomes  re-absorbed. 

Epsom  salt  injected  into  the  circulation  does  not  produce 
intestinal  secretion,  but  five  grains  to  the  pound  of  body- 
weight  were  proved  by  Professor  Matthew  Hay  to  produce 
powerful  toxic  effects  in  cats  and  other  animals,  paralysing 
first  the  respiration  and  afterwards  the  heart,  abolishing 
sensation,  or  paralysing  the  sensori-motor  reflex  centres 
{Lancet,  1883). 

The  several  domesticated  animals  are  differently  affected 
by  Epsom  salt.  On  horses,  unless  given  in  combination,  it 
acts  uncertainly.  Full  doses  sometimes  cause  violent 
catharsis,  and  occasionally  produce  considerable  diuresis; 
but  two  to  three  ounces,  repeated  daily,  are  laxative  and 
febrifuge.  On  dogs  the  purgative  effect  is  irregular,  and 
often  accompanied  by  vomiting.  For  cattle  and  sheep  it  is 
a  convenient  and  effectual  cathartic,  inducing  copious  fluid 
evacuations,  usually  in  twelve  or  fifteen  hours. 

Medicinal  Uses.— For  ruminants  Epsom  salt  is  the  purga- 
tive in  general  use.     in  indigestion,  constipation,  and  in  the 


A    USEFUL    PURGATIVE    FOR    RUMINANTS  215 

earlier  stages  of  many  cases  of  diarrhoea,  it  clears  the  bowels 
of  undigested,  fermenting  food,  of  irritant  matters,  and 
occasionally  of  worms.  Horses  liberally  fed  on  cut,  dry  food, 
or  tough,  over-ripened  green  fodder,  are  subject  to  overloaded 
bowels,  and  in  such  cases,  with  restriction  to  fluid  food,  and 
in  conjunction  with  one  or  two  doses  of  linseed  oil  and 
copious  clysters,  two  ounces  Epsom  salt,  repeated  twice 
daily,  help  to  moisten,  soften,  and  expel  the  dry,  impacted 
ingesta.  Emptying  the  bowels,  and  removing  excrementi- 
tious  products  from  the  blood,  it  lowers  abnormal  tempera- 
ture and  blood- pressure,  and  relieves  febrile  and  inflammatory 
conditions. 

Although  not  a  desirable  purgative  for  horses,  it  is  a  useful 
febrifuge.  One  to  three  ounces  given  in  influenza,  pneu- 
monia, and  indeed  in  most  febrile  and  inflammatory  disorders, 
improve  the  appetite,  clean  the  buccal  membrane,  lessen 
fever,  and  help  to  establish  and  maintain  a  healthy  and 
regular  action  of  the  bowels.  For  such  febrifuge  purposes, 
whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  it  is  given  once  or  twice  daily, 
but  should  be  withheld  or  diminished  in  amount,  whenever 
the  bowels  become  unduly  relaxed,  or  where  flatulence  or 
spasm  follows  its  use.  It  acts  more  certainly  and  regularly 
when  given  in  solution  than  in  bolus.  It  is  often  conjoined 
with  nitre  and  other  salines,  and  during  convalescence  from 
acute  disorders  with  powdered  gentian  and  other  carmina- 
tives. Epsom  salt  is  one  of  the  best  antidotes  in  poisoning 
by  barium  chloride,  and  salts  of  lead,  it  converts  them  into 
insoluble  sulphates,  and  further  evokes  action  of  the  bowels, 
which  in  lead- poisoning  is  apt  to  be  impaired  and  tardy.  In 
smaller  and  repeated  doses  it  acts  as  a  diuretic,  but  is  seldom 
specially  used  for  that  purpose.  It  is  frequently  added  to 
laxative  clysters. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  cathartic,  cattle  take  Ib.j.  to  Ib.jss. ;  calves 
of  two  to  three  months,  §iij.  to  §iv. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  giv.  to 
§vi. ;  dogs,  5ii-  to  5iv.  One-fifth  to  one-eighth  of  these  doses 
is  often  eftectual  in  removing  indigestion,  keeping  up  the 
action  of  other  cathartics,  and  as  a  febrifuge  or  alterative. 
Epsom  salt  is  given  dissolved  in  ten  or  fifteen  parts  of  water. 
To  conceal  its  nauseous,  bitter  taste  it  is  administered  with 


216  BARIUM   CHLORIDE 

treacle,  or  with  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
five  drops  to  every  ounce  of  salt.  To  expedite  its  purgative 
action  and  prevent  nausea  and  griping,  there  is  usually  added 
some  carminative,  such  as  a  drachm  of  ginger  to  the  ounce 
of  salt.  To  ensure  prompt  and  full  purgation  in  cattle  or 
sheep,  equal  weights  of  Epsom  and  common  salt  are  prefer- 
able to  either  given  alone ;  treacle  and  a  full  dose  of  ginger 
are  added,  and  solution  is  effected  in  a  liberal  amount  of 
tepid  water.  In  impaction  of  the  third  stomach,  and  obstinate 
constipation  of  cattle,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  add  to  the 
saline  mixture  twelve  or  fifteen  croton  beans,  a  drachm  of 
calomel,  or  half  an  ounce  of  gamboge,  and  to  follow  this  with 
repeated  doses  of  treacle  and  ginger.  In  torpidity  of  the 
bowels  it  is  conjoined  with  half  a  dose  of  aloes  and  thirty 
grains  of  nux  vomica.  For  febrifuge  and  alterative  purposes, 
Epsom  salt  is  conjoined  with  nitre,  mineral  acids,  gentian 
and  other  bitters. 


BARIUM  CHLORIDB-BARII  CHLORIDUM 
Barium  occurs  in  nature  in  combinations  analogous  to 
those  of  strontium ;  as  carbonate  in  the  mineral  witherite 
and  as  sulphate  in  barite  or  heavy  spar. 

Barium  Chloride. — ]jixC\.^2}I.fi,  Terra  ponderosa  salita, 
discovered  by  Scheele,  may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  the 
native  carbonate  in  hydrochloric  acid.  It  occurs  in  flat  or 
tabular  crystals,  colourless  and  transparent,  with  bevelled 
edges.  Taste,  acrid  and  bitter;  reaction,  neutral.  Soluble 
in  two-and-a-half  parts  of  cold  water,  in  400  parts  absolute 
alcohol,  and  slightly  soluble  in  rectified  spirit.  The  salt 
keeps  well  in  substance  or  in  aqueous  solution. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Morton  (Manual  of  FJiarmacy,  1868) 
states  that  occasionally  barium  salts  are  employed  in  veter- 
inary practice,  but  with  doubtful  efficacy.  They  are  nearly 
all  poisonous  except  the  sulphate,  which  is  harmless.  The 
safest  antidote  is  sulphate  of  soda.  On  horses  aft'ected  with 
glanders,  Pcrcivall  experimented  with  barium  compounds, 
and  placed  most  reliance  on  the  chloride,  which  he  ad- 
ministered, per  orem,  in   doses  oi  3^8.  to  5'j-      Poisoning 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  217 

sometimes  occurred.  Barium  chloride,  in  properly  regulated 
doses,  resembles  digitalis  in  its  action  on  the  heart.  Small 
doses  stimulate  the  muscles  of  the  intestine,  uterus,  and 
bladder,  and  increase  peristalsis.  Excessive  doses  induce 
general  muscular  spasms,  dyspno-a,  sweating,  inco-ordination, 
and  paralysis.  Death  may  occur  suddenly  from  spasm  of 
the  heart.  The  physiological  effects  of  barium  chloride  have 
not  been  fully  ascertained,  but  its  action  on  the  vascular 
system  of  animals  and  man  has  been  investigated  by  Brunton, 
Ringer,  Robert,  Bartholow,  and  Hare.  They  agree  in  find- 
ing that  barium  slows  the  heart,  steadies  its  rhythm,  and 
increases  the  volume  of  blood  forced  from  the  ventricle. 
Blood  pressure  is  raised,  an  effect  which  is  due,  according  to 
Robert,  to  the  action  of  the  drug  on  the  muscular  coat  of 
the  vessels.  In  animals,  large  doses  over-stimulate  and  arrest 
the  heart  in  systole,  and  the  strongest  irritation  of  the  pneu- 
mogastric  nerves  fails  to  relax  the  contraction  (Hare,  Practical 
Therapeutics).  Dieckerhoff  finds  that  barium  chloride  has 
little  therapeutic  effect  on  sheep,  but  on  horses  it  increases 
the  power  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  bowels.  It  causes  no 
irritation  of  the  gastric  mucous  membrane,  exerts  its  action 
on  the  whole  length  of  the  gut,  and  acts  very  quickly,  especi- 
ally when  injected  intravenously.  As  soon  as  the  bowels 
have  been  evacuated  the  effects  of  the  drug  cease,  and  even 
during  its  operation  there  is  little  or  no  constitutional  dis- 
turbance. Large  doses  may  cause  pain  by  exciting  intestinal 
spasm.  An  underdose  has  no  apparent  effect ;  but  an  over- 
dose may  be  followed  by  fatal  spinal  paralysis.  The  activity 
of  the  chloride  depends  on  its  mode  of  administration.  Given 
intravenously  in  suitable  dose,  the  bowels  respond  in  a  minute 
or  two,  and  faeces  may  continue  to  be  passed  at  intervals  of 
fifteen  minutes  for  five  or  six  hours.  Administered  in  drench 
or  in  bolus  it  is  less  active.  In  some  horses  it  has  a  powerful 
action  on  the  heart.  It  is  a  nerve  poison,  and  a  second  dose 
administered  within  twelve  hours  of  the  first  is  not  without 
danger  {Veterinarian,  1895). 

Zschokke  experimented  with  the  drug  on  apparently 
healthy  horses.  He  gave  three  horses,  T1L150;  two,  llil05; 
one  horse,  T^yo  ;  and  another,  11[225,  of  a  ten  per  cent,  aqueous 


218  BARIUM  CHLORIDE 

solution  injected  into  the  jugular  vein.  Within  thirty 
seconds  all  the  subjects  exhibited  masticatory  movements  of 
the  jaws,  and  in  less  than  three  minutes  and  a  half  there  was 
expulsion  of  gas  followed  by  ftcces.  The  horse  that  received 
the  largest  dose  groaned  and  strained. 

Roder  injected  into  the  jugular  of  a  horse  three  grammes 
of  the  chloride  dissolved  in  thirty  grammes  of  water.  In  a 
minute  loud  borborygmus  was  heard,  and  in  two  minutes 
profuse  sweating  occurred,  followed  by  defaecation,  with 
violent  straining.  In  half-an-hour  the  horse  was  all  right 
(Veterinarian,  1896-97). 

Barium  chloride,  as  a  remedy  for  colic  in  horses,  was  intro- 
duced in  1895  by  Dieckerhoff.  In  seven  months  he  treated 
400  cases,  with  only  one  death.  Cadiot  recommends  the 
drug  after  an  experience  of  its  effects  in  32  cases,  with  three 
deaths,  two  from  gastric  rupture,  and  one  from  volvulus. 
Mollereau  used  it  successfully  in  38  consecutive  cases,  and 
then  lost  three  suddenly. 

Although  not  often  followed  by  a  fatal  result,  it  should  be 
noted  that  intravenous  injection  of  barium  chloride  some- 
times produces  symptoms  of  poisoning,  and  occasionally 
sudden  death.  Dieckerhoff  attributes  the  single  mishap  in 
his  400  cases  to  barium  poisoning.  Rbder  mentions  the 
death  of  a  horse  in  two  minutes  after  an  intravenous  injec- 
tion of  twelve  grains ;  and  Mollereau  has  no  doubt  that  the 
drug  caused  the  immediate  death  of  three  of  his  patients. 
It  gives  unquestionably  good  results  in  many  cases,  but  in 
others  its  effects  are  uncertain  and  unsafe.  In  most  cases  of 
abdominal  pain  the  drug  should  be  used  cautiously,  or  as  a 
last  resort,  after  having  exhausted  other  treatment,  perhaps 
less  active,  but  infinitely  less  dangerous. 

The  toxic  effects  are  salivation,  champing  of  the  jaws, 
dyspnoea,  loss  of  pulse,  distension  of  the  superficial  veins, 
sweating,  tremors,  muscular  cramps,  inco-ordination,  and 
paralysis.  In  poisoning,  the  best  antidote  is  magnesium 
sulphate,  or  sodium  sulphate,  which  is  given  with  the  object 
of  converting  the  poison  into  the  insoluble  and  harmless 
barium  sulphate. 

Doses,  Intravenous. — Horses,  according  to  size,  grs.  viii.  to 


ALUM  219 

grs.  XX.,  in  two  and  a  half  to  six  drachms  of  water.  When 
the  patient  is  Aveak,  or  his  pulse  is  over  70,  only  half  a  dose 
should  be  given.  Dieckerhoff  recommends  half  a  dose  at 
the  first  injection,  followed  by  two  quarter  doses  at  intervals 
of  from  eight  to  ten  minutes.  Administered  in  this  way, 
the  drug  is  quite  as  effective  as  when  given  in  one  dose. 
Mollereau  prescribes  5j-  of  a  one  in  fifteen  aqueous  solution; 
and  Zschokke  gives  TT|,75  of  a  ten  per  cent,  solution. 

Drench. — Horses,  5iss.  to  5iij-  in  a  quart  of  water. 

Bolus  or  Electuary.— Ponies,  grs.  xlviii.  to  grs.  Ixxx. ; 
horses  of  full  size,  grs.  Ixxx,  to  grs.  clx.  (Veterinarian, 1H96). 


ALUM.    ALUMEN 
Potassium  Alum  (Aluminium   and    Potassium   Sulphate). 
Al2(S04)3,    K2SO4,    24H2O.      Or  — Ammonium    Alum. 
Al2(SO,)3,  (NHJ^SO^.  24H.,0. 

Produced  by  the  combination  of  aluminium  sulphate  with 
potassium  sulphate,  or  with  ammonium  sulphate  (B.P.). 

The  alums  are  a  series  of  double  salts  in  which  aluminium 
sulphate  is  conjoined  with  potassium,  sodium  or  ammonium 
sulphate.  They  are  found  in  limited  quantity  on  the  surface 
of  soils  and  rocks,  especially  in  volcanic  districts,  and  are 
largely  prepared  from  aluminium  clay,  shale,  or  schist,  which 
mainly  consists  of  aluminous  silicate  and  iron  sulphide. 
Near  Paisley,  where  alum  is  extensively  manufactured,  the 
schist  lies  between  the  coal  and  limestone  strata.  When 
slowly  roasted  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  the  sulphur  is  con- 
verted into  sulphuric  acid,  which  unites  with  the  iron  and 
aluminium.  Water  is  added,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  less 
soluble  iron  sulphate  crystallises  out. 

To  make  potash  alum  this  residual  solution  is  treated 
with  potassium  chloride,  usually  obtained  as  a  bi-product 
from  the  soap-boilers,  saltpetre  refineries,  and  glass-houses ; 
double  decomposition  results.  The  remaining  iron  sulphate 
is  converted  into  iron  chloride,  which  continues  in  solution ; 
while  potassium  sulphate  unites  with  aluminium  sulphate 


220  ALUM 

to  form  potash  alum,  which  crystallises,  and  is  further  pnri- 
tied  by  repeated  solution  and  crystallisation. 

Properties.  -The  alums  occur  in  transparent,  colourless 
cubes,  or  octahedral  crystals,  have  a  sweet,  acidulous,  astrin- 
gent taste,  act  like  acids  on  colouring  matter,  and,  when 
heated,  fuse  and  part  with  their  water  of  crystallisation. 
They  are  soluble  in  one-third  of  their  own  weight  of  water 
at  212°  Fahr.,  and  in  seven  parts  of  cold  water.  Freely 
soluble  in  glycerin :  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Alum  is  slightly  irritant,  astringent, 
and  antiseptic,  and  is  chiefly  used  externally  as  an  astringent 
styptic,  desiccant,  and  caustic. 

Toxic  Effects. — One  or  two  ounces  given  to  dogs  cause 
vomiting.  But  when  the  esophagus  was  tied,  and  vomiting 
prevented,  Orfila  found  that  two  ounces  occasioned  death  in 
five  hours,  with  great  exhaustion ;  the  intestines  were  found 
extensively  inflamed.  Devergie  (quoted  by  Pereira)  found 
that  four  drachms  of  dried  alum  killed  a  dog  when  the 
gullet  was  tied.  An  ounce  introduced  into  the  areolar  tissue 
of  a  dog's  thigh  caused  excessive  suppuration,  and  death  in 
fifteen  hours.  Moiroud  states  that  large  doses  given  for  some 
time  exhaust  the  digestive  organs,  diminish  cutaneous  tran- 
spiration, and  produce  grave  disorders.  Bourgelat  states  that 
it  causes  chronic  lung  irritation  in  horses.  Several  ounces 
are  occasionally  given  to  cows  to  arrest  lacteal  secretion,  and 
although  continued  for  a  week  or  two,  do  not  produce  any 
obvious  bad  eflects.  Alum  is  decomposed  in  its  passage 
through  the  intestines,  rendering  the  fieces  odourless  and 
somewhat  fiimer.  Over-doses  are  decomposed  and  neutralised 
by  small  and  repeated  doses  of  sodium  carbonate,  followed 
by  denudcents. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Alum  closely  resembles  copper  and  zinc 
sulphates,  but  is  less  active.  It  is  occasionally  given  to  the 
dog  as  an  emetic.  Applied  in  a  dry  state,  it  absorbs  water 
from  the  tissues,  and  hence  acts  as  a  mild  caustic.  It  has 
little  or  no  effect  upon  the  unbroken  skin.  It  coagulates 
albumin  and  gelatin,  and  hence  invests  the  abraded  skin 
and  mucous  membranes  with  a  protective  film,  diminishes 
their  blood  supply,  aud  thus  relieves  congestion,  and  lessens 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  221 

secretion.  In  virtue  of  its  astringent  properties,  it  is  used 
as  a  lotion  for  aphthous  or  ulcerated  conditions  of  the  mouth ; 
as  a  gargle  and  spray  for  sore-throat;  as  a  dressing  for 
blistered  surfaces,  as  a  stimulant  injection  for  leucorrhoea ;  and 
in  many  of  these  cases  it  may  be  conjoined  with  glycerin 
and  borax.  Alum  is  occasionally  prescribed  with  opium  in 
diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  but  vegetable  astringents  are  prefer- 
able. In  America,  large  doses  have  been  given  to  horses 
infested  with  bots.  With  the  object  of  precipitating  lead 
salts  in  the  intestine,  it  has  been  prescribed  as  an  early 
antidote  in  lead-poisoning.  When  alum  enters  the  blood 
it  forms  an  albuminate,  and  hence  loses  its  astringency.  In 
the  kidneys,  however,  the  albuminate  is  redissolved,  and  thus 
alum  may  be  valuable  in  hasmaturia.  Alum  was  formerly 
given  for  polyuria  in  horses,  but  iodine  and  iron  sulphate 
are  more  effectual  remedies.  To  arrest  the  flow  of  synovia 
from  open  bursse  or  joints,  finely  powdered  alum,  mixed  with 
two  or  three  parts  of  wheat  flour,  or  a  powder  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  dried  alum,  iron  sulphate,  and  myrrh,  is  a 
valuable  application.  A  saturated,  aqueous  solution  is  a 
useful  styptic  for  haemorrhage.  For  simple  conjunctivitis 
and  keratitis,  alum  (5  grains)  and  morphine  (2  grains),  in 
an  ounce  of  water,  form  an  excellent  coUyrium.  An  oint- 
ment, made  with  one  part  of  alum  to  three  or  four  of  lard  or 
vasehne,  will  be  found  useful  as  a  dressing  for  ulcerated  heels 
and  slow-healing  wounds.  Glycerin  of  alum,  composed  of 
alum,  ^.,  water,  5iij-,  and  glycerin,  gyj.,  is  used  for  chapped 
teats  and  eczema.  Alumen  exsiccatum,  the  dried  alum  of 
the  B.P.  is  potash  alum  deprived  of  its  water  of  crystal- 
lisation by  heat.  It  is  a  white  powder,  forming  spongy 
opaque  masses  on  exposure  to  moisture.  Slowly  soluble  in 
water,  it  should  contain  45  to  46  per  cent,  less  water  than 
alum.  It  is  a  useful  caustic  and  astringent  for  exuberant 
granulations,  warts,  and  superficial  sores.  An  albuminate, 
made  by  thoroughly  mixing  an  ounce  of  dried  alum  with 
the  whites  of  six  eggs,  is  employed  as  an  adhesive  in  setting 
fractures. 

Doses,  etc. — Astringent  for  horses  and  cattle,  5ij-  to  5jv. ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  5ij- ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  xx.,  given  in 


222  CHLORALUM 

bolus  or  in  solution.  Alum  is  incompatible  with  alkalies, 
and  their  carbonates,  lime  salts,  phosphates,  salts  of  lead  and 
mercury,  and  tannin-containing  bodies. 

Kaolin,  and  fullers'  earth,  both  native  aluminium  silicates, 
are  excellent  desiccants,  mild  astringents  and  protectives, 
much  used  for  chafed  shoulders,  harness-galls,  and  simple 
abrasions.  Aluminium  sulphate  is  occasionally  used  as  a 
caustic,  antiseptic,  and  astringent. 

Chloralum.    Solution  of  Aluminium  Chloride. 

When  aluminium  sulphate  and  calcium  chloride  are  dis- 
solved together,  double  decomposition  ensues,  and  there 
remains  in  solution  an  impure  hydratod  aluminium  chloride 
— a  colourless,  oily  fluid,  with  a  sweet  astringent  taste,  sold 
as  chloralum. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Like  many  metallic  chlorides,  chlor- 
alum is  corrosive,  astringent,  and  antiseptic.  It  has  been 
recommended  in  influenza  in  horses,  in  dysentery  in  cattle, 
and  in  distemper  in  dogs.  Drachm  doses  suffice  for  horses 
or  cattle,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x.  for  dogs.  It  may  be  admmistered 
either  in  bolus  made  with  meal,  or  dissolved  in  water  or  gruel 
Externally  it  may  be  applied  to  the  purposes  for  which 
alum  or  zinc  sulphate  is  serviceable.  As  a  disinfectant  it 
has  been  more  used  on  the  Continent  than  in  this  country. 
Dr.  Angus  Smith,  in  his  experiments  undertaken  for  the 
Cattle  Plague  Commissioners,  found  that  for  the  preservation 
of  night-soil,  chloralum  proved  inferior  to  common  salt,  car- 
bolic acid,  and  zinc  and  iron  chlorides.  As  a  deodoriser  it 
proved  more  effectual  than  alum,  but  less  eft'ectual  than  tar 
oils,  sodium  sulphite,  or  bleaching  powder.  Diluted  solutions 
destroy  the  parasites  of  mange  and  scab,  and  kill  fleas 
and  ticks. 


BISMUTH  AND  ITS  SALTS 

Bismuth  and  its  salts  belong  to  the  group  comprising 
phosphorus,  and  the  salts  of  antimony,  and  arsenic.   Formerly, 


BISMUTH   SALTS  223 

owing  probably  to  defective  preparation,  and  the  presence  of 
arsenic,  their  administration  in  full  and  continued  doses  pro- 
duced gastro-intestinal  irritation,  and  fatty  degeneration  of 
the  liver  and  other  organs.  But  pure  salts  of  bismuth,  being 
sparingly  soluble,  have  little,  if  an}^,  toxic  effect. 

Bismuth  oxycarbonate,  prepared  by  the  interaction  of 
bismuth  nitrate  and  ammonium  carbonate ;  bismuth  oxide, 
prepared  by  boiling  the  oxynitrate  with  solution  of  sodium 
hydroxide ;  and  bismuth  oxynitrate,  obtained  by  the  inter- 
action of  bismuth  nitrate  and  water,  have  similar  characters 
and  reactions.  The  carbonate  is  whitish,  the  oxide  is  brownish- 
yellow,  and  the  oxynitrate  is  white.  They  form  heavy  powders, 
are  insoluble  in  Avater,  but  soluble  in  diluted  nitric  acid. 

Bismuth  salicylate,  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  bisnuith 
nitrate  and  sodium  salicylate,  occurs  as  a  white  am.orphous 
powder,  odourless  and  tasteless,  insoluble  in  Avater,  alcohol 
and  glycerin,  and  containing  about  65  per  cent,  of  bismuth 
oxide  (BigOg). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Externally,  applied  to  wounds,  bismuth 
salts  are  desiccant,  protective,  slightly  astringent,  and  anti- 
septic. The  salicylate  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for 
iodoform.  With  starch,  boric  acid,  or  iodoform,  the  oxy- 
nitrate is  employed  to  relieve  irritation  and  itching  of  the 
skin.  The  oxide,  in  ointment  made  with  eight  parts  of 
vaseline,  is  sometimes  applied  after  firing  or  blistering,  but 
ointment  of  zinc  oxide  is  quite  as  useful. 

Internally,  the  oxynitrate  and  carbonate  are  astringent, 
antiseptic,  antacid,  and  absorbent.  The  subnitrate  is  a 
germicide  of  considerable  value  in  bowel  cases.  It  allays 
irritation  in  dyspepsia,  vomiting,  and  in  gastro-intestinal 
catarrh.  It  acts  by  its  oxide  and  by  its  acid,  Avhich  is  anti- 
septic. The  salicylate  is  a  more  powerful  antiseptic  than 
the  subnitrate.  In  the  bowel  it  is  rapidly  split  up  into 
salicylic  acid  and  bismuth  oxide.  But  as  free  salicylic  acid 
irritates  the  mucous  membrane,  bismuth  benzoate,  Avhich  is 
not  irritant,  is  usually  preferred  as  an  intestinal  disinfectant. 

Doses,  etc. — Oxynitrate,  Horses,  5ij-  to  5jv.  or  more; 
dogs,  grs.  V.  to  grs,  xx.,  m  mucilage,  milk,  or  bolus. 

Salicylate  or  benzoate,  foals  and  calves,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xl. ; 


224  DERMATOL,    AIROL,    ORPHOL 

doc^s,  grs.  V.  to  grs.  xv. ;  The  B.P.  liquor  bismuthi  et  am- 
monii  citratis,  containing  three  grains  of  bismuth  oxide  in 
each  drachm,  is  a  convenient  preparation  for  special  cases. 
Bismuth  benzoate,  is  obtained  by  heating  the  nitrate  in 
glj^cerin  and  water,  and  adding  a  sokition  of  sodium  benzo- 
ate, and  washing  and  drying  the  precipitate.  It  is  a  white, 
insohible  powder,  employed  externally  as  a  desiccant,  and 
internally  as  an  intestinal  disinfectant. 

Dermatol,  or  bismuth  subgallate,  prepared  with  bismuth 
trinitrate,  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  gallic  acid,  is  a  bright 
yellow  powder,  odourless,  tasteless,  and  insoluble.    Dermatol 
is  absorbent,  astringent,  and  feebly  antiseptic.    It  is  employed 
externally  as  a  dry  dressing  for  wounds.     Two  parts  each  of 
dermatol  and  zinc  oxide,  and  twenty  parts  of  vaseline  form 
an  ointment  which  promotes  cicatrisation  of  cracked  heels. 
Internally,  dermatol  has  been  prescribed  for  diarrhea  and 
gastro-intestinal  catarrh.      Doses,  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x. ; 
calves   and   foals,  grs.  x.   to   grs.  xx.     Xeroform  (bismuth 
tribromophenol)  is  a  neutral,  odourless,  tasteless,  and  in- 
soluble yellow  powder,  containing  about  fifty  per  cent,  of 
bismuth  oxide.     Is  employed  as  a  substitute  for  iodoform, 
and  occasionally  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic.     Airol  (bismuth 
oxy-iodo-gallatc),  a  light-greyish,  or  yellow  powder,  tasteless, 
odourless,  and  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether ;  has  been 
used  as  a  substitute  for  iodoform,  and  by  Frohner  as  a  pig- 
ment, made  with  airol,  glycerin,  gum  and  talc,  for  dressing 
small  surgical  wounds.     Orphol  (bismuth  beta-naphthol),  a 
light-brown  powder  of  agreeable  taste,  and  containing  about 
three  per  cent,  of  beta-naphthol.   It  is  a  useful  astringent  and 
antiseptic  in  intestinal  catarrh  of  foals,  calves,  and  dogs. 
Doses. — grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx.,  in  boiled  milk,  or  in  electuary. 
Thioform   (bismuth    dithio-salicylate)    occurs    as   a    bulky, 
yellow  powder,  odourless,  tasteless,  and  insoluble.    It  is  anti- 
septic and  desiccant,  and  in  the  form  of  paste  made  with 
glycerin  or  vaseline  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  wounds, 
eczema,  and  conjunctivitis  {Newer  Remedies,  1899). 


LEAD   SALTS  226 

LEAD   AND   ITS   MEDICINAL   SALTS 
Lead.     Plumbum.     Pb. 

Lead  is  chiefly  obtained  by  roasting  galena,  the  suljDhide 
(PbS).  It  has  a  blue-grey  colour,  and  a  peculiar  odour  when 
rubbed;  is  soft  and  fusible,  melting  at  617°  Fahr. ;  is  readily 
cut  and  rolled  into  sheets  or  pipes.  It  has  the  specific 
gravity  of  11 '4.  Exposed  to  air  it  oxidises,  loses  its  metallic 
lustre,  and  becomes  dull  and  opaque.  In  contact  with  air 
and  water  a  soluble  basic  carbonate  is  gradually  formed,  and 
water  thus  contaminated  is  dangerous. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  salts  of  lead  resemble  those  of  tin. 
Metallic  lead  is  devoid  of  medicinal  or  poisonous  action. 
Shot — an  alloy  of  lead,  with  two  per  cent,  of  arsenic — is 
occasionally  used  by  the  lower  order  of  dealers,  temporarily 
and  mechanically  to  relieve  the  distressed  breathing  of 
broken-winded  horses.  Four  ounces  of  metallic  lead  were 
given  to  a  dog  at  the  Veterinary  School  of  Ijyons  without 
effect.  Introduced  into  the  animal  body,  in  frequently 
repeated  although  small  quantity,  the  metal  is  apt,  how- 
ever, to  become  oxidised,  and  cause  poisoning.  Painters, 
plumbers,  and  other  persons  working  with  lead  frequently 
suffer  from  lead-poisoning,  and  such  poisoning  also  occa- 
sionally occurs  in  the  domestic  animals. 

The  soluble  salts — such  as  the  nitrate  and  acetate,  as 
well  as  the  peptonates  formed  in  the  stomach — unite  with 
albumin.  Small  to  moderate  diluted  doses  do  not  irritate 
either  the  skin  or  mucous  membranes,  but  are  astringent, 
desiccant,  and  analgesic.  They  have  a  sweet  rather  than 
a  corrosive  taste.  When  swallowed  they  act  as  gastro- 
intestinal astringents,  are  absorbed  chiefly  as  albuminates, 
permeate  the  tissues,  contract  arterioles,  raise  blood-pressure, 
and  slow  the  heart  movements.  Larger  or  continued  doses 
irritate  and  then  paralyse  voluntary  and  involuntary 
muscles,  and  also  the  central  nervous  system.  This  two- 
fold irritant  and  paralysant  action  is  illustrated  by  the 
vomiting  induced  in  dogs  and  cats,  the  cramp  of  the 
intestinal   and   other    muscles   in   man   and   animals,   and 


22G     PLUMBISM — SYMrXOMS  AND  MORBID  ArPEARAXCES 

the  paresis  developed  subsequently  by  toxic  doses.  These 
effects  appear  to  result  from  the  deposition  of  the  lead 
in  the  several  textures  affected.  Hence  arise,  in  chronic 
cases,  degeneration  of  the  implicated  muscles  and  cirrhosis 
of  the  kidneys  and  other  internal  organs.  Certain  animals 
exhibit  more  prominently  some  of  the  actions  of  lead. 
Muscular  weakness  and  paralysis  are  well  marked  in  frogs 
and  rabbits,  are  less  pronounced  in  cats,  and  are  absent  in 
dogs.  Elimination  is  slowly  effected  in  the  urine,  bile, 
and  intestinal  mucus  (Brunton). 

Lead-poisoning",  or  plumbism,  in  the  lower  animals  ex- 
hibits symptoms  analogous  to  those  in  man,  and  frequently 
continues,  in  more  or  less  aggravated  form,  for  several 
weeks,  or  even  months.  Digestion  is  impaired,  ajjpetite 
becomes  capricious  and  irregular;  there  are  spasms  and 
subsequently  torpidity  of  the  bowels.  These  symptoms 
simulate  those  of  gastric  distension  in  horses  and  impaction 
of  the  third  stomach  of  cattle — disorders  for  Avhich  lead- 
poisoning  has  been  mistaken.  Distinctive  features  shortly, 
however,  present  themselves.  Along  the  margin  of  the 
gums  appears  a  grey  or  blue  line  of  lead  deposited  in  the 
connective  tissue,  blackened  by  hydrogen  sulj^hide  present 
in  the  mouth,  or  by  sulphur  in  the  food.  Colic  and  consti- 
pation are  not  so  invariably  present  in  the  lower  animals 
as  in  human  patients.  The  extensor  muscles  of  the  limbs 
are  cramped  and  paralysed  earlier  and  more  seriously 
than  the  flexors.  The  affected  muscles  gradually  waste. 
The  motor  area  of  the  central  nervous  system  is  more 
notably  involved  than  the  sensory,  and  choreic  movements 
and  convulsions  are  succeeded  by  paresis  and  amaurosis. 
In  cattle  lead- poisoning  occasionally  proves  a  cause  of 
abortion. 

Mr.  Shenton,  a  veterinary  surgeon  practising  in  Derby- 
shire, in  1861,  had  eleven  horses  poisoned,  and  several 
cattle,  and  thus  described  to  me  the  conditions  which 
came  under  his  observation: — 'There  was  a  rough,  staring 
coat,  a  tucked-up  appearance  of  the  abdomen,  and  a  slightly 
accelerated  pulse ;  in  fact,  symptoms  of  febrile  excitement, 
Avhich  usually,  however,  passed  away  in  about  a  week.     About 


LEAD    POISONING  227 

this  time  large  quantities  of  grey- coloured  mucus  were 
discharged  from  the  nostrils,  and  saliva  from  the  mouth; 
but  at  no  time  was  there  any  enlargement  of  the  sub- 
maxillary, lymphatic,  or  salivary  glands.  Neither  was  there 
constipation  of  the  bowels,  which  appears  to  be  nearly  always 
present  in  lead-poisoning  in  man.  Fits  and  partial  paralysis 
came  on  at  intervals,  and  when  the  animals  got  down  they 
often  struggled,  for  a  long  time  ineffectually,  to  get  up  again. 
Thx^  breathing  up  to  this  period  was  tranquil,  but  now 
became  so  difficult  and  laboured  that  the  patients  appeared 
in  danger  of  suffocation.  The  pulse  Avas  in  no  case  above 
sixty  or  seventy,  and  I  ascribed  the  difficulty  of  respiration 
to  a  paralysed  state  of  the  respirator}^  apparatus.  The 
animals  did  not  live  more  than  two  or  three  days  after  these 
symptoms  appeared.  The  post-mortem  appearances  varied 
little.  The  lungs  and  trachea  were  inflamed,  the  lungs 
engorged  with  large  quantities  of  black  blood,  the  trachea 
and  bronchi  filled  with  frothy  spume.  In  all  but  two  cases 
the  villous  portion  of  the  stomach  presented  isolated  j)atches 
of  increased  vascularity,  and  in  all  cases  the  intestines,  and 
especially  the  large  ones,  were  inflamed.  The  blind  pouch 
of  the  caecum  was  nearly  gangrenous.  There  was  nothing 
remarkable  about  the  liver,  spleen,  or  kidneys,  except  that 
they  were  of  a  singularly  blue  appearance.  The  brain  and 
spinal  cord  were  not  examined.'  According  to  Mosselman 
and  Hebrant,  the  effects  of  the  poison  in  horses  are  especially 
manifested  upon  the  vagus  nerve,  inducing  roaring  and 
dyspnoea  {Veterinarian,  1899). 

Mr.  Cartwright,  Whitchurch,  Salop,  recorded  {Edinburgh 
Veterinary  Revieiu,  1863),  three  cases  of  milch  cows  poisoned 
by  eating  sheet  lead,  which  had  been  used  for  lining  tea- 
chests,  and  afterwards  carelessly  thrown  on  the  manure 
heap,  and  thence  spread  on  the  pastures.  Besides  failure 
of  milk  and  appetite,  grinding  of  the  teeth,  and  dulness, 
several  curious  symptoms  are  mentioned.  The  head  was 
rested  against  any  convenient  object  as  if  the  animal  were 
asleep,  while  the  eyes  were  nearly  closed,  and  Avere  little 
sensitive  to  light  or  to  movements  of  the  finger.  The  gait 
was  weak  and  tottering,  while  for  an  hour  or  two  at  a  time 


228  LEAD-POISONING 

tlio  cows,  although  persistently  staiuliDg  on  their  hind  limbs, 
went  down  on  their  knees,  propping  themselves  against  the 
wall.  They  survived  four  or  five  days.  From  the  fourth 
stomach  of  one  cow  a  pound  of  sheet  lead  was  removed ; 
the  lining  membrane  Avas  thickened,  and  of  a  brown  colour. 
The  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomachs  and  bowels  Avas 
abnormally  vascular,  and  exhibited  in  places  patches  of 
ccchymosis.  The  liver  was  pale,  cla3'-coloured,  compact, 
and  contained  little  blood. 

Mr.  W.  AVatson  records  the  poisoning  of  three  cows,  which 
languished  for  several  months,  and  died  from  eating  grass 
on  which  bullet  spray  from  the  Rugby  ride  butts  had  fallen. 
Fragments  of  the  lead  were  found  adhering  to  the  coats  of 
the  stomach,  and  the  poison  was  also  detected  in  the  intes- 
tines, liver,  and  kidneys  {Veterhiarian,  1864).  Mr.  Broad, 
of  Bath,  also  records  cases  of  cattle  poisoned  by  picking 
up  bullet  spray.  The  animals  were  described  as  dull  and 
tucked-up,  the  eyes  staring,  the  gait  unsteady,  the  appetite 
good,  but  the  bowels  constipated  ;  emaciation,  with  oedema 
under  the  jaw,  made  rapid  progress.  Portions  of  bullet 
spray  were  found  in  the  second  and  third  stomachs ;  both 
large  and  small  intestines  were  pale-blue  and  bloodless 
{Veterinarian,  1865).  Professor  Tuson  recorded  shnilar 
symptoms  from  licking  red  paint,  which  he  found  retained 
for  twenty-eight  weeks  in  a  cow's  stomach.  Mr.  Cox,  of 
Hendon,  had  several  sheep  which  became  emaciated  and 
paralysed  from  eating  the  splashes  of  lead  bullets,  which 
were  found  in  the  stomachs  in  thin  flakes,  readily  soluble 
in  the  gastric  fluids  (Taylor  On  Poisons).  Birds  are  occa- 
sionally poisoned  by  eating  berries  contaminated  by  the 
smoke  of  lead  smelters. 

Mr.  Herapath  reported  in  The  Chemist  for  1855  interesting 
cases  of  load-poisoning  which  followed  the  erection  of  smelt- 
ing furnaces  on  the  Mcndip  hills  in  1853.  The  injury 
appeared  to  commence  half  a  mile  from  the  chinmey,  and  to 
extend  for  half  a  mile  farther.  Lead  oxides,  carbonate,  and 
sulphate  were  found  on  the  herbage,  hedges,  and  hay.  On  the 
live  stock  '  the  effects  of  the  metal  were,  stunted  growth,  lean- 
ness, shortness  of  breathing,  paralysis  of  the  extremities,  parti- 


FROM    BULLET-SPHAY    AND    SMELTER    SMOKE        229 

cularly  the  hinder  ones ;  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  fore-legs 
affected,  so  that  they  stood  upon  their  toes  ;  swelling  of  the 
knees ;  but  no  constipation  or  colic,  as  in  the  human  species; 
in  a  few  months  death  followed.  Injured  beasts  removed  to 
another  farm  did  not  thrive.  In  the  young  the  symptoms 
were  more  conspicuous  and  the  mortality  greater.  Lambs 
Avere  yeaned  paralytic ;  when  three  weeks  old  they  could  not 
stand,  although  they  made  great  efforts  to  do  so ;  in  attempt- 
ing to  feed  them  from  a  bottle  they  were  nearly  suffocated 
from  paralysis  of  the  glottis ;  twenty-one  died  early  out  of 
twenty-three.  Colts  also  died,  and  those  that  lived  could 
not  be  trotted  150  yards  without  distressed  breathing.  Pigs 
confined  to  the  stye  were  not  injured,  but  if  allowed  to  roam 
were  soon  affected.  The  milk  of  cows  and  sheep  Avas  reduced 
in  quality  and  quantity,  and  cheese  made  from  the  former 
had  less  fat  in  it.  I  found  in  the  milk  of  both  minute  traces 
of  lead.  The  dead  subjects  showed  the  mucous  surfaces  to 
be  paler  than  natural;  the  lungs  had  large  portions  of  a 
dark-red  colour,  with  circumscribed  edges,  not  like  ordinary 
inflammation,  but  evidently  surcharged  with  fluid.  This 
accounted  for  the  shortness  of  breathing,  as  only  portions  of 
the  lungs  were  tit  to  perform  their  functions.  In  some  parts 
there  appeared  bluish  spots,  where  the  powder  had  been 
stopped  by  the  bifurcation  of  the  air  passages.  A  blue  line 
appeared  in  the  gum  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  Dr.  Taylor  said 
in  court  was  not  caused  by  lead  poison,  as  it  did  not  occur, 
as  in  the  human  subject,  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  gum.,  but 
Avhere  the  gums  first  come  into  contact  with  the  teeth,  about 
three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  below  the  top  edge.  I  therefore 
dissected  out  this  line,  which  was  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  the  thickness  of  sewing  cotton,  and,  by 
aid  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  the  blow-pipe,  reduced  a  spano-le 
of  lead  from  it,  quite  visible  to  the  jury  without  the  aid  of  a 
microscope.  I  was  agreeably  surprised  at  this  result,  as  I 
expected  the  mark  arose  only  from  altered  blood;  but  it 
will  now  become,  in  the  hands  of  a  good  blow-pipe  manipu- 
lator, the  most  ready  means  of  detecting  lead  in  the  dead 
subject.  It  will  be  observed  that  of  the  symptoms,  those  of 
emaciation,  paralysis,  and  the  blue  line  are  similar  to  those 


230  LEAD   roiSONING 

of  the  human  subject,  that  constipation  and  cohc  are  absent, 
and  we  get  two  new  ones — shortness  of  breathing  and  swelled 
knees.  I  will  merely  add  that  the  company  agreed,  without 
calling  witnesses,  to  pay  £500  damages,  and  to  buy  the  estate 
at  full  value.' 

Lead  is  readily  found  in  the  bodies  of  animals  thus 
poisoned.  It  Las  been  detected  in  the  blood,  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  the 
nuiscles,  lungs,  spleen,  and  liver.  Lead  enters  the  bodies  of 
animals  in  their  food  or  water,  portions  of  metal  are  picked 
up,  or  paint  is  licked.  The  poison  is  sometimes  brought  to 
the  farm  in  street  manure.  Water  is  liable  to  contamination 
by  conveyance  through  leaden  pipes  or  storage  in  leaden 
cisterns.  The  hounds  at  the  royal  kennels  at  Ascot  some 
years  since  suffered  from  paralysis  from  drinking  water  con- 
taminated by  passing  through  new  lead  pipes.  At  Claremont 
the  late  Louis  Philippe  and  his  suite  had  symptoms  of  lead- 
poisoning,  although  the  amount  of  lead  did  not  reach  half  a 
grain  to  the  gallon.  But  in  some  of  the  Yorkshire  towns 
where  lead-poisoning  occurred  from  new  pipes,  the  con- 
tamination did  not  exceed  one  twenty-fifth  of  a  grain  per 
gallon.  On  lead  pipes  or  vessels  the  conjoined  action  of  air 
and  soft  water  is  liable  to  produce  a  crust  of  carbonate 
(PbCOg),  with  variable  proportions  of  hydrate  Pb(OH).,.  This 
crust  crumbles  away  as  a  crystalline  powder,  partly  dissolved 
and  partly  suspended  in  the  fluid.  Leaden  vessels,  or  vessels 
soldered  with  lead,  must  therefore  be  used  with  caution  for 
storage,  especially  for  any  length  of  time,  of  water,  saccharine 
or  acetic  solutions,  or  other  fkiids  likely  to  dissolve  the 
metal.  This  caution  is  especially  applicable  to  soft  waters 
and  to  those  rich  in  chlorides,  nitrites,  nitrates,  and  nitro- 
genous matters  yielding  ammonia.  Hard  waters,  abounding 
in  carbonates,  sulphates,  or  phosphates,  are  less  liable  to 
contamination,  as  their  acid,  uniting  with  the  lead,  forms  an 
insoluble  crust,  which  protects  the  metal  from  further  action 
of  air  or  water.  But  even  such  hard  waters  are  not  absolutely 
safe  from  lead  contamination.  A  piece  of  iron,  a  patch  of 
soft  solder,  or  a  few  carbonaceous  or  other  impurities  in  the 
lead,  are  liable  to  set  up  galvanic  action,  and  thus  dissolve 


LEAD    OXIDES    AND    CARBONATE  231 

the  metal.  Great  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  prevent 
lime,  mortar,  nails,  or  in  fact  any  foreign  body,  getting  into 
leaden  cisterns,  which  should  further  be  emptied  and  cleaned 
out  frequently,  especially  when  new. 

In  acute  poisoning  an  emetic  or  the  stomach  pump  is 
promptly  used,  followed  by  appropriate  antidotes.  In  chronic 
poisoning,  the  lead,  whether  deposited  in  the  tissues  or  lodged 
in  the  digestive  canal,  should  be  rendered  insoluble  by  ad- 
ministration of  sulphur,  potassium  iodide,  or  magnesium 
sulphate.  The  two  latter,  which  are  most  to  be  relied  on, 
are  given  separately,  at  intervals  of  two  hours,  and  repeated 
thrice  daily,  while  a  dose  of  oil  is  prescribed  every  third 
day  to  hasten  the  removal  of  the  lead  salts  excreted  into 
the  bowels. 

Lead  Oxide.     Plumbi  Oxidum.     Litharge. 

Lead  Carbonate.     Plumbi  Carbonas.     White  Lead. 

There  are  five  oxides  of  lead.  Litharge  (PbO)  is  a  yellowish- 
red,  scaly  powder,  prepared  by  the  action  of  air  on  melted 
lead.  Soluble  in  three  parts  water,  and  in  thirty  of  rectified 
spirit. 

Lead  carbonate,  or  white  lead,  may  be  prepared  by  the 
interaction  of  lead,  water,  and  carbonic  anhydride,  in  the 
presence  of  vapours  of  acetic  acid  (B.P.).  It  is  insoluble  in 
water  ;  entirely  soluble  in  diluted  acetic  acid. 

Actions  and  Uses.— Litharge  and  white  lead  are  used  topi- 
cally as  desiccants  and  astringents.  Mixed  with  linseed  oil 
glycerin,  or  vaseline,  they  form  antiseptic,  astringent,  pro- 
tective coverings,  useful  in  burns,  herpes,  and  moist  eczema. 
Animals,  however,  are  prone  to  eat  or  lick  such  dressino-s, 
and  to  obviate  risk  of  poisoning,  zinc  oxide  and  carbonate 
are  hence  usually  substituted. 

Lead  Oleate.     Lead  Plaster.     Emplastrum  Plumbi 

The  common  sticking  or  diachylon  plaster  is  prepared  by 
boiling  together  gently,  by  the  heat  of  a  steam  bath,  one 
pound  litharge,  two  pounds  olive  oil,  and  sixteen  ounces  of 
water,  keeping  them  simmering  for  four  or  five  hours,  stirrin"- 
constantly  until  the  product  acquires  a  proper  consistence 


232  LEAD    OLEATE    AND    IODIDE 

for  a  plaster,  and  adding  more  water  if  necessary  (B.P.). 
In  this  process  the  oil  is  decomposed  in  the  same  manner 
as  fats  are  acted  upon  by  steam  heat,  or  by  alkalies  in  the 
preparation  of  soap ;  lead  oleate  rises  to  the  surface,  and 
glj^cerin  remains  in  solution.  Lead  plaster  is  sold  in  rolls, 
about  a  foot  in  length,  of  a  yellow-white  colour,  and  a 
faint,  sweet,  soapy  odour.  Although  brittle  when  cold,  it 
becomes  soft  and  adhesive  Avhcn  heated. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Lead  plaster  is  adhesive,  free  from 
irritant  properties,  and  in  this  form  the  lead  is  not  liable 
to  absorption.  For  bringing  together  the  edges  of  small 
incised  wounds  it  is  generally  used  spread  on  linen  or 
calico,  and  thus  applied  it  besides  aifords  protection  and 
support.  Lead  plasters  are  rendered  more  adhesive,  and 
consequently  better  adapted  for  most  veterinary  purposes, 
by  melting  with  every  pound  four  ounces  of  pitch  or  resin 
and  two  ounces  of  hard  soap. 

Lead  Iodide.     Plumbi  lodidum.     Pblg. 

When  equal  parts  of  lead  nitrate  and  potassium  iodide 
are  dissolved,  and  the  solutions  mixed,  double  decomposi- 
tion occurs,  potassium  nitrate  remains  in  solution,  and  lead 
iodide  is  precipitated  in  brilliant,  golden  yellow,  crystalline 
scales,  or  in  a  fine,  bright  yelloAv,  heavy  powder.  It  is  taste- 
less, colourless,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but  readily 
dissolved  by  200  parts  boiling  water,  entirely  soluble  in 
solution  of  anunonium  chloride. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  resembles  other  lead  salts ;  is  occa- 
sionally prescribed  as  a  gland  stimulant,  and  applied  as  a 
dressing  for  ringworm  and  for  indolent  tumours,  being  used 
in  the  form  of  ointment  or  plaster.  Emplastrum  Plumbi 
lodidi  is  made  with  two  ounces  lead  iodide,  one  pound  load 
plaster,  and  two  ounces  of  resin. 

Lead  Acetate.     Plumbi  Acetas.     Sugar  of  Lead.     Neutral 

Acetate.     Pb(C,H30.,).33Aq. 
Strong  Solution  of  Lead  Subacetate.      Liquor  Plumbi 

Subacetatis  Fortis.     Goulard's  Extract.     (B.P.) 

Two   lead   acetates    are   used   in   medicine — the    neutral 


LEAD    ACETATES  233 

acetate  or  sugar  of  lead,  and  the  tribasic,  which  occurs  in 
Goulard's  Extract. 

Sugar  of  lead  is  obtained  by  dissolving  lead  oxide  or  lead 
carbonate,  in  acetic  acid.  Lead  acetate  occurs  in  minute 
needle-like  crystals,  which  are  slightly  efflorescent,  have  an 
acetous  odour,  and  a  sweet  astringent  taste.  It  is  soluble  in 
less  than  three  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  thirty  parts  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

The  liquor  plumbi  subacetatis,  or  Goulard's  Extract,  is 
prepared  by  boiling  5  ounces  of  lead  acetate  and  3J  ounces 
lead  oxide,  in  powder,  in  a  pint  of  water,  for  half  an  hour, 
constantly  stirring ;  then  filter,  and,  when  the  liquid  is  cold, 
add  to  it  more  distilled  water,  until  the  product  measures 
20  fluid  ounces  (B.P.).  It  is  a  colourless,  transparent, 
alkaline  liquid,  with  a  sweet,  astringent  taste.  It  becomes 
turbid  on  exposure.  From  a  solution  of  the  neutral  acetate 
it  is  distinguished  by  its  alkalinity,  and  by  its  producing  an 
opaque  white  jelly  when  mixed  with  mucilage  of  gum 
acacia.  The  diluted  solution  of  lead  subacetate,  or  Goulard's 
water,  is  made  with  2  drachms  of  strong  solution  of  lead 
subacetate,  2  drachms  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  and  19|  ounces 
of  distilled  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  acetates  exhibit  the  physiological 
actions  of  other  soluble  lead  salts.  They  are  prescribed  as 
astringents  and  styptics,  and  externally  as  astringents  and 
analgesics.  They  are  less  corrosive  and  astringent,  and 
more  soothing,  than  zinc  or  copper  acetates.  The  greater 
solubility  of  Goulard's  Extract  renders  it  more  active  than 
the  sugar  of  lead,  and  it  is  preferable  for  external  application 
on  account  of  its  not  drying  or  crystallising. 

Toxic  Effects. — Hertwig  gave  a  pound  of  sugar  of  lead 
to  horses,  and  observed  nausea,  colic,  a  quick,  small,  hard 
pulse,  stiffness  of  the  limbs,  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve, 
and  sometimes  of  other  parts,  insensibility,  and  often  death. 
Even  more  energetic  effects  occur  in  cattle.  Prinz  observed 
that  half  an  ounce  given  daily  for  three  days  produced  in 
cows  fever,  with  a  quick,  throbbing  pulse,  colic,  and  other 
symptoms  of  abdominal  pain;  in  one  case  mania,  but  in 
none  death.     Mecke  found   that  eight  ounces,  dissolved  in 


234  LEAD    ACETATE 

water,  and  given  in  divided  doses  during  two  days,  destroyed 
nine  cattle — the  first  on  the  second,  the  last  on  the  four- 
teenth day  after  the  poison  had  been  given.  Early  in 
1857  a  farmer  near  Glasgow  lost  eight  cows  from  their 
boiled  food  having  been  stored  in  a  large  tub  obtained 
from  a  chemical  manufactory,  and  impregnated  with  sugar 
of  lead.  The  symptoms  were  similar  to  those  above 
recorded.  Dogs  receiving  half  an  ounce,  retained  by  tying 
the  oesophagus,  suffered  intense  intestinal  irritation,  and 
died,  occasionally  in  nine  hours,  but  sometimes  only  after 
two  or  three  days  (Orfila).  Owing  to  chemical  action  the 
membrane  of  the  stomach  is  grey,  of  a  macerated  appear- 
ance, and  sometimes  very  vascular,  especially  in  lingering 
cases.  Similar  symptoms  and  appearances  are  observed 
when  sugar  of  lead  is  absorbed  from  a  wound,  or  injected 
into  the  veins. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Lead  acetate  is  administered  to  check 
haemorrhages,  especially  from  the  stomach  and  lungs.  For- 
merly it  was  prescribed  for  purpura  in  horses  and  red-water 
in  cattle;  but  other  remedies  are  more  effectual.  Half- 
drachm  doses  of  sugar  of  load  and  opium,  given  daily, 
sometimes  check  the  dangerous  diarrhoea  and  dysentery 
which  attack  badly-managed  anaemic  cattle  in  autumn  and 
early  winter.  Scouring  lambs  are  equally  benefited  by  eight 
or  ten  grains  each  of  lead  acetate  and  opium.  In  many 
of  these  cases,  besides  being  given  by  the  mouth,  it  is  also 
added  to  starch  injections. 

Externally  it  is  applied  to  check  superficial,  circumscribed 
inflammation ;  to  soothe  and  heal  burns,  bruises,  and  irritable 
moist  ulcers;  to  cool  and  reheve  strained,  inflamed  tendons 
and  joints;  in  conjunction  with  a  dose  of  physic,  to  abate 
the  itching  of  nettle-rash  and  erythema;  to  remove  the 
irritation  and  heal  the  excoriations  of  herpes ;  to  limit  the 
surrounding  inflammation  of  acne ;  to  arrest  irritation  and 
discharge  in  eczema,  in  such  cases  being  advantageously 
alternated  with  dilute  alkalies,  sulphur  or  citrine  ointment, 
or  yellow  wash.  It  is  applied  in  mucous  or  catarrhal 
inflammation  of  the  eye,  but  is  unsuitable  when  there  is 
abrasion  or  rupture  of  the  cornea,  as  insoluble  lead  albumi- 


ZINC    AND    ITS    MEDICINAL   SALTS  235 

nates  and  sulphates  are  formed,  causing  opacity,  which  is 
difficult  to  remove. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  lead  acetates,  horses  and  cattle  take 
5ss.  to  5i- ;  calves  and  sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx. ;  pigs,  grs.  ij. 
to  grs.  vj. ;  dogs,  grs.  j.  to  grs.  iv.,  given  in  bolus  or  solution, 
repeated  once  or  twice  daily.  For  external  application, 
sugar  of  lead  is  used  in  powder,  ointment,  or  dissolved  in 
twenty  to  forty  parts  of  water,  with  a  little  vinegar  to  in- 
crease its  solubility.  Goulard's  Extract,  diluted  with  four 
to  six  parts  of  linseed  or  olive  oil,  is  a  cooling  application 
for  blistered  or  contused  surfaces.  An  equally  serviceable 
astringent  and  anodyne  is  made  with  one  part  of  extract 
to  six  or  eight  of  vaseline  or  glycerin.  Equal  parts  of 
extract  and  spirit,  diluted  with  eight  or  ten  parts  of 
water,  make  a  useful  refrigerant  astringent.  One  part 
of  lead  acetate  and  three-quarter  part  zinc  sulphate, 
dissolved  in  thirty  to  forty  of  water,  constitute  the 
familiar  white  lotion,  and  although  the  preparation  is  not 
chemically  a  correct  one,  every-day  experience  proves  it  to 
be  a  serviceable  astringent,  analgesic,  and  antiseptic. 


ZINC   AND    ITS   MEDICINAL   COMPOUNDS 

Metallic  zinc  is  obtained  by  roasting  zinc  blende,  which 
is  a  native  sulphide,  or  calamine,  which  is  a  native  car- 
bonate. Zinc,  alloyed  with  nickel  and  copper,  yields  German 
silver ;  when  alloyed  with  copper,  it  yields  brass.  A  coating 
of  zinc  on  iron  prevents  rusting,  and  constitutes  galvanised 
iron.  Zinc  is  a  bluish-white  metal,  brittle  at  low  and 
high  temperatures,  but  between  212°  and  300°  Fahr.  it 
is  ductile  and  malleable.  It  is  diatomic ;  its  salts  are 
colourless. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Zinc  salts  coagulate  albumin,  and 
hence  are  astringent.  As  solids  and  concentrated  solu- 
tions, several,  moreover,  unite  with  water,  and  hence  are 
caustic.  Although  not  affecting  the  unbroken  skin,  when 
applied  to  mucous  membranes  small  doses  are  astringent, 
large  doses  are  irritant.     The  chloride,  nitrate,  and  iodide 


236  ZINC    OXIDE 

arc  readily  soluble  and  diftusible,  and  heneo  are  active  and 
corrosive.  The  sulphate  and  acetate,  although  less  energetic, 
have  more  activity  than  the  less  soluble  oxide  or  carbonate. 
The  sulphate  and  acetate  arc  prompt  emetics  for  dogs  and 
other  animals  that  vomit;  unlike  tartariscd  antimony,  they 
cause  little  depression  of  the  circulation,  and  produce  emesis, 
partly  by  local  action  on  the  stomach  and  partly  by  stinui- 
lating  the  vomiting  centre  in  the  medulla.  They  are 
absorbed  probably  as  albuminates,  and  act  as  nerve 
tonics,  astringents,  and  anhydrotics,  while  continued  full 
doses  produce  symptoms  allied  to  those  of  poisoning 
by  copper  or  lead.  They  are  eliminated  more  rapidly 
than  mercury,  lead,  or  copper,  in  small  quantity  by  the 
kidneys,  but  chiefly  by  the  liver  and  intestinal  glands 
(Bartholow). 

Zinc  Oxide.     Zinci  Oxidum.     Oxide  of  Zinc.     ZnO 

Oxide  of  zinc  may  be  prepared  by  exposing  zinc  carbonate 
to  a  dull  red  heat,  or  from  metallic  zinc  by  combustion.  It 
is  a  soft,  nearly  colourless,  tasteless,  inodorous  powder,  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  soluble  without  effervescence  in  acids 
and  in  alkalies.  When  heated  it  becomes  yellow,  but  if  free 
from  iron  ncarl}^  loses  its  colour  on  cooling. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  a  desiccant,  protective,  and  ha3mo- 
static,  but,  being  insoluble  in  water,  it  acts  mechanically  unless 
dissolved  by  an  acid,  when  it  is  mildly  astringent.  It  is 
occasionally  prescribed  in  catarrh  and  bronchitis  for  the 
arrest  of  profuse  secretion,  is  a  nerve  tonic,  and  is  given  to 
dogs  in  epilepsy. 

It  relieves  cutaneous  tenderness  and  itching.  In  erythema, 
in  which  it  is  often  desirable  to  avoid  moist  dressings,  it  is 
dusted  over  the  tender  surface  mixed  with  four  to  six  parts 
of  kaolin,  'Sanitas'  powder,  or  starch  Hour.  In  many  cases 
of  erythema  it  is  usefully  conjoined  with  glycerin,  vaseline, 
or  soft  soap.  Acute  vesicular  eczema  is  often  successfully 
treated  by  a  thorough  soaking  with  mercurous  oxide  wash 
and  the  subsequent  in-rubbing  of  zinc  oxide  ointment  or 
oleate.     Where  there  is  much  tenderness  or  itching  such 


ZINC    SULPHATE  237 

dressings  are  mixed  with  or  followed  by  application  of 
morphine  oleate.  After  cleansing  the  meatus  the  ointment 
is  useful  in  canker  of  the  ear  of  dogs,  and  in  diseases  that 
simulate  it. 

Doses  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  5ij-  to  5iv. ;  dogs,  grs. 
ij.  to  grs.  vj.,  given  in  bolus  or  solution.  For  external  use 
aqueous  solutions  are  made  with  equal  parts  of  zinc  oxide 
and  borax  or  other  alkaline  salt  or  glycerin  added  to 
ensure  solution,  with  ten  to  thirty  parts  of  water.  It  is  also 
used  with  subnitrate  or  oxide  of  bismuth.  Liniments  are 
prepared  with  one  part  of  oxide  to  five  or  six  of  olive  oil,  or 
other  fatty  matter.  Unguentum  zinci  is  made  Avith  three 
parts  of  zinc  oxide,  and  seventeen  parts  of  benzoated  lard. 
Some  cutaneous  complaints,  in  which  ointments  freely  used 
are  apt  to  impair  secretion  and  excretion,  and  others  which 
should  not  be  wetted,  are  satisfactoril}-  treated  by  pastes  or 
powders.  Zinc  oxide  suits  well  for  such  purposes,  and  may 
be  applied  mixed  with  kaolin,  silicious  earth,  magnesium 
carbonate,  starch,  iodoform,  or  boracic  acid. 

Zinc  Carbonate.     Zinci  Carbonas.     Carbonate  of  Zinc. 

Calamine,  the  native  carbonate,  is  an  important  ore  of 
zinc.  The  B.P.  carbonate — white,  tasteless,  and  insoluble  in 
water — is  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  zinc  sulphate  and 
sodium  carbonate,  and  is  a  mixture  of  carbonate  and  oxide 
with  water  of  crystallisation,  Zn  C03(Zn  H20o)2HoO.  Its  uses 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  oxide. 

Zinc  Sulphate.     Zinci  Sulphas.     Sulphate  of  Zinc.    White 
Vitriol.     ZnSO.TH^O. 

Zinc  blende,  the  native  sulphide  when  roasted,  juelds  a 
crude  sulphate.  The  B.P.  salt  is  formed  by  the  interaction 
of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  and  zinc.  It  occurs  in  colourless, 
transparent,  tabular  crystals,  isomorphous  with  those  of 
Epsom  salt,  Avith  a  styptic  metallic  taste,  and  efflorescent  in 
dry  air.  It  is  soluble  in  2-5  parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.), 
and  in  two  parts  of  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  irritant,  emetic,  astringent,  anti- 


238  ZINC   SULPHATE 

septic,  and  nerve  tonic.    It  is  used  externally  as  a  stimulant, 
astringent,  and  antisej^tic. 

Toxic  Actions. — Powerful  astringent  effects  are  produced 
on  horses  by  sixty  to  seventy-five  grains;  three  to  five 
drachms  dry  the  buccal  and  gastro-intestinal  secretions,  and 
cause  nausea,  colic,  and  efforts  to  vomit  (Tabourin).  Two 
horses  had  each  half  an  ounce  daily  for  a  fortnight  without 
marked  effect,  but  larger  doses  impaired  appetite,  and  caused 
nausea  and  diuresis  (Veterinarian,  1844).  Somewhat  larger 
doses  produce  similar  effects  on  cattle.  Dogs  receiving  seven 
to  thirty  grains  promptly  vomit;  but  the  act  is  seldom 
accompanied  by  the  nausea  and  depression  produced  by 
tartar  emetic.  Orfila  found  that  seven  and  a  half  drachms 
were  vomited  by  dogs  in  a  few  seconds,  but  produced  no 
lasting  bad  effects.  When  vomiting,  however,  was  prevented 
by  ligature  of  the  oesojAagus,  much  smaller  quantities  sufficed 
to  destroy  dogs,  in  about  three  days,  from  gastro-enteritis. 
Thirty  grains  in  solution,  injected  into  the  veins,  depressed 
the  action  of  the  heart  and  destroyed  life  in  a  few  seconds 
(Christison  On  Poiso7is).  Repeated  doses  are  detected  in 
the  spleen,  liver,  faeces,  and  urine.  Unlike  lead  or  mercury, 
it  exhibits  no  cumulative  action. 

Medicinal  Uses. — As  a  tonic  it  resembles,  but  is  inferior  to, 
iron  and  copper  sulphates.  As  an  astringent  compared  with 
lead  or  silver  salts,  it  contracts  capillary  vessels  more  power- 
fully. It  is  sometimes  prescribed  with  opium  in  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery,  but  is  less  serviceable  than  copper  sulphate 
or  lead  acetate.  For  arresting  spasmodic  diseases  in  the 
lower  animals,  it  is  not  so  effectual  as  copper  sulphate,  arsenic, 
or  quinine.  It  checks  acute  chorea  in  dogs  in  good  condition  : 
but  iron  is  better  in  chronic  cases  associated  with  debility. 
For  drying  excessive  discharges,  especially  from  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  and  for  checking  undue  perspiration  and 
haemorrhage,  frequent  small  doses  are  given  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  opium.  As  a  safe  and  prompt  emetic  it  is  prescribed 
for  dogs  and  |)igs  to  empty  the  stomach  of  undigested  food, 
foreign  bodies,  and  poisons. 

Externally,  it  is  much  used  as  a  stimulant  and  astringent 
for  wounds,  foul  ulcers,  conjunctivitis,  relaxed  sore  throat, 


ZINC    CHLORIDE  239 

irritable  conditions  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus 
or  vagina,  vesicular  and  pustular  skin  eruptions,  and  inter- 
digital  inflammation  in  sheep.  Where  powerful  astringent 
and  caustic  effects  are  sought,  the  zinc  sulphate  is  conjoined 
with  that  of  copper  or  iron,  or  with  both.  Mr.  Malcolm,  of 
Birmingham,  in  his  successful  treatment  of  canker  in  the 
foot  of  the  horse,  uses  a  dressing  of  equal  parts  of  zmc, 
copper,  and  iron  sulphates,  with  carbolic  acid,  and  sufficient 
vaseline  to  form  a  paste. 

Doses,  etc. — As  an  emetic  for  dogs  and  pigs,  grs.  viij.  to 
grs.  XV.  are  given  in  two  or  three  ounces  of  water.  As  an 
astringent  for  horses  and  cattle,  3ss-  to  5ij- ;  for  sheep,  grs.  x. 
to  grs.  XX. ;  for  dogs,  grs.  j.  to  grs.  iij.  are  given,  either  in  the 
solid  or  fluid  state.  Externally,  it  is  used  in  powder  or 
solution,  usually  made  with  thirty  to  sixty  parts  of  water. 
Three-quarters  of  an  ounce  of  zinc  sulphate  and  an  ounce  of 
lead  acetate,  with  80  to  40  ounces  of  water,  constitute  the 
white  lotion  so  familiar  in  veterinary  practice,  but  for  some 
purposes  this  strong  solution  requires  further  dilution. 

Zinc  sulpho-carbolate  is  sometimes  used  as  an  antiseptic 
and  astringent,  two  to  five  grains  being  dissolved  in  an  ounce 
of  water. 

Zixc  Chloride.     Zinci  Chloridum.     Butter  of  Zinc.     ZnClo. 

Chloride  of  zinc  is  produced  by  the  interaction  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  zinc.  It  occurs  in  colourless,  opaque  rods 
or  tablets,  very  deliquescent  and  caustic ;  soluble  in'  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  an  irritant  and  corrosive  poison. 
Medicinal  doses  are  antiseptic  and  astringent;  but  it  is 
seldom  given  internally.  Externally,  it  is  applied  as  a 
stimulant,  astringent,  caustic,  and  parasiticide.  It  is  also 
used  as  an  antiseptic,  disinfectant,  and  deodoriser. 

Surgical  Uses. — From  its  strong  attraction  for  water,  and 
its  coagulating  albumin,  it  is  an  energetic  caustic.  It 
resembles  mercuric  and  antimony  chlorides.  It  is  used  to 
control  luxuriant  granulations,  unhealthy  ulceration,  and 
foot-rot  in  sheep,  and  for  such  purposes  is  applied  in 
substance.      To  remove  malignant  growths  and  to  destroy 


240  ZINC   ACETATE 

the  walls  of  sinuses,  it  is  applied,  usually  mixed  with 
two  parts  of  flour  made  into  a  paste  with  glycerin  and 
water.  Unlike  arsenic  or  mercury  salts,  it  is  not  liable  to 
undergo  absorption  and  i)roduce  constitutional  mischief. 
Strong  solutions,  containing  10  per  cent.,  secure  the  aseptic 
state  of  foul  or  envenomed  wounds,  and  are  serviceable 
where  repeated  dressings  are  inadmissible,  and  the  volatile 
carbolic  acid  cannot  be  conveniently  replaced.  Socin's 
paste,  consisting  of  five  parts  zinc  chloride,  thoroughly 
mixed  with  fifty  parts  each  of  zinc  oxide  and  water,  is  used 
as  an  antiseptic  protective  for  surgical  wounds  which  cannot 
be  bandaged.  Solutions  of  two  to  three  per  cent,  are  used 
for  ordinary  astringent  purposes  and  for  the  destruction  of 
vermin. 

Like  mercuric  chloride,  it  is  serviceable  for  keeping  animal 
tissues  for  dissection.  Its  antiseptic  effects  are  exerted  even 
in  the  presence  of  considerable  quantities  of  Avater,  which 
interferes  with  the  etticacy  of  the  tar  acids.  Besides  prevent- 
ing and  arresting  putrefaction,  it  also  decomposes  hydrogen 
sulphide,  ammonia,  and  other  offensive  products  of  decay. 
Burnett's  disinfecting  and  antiseptic  fluid  contains  twenty- 
five  grains  zinc  chloride  in  every  fluid  drachm,  and  is  ordered 
to  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  to  five  gallons  of 
water. 

Zinc  Acetate.    Zinci  Acetas.    Acetate  of  Zinc.   Zn(C<,H302)2 
3  HgO. 

Zinc  acetate  is  prepared  by  neutralising  acetic  acid  with 
zinc  carbonate.  It  crystallises  in  colourless,  odourless, 
pearly  plates,  which  have  a  sharp,  disagreeable,  metallic 
taste,  and  are  soluble  in  2-5  parts  of  water.  It  is  the  active 
constituent  of  the  white  lotion  so  much  used  by  the  late 
Professor  Dick. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  acetate  closely  resembles  the 
sulphate.  It  is  an  emetic  and  nerve  tonic,  but  is  seldom  used 
internally.  Externally,  as  a  stimulant  and  astringent  it 
dries  excessive  serous  discharges,  relieves  erythema,  eczema, 
and  impetigo,  as  well  as  conjunctivitis  and  other  superticial 
inflammations.     Professor  Tuson   recommended   a  solution 


COPPER    SALTS  241 

for  saturating  at  short  intervals  the  wash-leather  bandages 
applied  to  the  jarred,  swollen  legs  of  hunters.  According  to 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required,  two  to  twenty  grains 
are  dissolved  in  the  ounce  of  water. 


COPPER  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 

Copper  (Cu)  is  a  brilliant  red  metal,  found  native  near 
Lake  Superior  in  North  America,  crystallised  in  octahedrons 
or  cubes.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  8-95,  a  nauseous 
styptic  taste,  and  unpleasant  odour,  especially  when  rubbed. 
It  is  malleable  and  ductile,  constitutes  95  per  cent,  of  the 
material  of  our  bronze  coinage,  which  contains  besides  about 
four  of  tin  and  one  of  zinc.  Brass  consists  of  about  two- 
thirds  of  copper  and  one-third  of  zinc.  The  principal 
copper  ores  are  pyrites,  which  is  a  double  sulphide  of  copper 
and  iron,  and  the  carbonate  or  malachite.  Its  chief  officinal 
salts  are  the  sulphate,  nitrate,  iodide,  and  acetate.  Copper 
forms  two  series  of  salts,  the  cuprous  and  cupric,  the  latter 
the  more  stable,  and,  when  hydrated,  having  a  green  or  blue 
colour. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Salts  of  copper,  like  those  of  other 
heavy  metals,  form  sparingly  soluble  albuminates.  In 
virtue  of  their  combining  with  the  albumin  of  the  tissues, 
they  are  antiseptic,  astringent,  irritant,  and  caustic.  When 
they  are  absorbed,  these  topical  effects  are  more  widely 
extended,  and  more  general  astringent,  antiseptic,  tonic,  or 
irritant  effects  are  produced. 

Copper  salts  are  allied  to  those  of  zinc  and  silver,  and 
some  of  their  actions  also  resemble  those  of  iron,  lead,  and 
mercury.  Like  zinc  and  lead,  they  are  muscle  poisons,  and 
hence  weaken  heart  action.  Acute  copper  poisoning  in- 
flames the  spinal  cord,  but  not  in  so  marked  a  degree  as  lead 
and  mercury.  The  sulphate,  nitrate,  and  other  soluble  salts 
have  slight  action  on  the  unbroken  skin,  but  combine  with 
albumin,  and  hence  constringe  and  irritate  the  abraded  skin 
and  mucous  surfaces.  When  swallowed  they  irritate  the 
stomach,  in  many  animals  producing  emesis,  Avhich,  when 
the   drug   is  absorbed,  is  also  excited   by  irritation  of  the 

Q 


242  COPPER  SALTS 

vomiting  centre.  After  exerting,  according  to  dose  or  state 
of  concentration,  astringent  or  irritant  etiects  on  the 
alimentary  mucous  membrane,  they  are  slowly  absorbed  as 
albuminates,  and  as  the  still  more  soluble  peptonatcs. 
They  appear  to  remain  in  the  plasma  of  the  blood,  but  do  not 
combine  with  the  corpuscles,  or  only  to  a  limited  extent. 
They  probably  unite  with  various  tissues,  and  modify  their 
nutritive  and  functional  activity.  Like  many  other  metal- 
lic salts,  they  are  excreted  slowly  in  the  bile,  in  the  mucus 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  sweat, 
but  mainly  in  the  urine,  and  exert  their  special  effects  on 
the  channels  by  which  they  are  discharged. 

Copper  in  the  metallic  state  is  devoid  of  poisonous  action. 
Drouard  gave  ounce  doses  finely  divided  to  dogs  of  different 
sizes  and  ages,  but  none  experienced  any  inconvenience 
(Pereira).  Two  drachms  of  oxide  caused  in  dogs  vomiting 
and  diarrhosa.  The  more  soluble  salts  are  active  irritants. 
Dogs  tolerate  for  a  week  or  two  daily  doses  of  10  to  15  grains 
of  the  sulphate  or  acetate,  but  40  to  60  grains  induce 
loathing  of  food,  diarrhoea,  and  in  some  instances  death  by 
collapse.  Chronic  poisoning  occasionally  occurs  among 
animals  depastured  in  the  neighbourhood  of  copper-smelting 
works,  but  such  effect  may  in  part  depend  upon  the  arsenic 
present  in  copper  ores.  Cuprous  poisoning  also  results  in 
cows,  pigs,  and  dogs,  from  the  use  of  food  or  drink  boiled  in 
copper  vessels,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  them  while  cooling. 
Acid  and  fatty  matters  are  most  apt  thus  to  be  con- 
taminated, especially  if  long  in  contact  with  copper,  and 
exposed  at  the  same  time  to  air  and  moisture.  The 
prominent  symptoms  are,  impaired  appetite,  constipation, 
alternated  with  diarrhosa,  colic,  imperfect  nutrition,  mus- 
cular weakness  and  trembling,  and  occasionally  ha^moglo- 
binuria  or  hosmaturia.  The  antidotes  consist  of  white  of 
esrsf,  wasliinir  out  the  stomach,  administering  demulcents, 
and  allaying  irritation  and  pain,  if  need  be,  by  morphine. 


ASTRINGENT,  IRRITANT,  ANTISEPTIC,  AND    TONIC        243 

Copper  Sulphate.    Cupri  Sulphas.     Cupric  Sulphate.     Blue 
Vitriol.     Blue  Stone.     CuSO,.5H20. 

Copper  sulphate  is  got  by  dissolving  the  black  oxide  in 
sulphuric  acid,  by  boiling  metallic  copper  with  sulphuric 
acid,  and  on  the  large  scale  by  roasting  copper  pyrites 
(CuFeS.,),  when  both  the  copper  and  iron  are  oxidised  into 
sulphates  ;  at  the  red-heat  used  the  iron  sulphate  is  decom- 
posed, and  the  copper  sulphate  crystallised  from  a  hot 
watery  solution.  Blue  vitriol  made  from  pyrites  always 
contains  iron,  which  does  not,  however,  interfere  with  its 
medicinal  uses.  It  occurs  in  large  blue  triclinic  prisms, 
with  a  st3'j)tic  metallic  taste.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it 
effloresces  and  becomes  covered  with  a  greenish-white 
powder  of  carbonate.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  alcohol,  but 
soluble  in  3i  parts  of  cold  water,  and  in  2h  of  glycerin. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  combines  with  the  albumin  of  the 
tissues  with  which  it  comes  into  contact,  and  in  moderate 
doses  or  weak  solutions  is  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  tonic. 
Even  small  doses  induce  emesis  in  dogs  and  other  carnivora. 
Large  doses  and  concentrated  solutions  are  irritant  and 
caustic.  Externally,  it  is  used  as  a  stimulant,  astringent, 
and  caustic.  Like  many  other  metallic  salts,  it  arrests  the 
action  of  enzymes  and  of  organised  ferments. 

Toxic  Effects. — Hertwig  records  that  large  doses  (above 
twelve  drachms  for  horses  and  cattle,  one  drachm  for  sheep 
or  swine,  and  half  a  drachm  for  dogs)  cause  indigestion  and 
impaired  appetite ;  in  carnivora,  vomiting  and  diarrhoea ; 
the  evacuations  are  tinged  green  or  blue,  and  mixed  with 
blood ;  and  fatal  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines 
usually  follows.  Drouard  found  that  60  grains  retained  in 
the  stomach  of  a  dog  killed  it  in  half  an  hour,  but  left  little 
appearance  of  inflammation.  Mitscherlich  found  that  two 
drachms  speedily  killed  dogs,  leaving  'blueness  of  the 
villous  coat  of  the  stomach,  mingled  Avith  brownness,  the 
apparent  effect  of  chemical  action.'  A  drachm  applied  to  a 
"wound  caused  in  dogs  rapid  prostration,  and  death  in  four 
hours.  Injected  into  the  jugular  vein,  it  speedily  reduces 
and  arrests   the   action   of  the   heart,    15    grains    pro  vino- 


244  COPPER    SULPHATE 

fatal  in  twelve  seconds  (Christison  On  roisons).  In  poison- 
ing by  copper  salts,  the  appropriate  antidotes  are  white  of 
egg  and  milk,  which  form  insoluble  innocuous  albuminates ; 
iron  lilings,  which  attract  and  fix  the  copper;  or  potassium 
ferrocyanide,  which  produces  a  comparatively  insoluble  and 
harmless  salt. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Copper  sulphate  is  given  to  dogs  and 
cats  as  a  promptly- acting  effectual  emetic,  useful  in  narcotic 
poisoning.  With  phosphorus  it  forms  a  stable,  inert  com- 
pound. It  acts  both  on  the  stomach  and  the  vomiting 
centre.  It  is  prescribed  for  all  animals  in  atony  and  exces- 
sive catarrhal  discharges,  especially  from  the  alimentary 
canal.  In  chronic  diarrhoea  and  dysentery  it  is  prescribed 
with  opium.  In  nasal  gleet  it  is  sometimes  conjoined  with 
cantharides.  In  purpura  and  similar  affections,  it  im- 
proves appetite  and  diminishes  abnormal  secretion.  In 
grease  it  is  used  both  internally  and  locally.  Given  in 
bolus,  administered  fasting,  and  repeated  daily  for  a  week,  it 
is  a  useful  general  vermifuge  for  the  horse.  As  a  nerve 
tonic  it  is  prescribed  especially  for  weakly  dogs  affected  with 
epilepsy  and  chorea,  but  for  the  latter  it  is  not  so  effectual  as 
arsenic. 

Externally,  it  is  applied  as  a  stimulant,  astringent,  and 
disinfectant.  In  ophthalmia,  as  an  antiseptic  stimulant ; 
as  a  spray  and  gargle  for  ulcerated  sore-throat ;  as  an  anti- 
septic stimulant  and  caustic  for  sluggish  wounds,  discharging 
and  parasitic  skin  diseases,  exuberant  granulations,  canker, 
cracked  heels,  sinuses,  fistulce,  and  in  foot-rot  in  sheep,  and 
as  a  styptic  for  arresting  haemorrhage  from  superficial 
vessels. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  tonic  and  astringent,  horses  take  5i-  to 
5ij. ;  cattle  5i-  to  5iv. ;  sheep,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  pigs,  grs.  v. 
to  grs.  X. :  and  dogs,  gr.  \  to  grs.  ij.  These  doses  repeated 
twice  daily,  are  administered  either  in  bolus  or  dissolved  in 
some  mucilaginous  solution;  and  as  tonics  are  best  given 
along  with  food,  or  immediately  after  feeding.  Unless  in  very 
small  doses,  it  should  not  bo  given  for  more  than  ten  days, 
as  it  is  apt  to  interfere  with  appetite,  and  even  cause  nausea. 
.As  a  prompt  emetic  for  the  dog,  grains  vi.  to  grains  x.  are 


ANTISEPTIC,  ASTRINGENT,  AND    TONIC  245 

given  dissolved  in  water,  and  about  double  that  amount  for 
pigs  of  100  lbs.  weight.  Externally,  the  powder  or  a  watery 
solution  is  applied,  and  the  crystals  are  used  as  an  escharotic. 
A  useful  caustic  injection  for  sinuous  wounds,  is  made  with 
two  ounces  each  of  copper  and  zinc  sulphates,  three  ounces 
of  lead  acetate  and  a  pint  of  vinegar.  Shepherds  mal^e  an 
ointment  for  foot-rot  with  equal  weights  of  powdered  blue 
vitriol,  gunpowder  and  lard.  A  more  convenient  and 
adhesive  application  is  prepared  by  carefully  jnixing  over  a 
slow  fire  one  part  of  powdered  blue  vitriol  with  one  of  lard 
and  two  of  tar.  A  resinate  of  copper  may  be  made  by  boil- 
ing 12  parts  of  copper  sulphate  in  250  parts  of  water, 
and  adding  25  parts  of  powdered  resin.  The  solid  resinate, 
dissolved  as  required  in  methylated  alcohol  and  glycerin,  is 
used  as  an  injection  for  quitter  and  similar  wounds. 

Copper  Iodide.     Cupri  lodidum.     Cuprous  Iodide.    Cu,l2. 

Although  not  recognised  by  the  B.P.,  cuprous  iodide  is 
noticed  in  Morton's  Veterinary  Pharmacy  and  in  Tuson's 
Veterinary  Fharmacopaia.  It  is  the  by-product  in  one  of  the 
processes  for  iodine,  and  is  also  obtained  by  mixing  solutions 
of  cuprous  sulphate  and  potassium  iodide.  It  is  a  fawn- 
coloured  salt,  has  a  disagreeable,  styptic,  coppery  taste,  and 
evolves  an  odour  of  iodine.  It  was  introduced  in  the  belief 
that  it  conjoined  the  actions  of  its  two  constituents ;  but 
large  doses,  in  which  its  characteristic  actions  should  be 
most  obvious,  produce  the  effects  of  other  soluble  copper 
salts.  It  has  been  recommended  as  a  stimulatinsr  tonic  in 
chronic  oedema  of  the  legs,  and  as  an  astringent  in  ill- 
conditioned  ulcers  and  inveterate  grease. 

Copper  Acetates.     Cupri  Acetas.    Cupri  subacetas.     Verdi- 
gris.    iErugo. 

Copper  subacetate  may  be  prepared  by  subjecting  plates 
of  copper  to  the  vapour  of  acetic  acid.  It  occurs  either  in 
amorphous  masses  or  powder,  is  blue  or  green,  according  to 
the  mode  of  preparation,  and  has  the  taste  and  odour  of 
a  copper  salt.     It  remains  unchanged  in  air;  when  heated, 


246  COPPER    ACETATES 

it  gives  off  Avator,  acetic  acid,  and  acetone,  leaving  a  residue 
of  oxide  and  metal. 

Actions  and  Uses.— The  acetates,  like  other  copper  salts, 
are  irritant  poisons,  emetic,  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  tonic, 
but  are  rarely  prescribed  internally.  They  are  used  externally 
as  caustics,  stimulants,  astringents,  and  antiseptics. 

Drouard  exhibited  12  grains  of  the  subacetate  to  a 
strong  dog  fasting,  and  observed  aversion  to  food,  efforts  to 
vomit,  diarrhd'a,  listlessness,  and  death  in  twenty-two  hours. 
Paralysis  of  the  hind  extremities  was  also  observable  in  some 
cases,  but  in  none  was  the  stomach  much  inflamed.  Cupric 
acetate  is  still  more  active.  Orfila  found  that  12  to 
15  grains  given  to  dogs,  produced  besides  gastric  irritation, 
convulsions,  tetanus,  sometimes  insensibility,  and  death 
within  an  hour  (Christison  On  Foistons).  Hertwig  records 
that  one  ounce  administered  to  a  horse  caused  colic,  with 
acceleration  of  the  pulse ;  and  that  two  ounces,  given  some 
hours  after,  aggravated  these  symptoms,  causing  first 
acceleration  and  then  depression  of  the  pulse,  debility,  and, 
after  six  hours,  convulsions  and  death.  Prescribed  internally, 
the  doses  of  the  acetates  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
sulphates.  The  external  uses  arc  also  the  same.  They  are 
applied  in  the  form  of  solution  or  ointment,  the  latter 
made  with  one  part  of  the  salt  to  eight  or  ten  of  lard  or 
of  resin  ointment.  A  useful  dressing  for  foot-rot  in  sheep 
is  made  with  one  part  of  acetate  to  three  or  four  parts  of 
lard,  oil,  or  tar.  Liniment  of  Verdigris,  or  Mel  iEgyptiacum, 
is  made  with  9  ounces  of  verdigris,  6  ounces  of  alum,  and 
li  lbs.  of  honey  or  treacle,  heated  together  over  a  water-bath 
until  the  mixture  assumes  a  broAvn  colour.  It  is  employed 
as  a  dressing  for  open  joint,  for  thrush,  canker,  and  other 
foot  cases. 


SILVER  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 

SiLVEii   Nitrate.     Argenti  Nitras.     Lunar  Caustic.     Lapis 
Infernalis.     AgNOg. 

When  metallic  silver  is  gently  heated  with  diluted  nitric 
acid,  and  the  solution  evaporated,  silver  nitrate  crystallises 


NITRATE    OF    SILVER  247 

in  colourless  right  rhombic  prisms.  To  form  the  familiar 
sticks  or  pencils,  the  salt  is  fused  and  run  into  moulds. 
Toughened  caustic  is  prepared  by  adding,  before  fusion,  one 
part  potassium  nitrate  to  nineteen  parts  silver  nitrate. 
Mitigated  caustic  is  made  by  fusing  together  one  part  of 
silver  nitrate,  and  two  parts  of  potassium  nitrate,  and 
pouring  into  moulds. 

Argenti  nitras  is  devoid  of  odour,  has  a  disagreeable 
metallic  taste,  is  permanent  in  air,  but  blackens  on  exposure 
to  light  or  in  contact  with  organic  matters.  It  is  soluble  in 
its  own  weight  of  cold  water,  ether,  and  glycerin,  and  slightly 
soluble  in  rectified  spirit.  It  blackens  the  cuticle,  parts 
readily  with  oxygen,  and  thus  corrodes  soft  animal  tissues. 

Like  other  silver  salts,  it  is  distinguished  by  giving,  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  a  curdy- white  precipitate  of  silver  chloride 
(AgCl),  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  soluble  in  ammonia,  and 
darkened  b}^  exposure  to  light. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  antiseptic,  astringent,  irritant,  and 
corrosive,  is  used  as  a  caustic,  and  administered  as  an 
astrinofent  and  nerve  tonic.  It  induces  emesis  in  animals 
capable  of  vomiting.  Large  doses  cause  prostration  and 
paralysis  of  the  central  nervous  system. 

Toxic  Effects. — Like  iron,  zinc,  and  copper  salts,  which  it 
resembles,  silver  nitrate  readily  unites  with  albumin.  It  is 
absorbed  slowly  as  an  albuminate;  and  the  astringent, 
irritant,  and  caustic  actions  of  the  solid  nitrate  or  a  strong 
solution,  are  confined  to  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  into 
contact.  When  vomiting  is  prevented,  30  to  60  grains 
given  to  dogs  cause  prostration,  weakness  of  heart  action, 
intestinal  irritation,  and  sometimes  convulsions  and  paralysis, 
indicating  that,  like  lead  and  other  heavy  metals,  it  irritates 
and  inflames  the  anterior  cornu  of  the  spinal  cord.  When 
administered  for  some  time  it  is  deposited  in  the  skin  and 
blackens  it,  and  has  also  been  detected  in  the  liver,  spleen, 
pancreas,  and  bones.  As  in  the  case  of  arsenic,  antimony, 
and  phosphorus,  chronic  poisoning  is  accompanied  by  fatty 
degeneration.  Kosenstern,  experimenting  on  the  vessels 
of  the  mesentery  of  frogs,  with  weak  solutions  of  various 
astringents,  found  silver  nitrate  most  powerful ;  lead  acetate 


248  SILVER   NITRATE 

followed  next  in  order,  requiring  for  production  of  a  given 
effect  a  solution  live  times  as  strong ;  ferric  chloride  acted 
only  feebly;  alum  caused  dilatation.  It  is  slowly  excreted 
in  the  albuminous  secretions  and  in  the  bile,  mainly  by  the 
bowels,  in  limited  amount  by  the  kidneys.  Undue  irritation, 
produced  whether  internally  or  externally,  is  diminished  by 
solution  of  common  salt,  which  forms  the  insoluble  and 
inert  chloride. 

Medicinal  Uses. — As  a  tonic  it  is  prescribed  in  chronic 
nervous  diseases,  especially  amongst  dogs.  Its  action  on 
the  spinal  cord  indicates  its  use  in  chronic  paralysis,  for 
which  potassium  chromate  and  arsenic  are  also  given.  Like 
arsenic,  it  is  sometimes  used  to  check  chronic  gastric  irrita- 
tion. Alone,  or  in  combination  with  opium,  it  is  given  as  an 
astringent  in  chronic  diarrhoea  and  dysentery  in  dogs; 
while  enemata  of  2  to  5  grains  to  the  ounce  of  distilled 
water  or  of  starch  gruel  are  occasionally  also  used. 

Applied  to  irritable,  relaxed,  discharging  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces,  it  coagulates  mucus,  and  albumin,  constringes 
dilated  vessels,  produces  a  white  film  of  chloride,  which 
quickly  deepens  in  colour,  from  the  reduction  of  the  salt  to 
the  conditions  of  sulphide  and  metal.  The  solid  nitrate  or 
strong  solution  rubbed  into  the  skin  raises  blisters.  The 
eschar  remaining,  after  a  free  dressing,  gradually  cracks  and 
peels  off,  leaving  usually  a  healthy  surface  beneath.  The 
solid  nitrate  acting  superficially,  and  readily  localised,  is  for 
many  purjjoses  preferable  to  fluid  caustics,  or  to  the  delique- 
scent caustic  potash.  It  is  serviceable  for  destroying  tinea, 
warts,  and  other  neoplasms,  and  checking  the  progress  of 
indolent  boils.  Silver  nitrate  rolled  in  a  piece  of  tissue 
paper  is  sometimes  substituted  for  corrosive  sublimate  in 
treating  sinuses  not  easily  reached  with  the  knife,  and  a  few 
days  after  its  introduction  causes  sloughing  of  the  hard  walls 
of  the  canal,  and  leaves  a  health}^  granulating  surface.  It 
forms  one  of  the  most  effectual  remedies  for  the  interdigital 
inflammation  and  discharge  of  the  contagious  form  of  foot- 
rot  in  sheep. 

A  light  dressing  of  the  solid  caustic,  or  of  a  weak  solution, 
promotes   a   healthier  condition   of  indolent   wounds   and 


TONIC,  ASTRINGENT,  AND    CORROSIVE  249 

ulcers,  represses  over-luxuriant  granulations,  often  arrests 
the  irritabilit}'  of  circumscribed  attacks  of  erythema,  eczema, 
or  pruritus,  and  is  an  excellent  dressing  for  chronic  sore 
teats  in  cows.  When  painted  around  an  erysipelatous  spot 
it  sometimes  limits  its  spreading.  Solutions  of  10  to 
20  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water  destroy  the  parasites  of 
mange  and  scab. 

A  solution  containing  half  a  grain  to  two  grains  to  an  ounce 
of  distilled  water  abates  the  pain  and  congestion  of  con- 
junctivitis, and  stimulates  and  heals  the  inflamed,  suppurat- 
ing eyelids  of  weakly  dogs.  It  removes  speck  and  opacity 
of  the  cornea,  if  recent  and  produced  by  accident,  but  is  of 
little  avail  in  cloudiness  of  the  cornea,  resulting  in  horses 
from  repeated  attacks  of  periodic  ophthalmia.  Solutions  of 
10  to  30  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water  are  sometimes 
used,  with  a  spray  producer,  to  control  laryngeal  ulceration, 
follicular  tonsillitis,  and  pharyngitis. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  nitrate  horses  and  cattle  take  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  XV.;  sheep,  gr.  jj.  to  grs.  iv. ;  pigs,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  jj. ;  dogs, 
gr.  I-  to  gr.  ss.  It  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  daily, 
and,  on  account  of  its  disagreeable  taste  and  active  affinities, 
is  given  in  bolus.  When  its  astringent  effects  are  to  be 
directed  upon  an  ulcerated  or  discharging  portion  of  intestine, 
the  bolus  should  be  made  Avith  kaolin,  and  given  coated  with 
keratin.  The  oxide,  having  no  topical  irritant  effect,  is  some- 
times substituted  for  the  nitrate  as  a  nerve  tonic.  For  external 
purposes  the  sticks  of  nitrate  are  sometimes  coated  with 
wax  to  preserve  them  from  the  decomposing  action  of  air 
and  light ;  and  are  held  in  quills  or  forceps  to  prevent  their 
blackening  the  fingers.  An  ointment  is  occasionally  made 
with  grs.  V.  to  grs.  viij.  to  the  ounce  of  vaseline.  Solutions 
require  to  be  protected  from  light,  and  kept  in  bottles  with 
glass  stoppers.  Silver  nitrate  is  incompatible  with  highly 
oxidised  bodies,  and  forms  explosive  compounds  with  creo- 
sote and  morphine. 

Argentum  CoUoidale  (Crede).  Soluble  metallic  silver 
prepared  from  the  directions  of  Dr.  Crede,  physician  to  the 
Carola  Hospital,  Dresden,  by  Heydens'  Chemical  Company. 
Silver  colloid  occurs  in  small  hard  masses  of  a  greenish-grey 


250  SILVER   COMPOUNDS 

lustre.  Reduced  to  powder,  it  is  freely  soluble  in  water  and 
in  albuminous  fluids.  It  is  antiseptic  and,  except  in  exces- 
sive doses,  non-poisonous.  This  soluble  silver  is  stated  to  be 
of  great  value  in  the  treatment  of  septic  diseases  in  man. 
In  veterinary  practice  it  was  introduced  by  Dieckerhoti"  as  a 
remedy  for  equine  purpura  hasmorrhagica,  with  the  object  of 
destroying  micro-organisms  or  their  toxines  in  the  blood  and 
tissues.  He  obtained  very  satisfactory  results  in  four  cases 
treated  by  intravenous  injection  of  a  one  per  cent,  aqueous 
solution  in  doses  of  50  grammes.  Further  investigation 
is  necessary  to  determine  the  proper  dose  and  frequency 
of  administration.  To  one  patient,  in  ten  hours,  Diecker- 
hoff  gave  five  injections  of  1h  grains  silver  colloid  dissolved 
in  water.  The  solution  does  not  irritate  the  vein.  It 
may  be  administered  subcutaneously,  or  in  pill  or  bolus 
mixed  with  sugar  of  milk  and  glycerin.  A  solution  (one  or 
two  per  cent.)  may  be  used  to  spray  or  inject  wounds.  An 
ointment  is  employed  for  skin  diseases, {Veterinarian,  1899). 
Actol,  or  silver  lactate,  is  a  white,  tasteless,  and  odourless 
powder,  soluble  in  twenty  parts  of  water.  An  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  one  in  800  forms  an  active  microcide.  Itrol,  or  silver 
citrate,  occurs  as  a  light  powder,  without  odour  or  taste, 
slightly  soluble  in  water  (8800  parts).  Less  irritating  than 
the  lactate,  it  is  employed  as  an  antiseptic  lotion  (1  in  5000 
of  water),  or  ointment  (1  to  50  of  lanoline)  for  wounds  and 
skin  eruptions.  Argentol,  a  compound  of  silver  and  quina- 
septol,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  iodoform.  Protargol,  a 
silver  albumose,  containing  eight  per  cent,  of  silver,  is  a 
yellow  powder,  readily  soluble  in  water.  The  solution  is  not 
affected  by  heat,  albumin,  sodium  chloride,  caustic  soda,  or 
hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  said  to  be  absolutely  non-irritating. 
An  aqueous  solution  (1  to  5  per  cent.)  forms  a  penetrating 
antiseptic.  Argonin,  a  combination  of  silver  casein  and 
alkali,  containing  4  per  cent,  of  silver,  is  a  white  powder, 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  freely  soluble  in  hot  water. 
Solutions  of  one  to  seven  parts  in  1000  of  water,  are 
powerful  microcides  (Coblentz,  Newer  Remedies,  1899). 


IRON    SALTS  261 

IRON  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 
Ikon.     Ferrum.     Fcn-iiin  redactuin.     Fc. 

Iron  is  a  lustrous  grey  metal,  tenacious,  malleable,  ductile, 
the  least  fusible  of  the  useful  metals,  but  readily  welded  at  a 
white  heat.  It  is  attracted  by  the  magnet,  and  becomes 
itself  magnetic.  It  is  widely  diffused  in  rocks  and  soils,  and 
is  present  in  the  structures  of  plants  and  animals.  Small 
quantities  occur  uncombined,  probably  of  meteoric  origin. 
Its  chief  ores  are  the  oxides,  comprising  magnetic  ore  and 
haematites;  the  carbonates  or  clay  ironstone,  and  blackband; 
and  the  bisulphide  or  pyrites. 

Iron  forms  three  compounds  with  oxygen — FeO,  FsgOg, 
and  FcgO^ — the  last  being  a  compound  of  the  other  two. 
Iron  forms  two  series  of  salts — the  lower  proto  or  ferrous 
salts,  in  which  it  is  diatomic  and  magnetic ;  and  the  higher 
per  or  ferric  salts,  in  which  it  is  triatomic  and  non-magnetic. 

The  ferrous  salts  are  reducing  agents,  are  chiefly  grey  or 
green,  and  in  solution  give,  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  negative  results ;  with  ammonium 
hydrosulphide,  a  black  precipitate  of  hydrated  sulphide 
(FeS.HgO) ;  with  caustic  alkalies,  white  or  grey  precipitates 
of  hydrated  protoxide,  FeO(HO)2,  rapidly  becoming  green 
and  then  brown;  with  potassium  ferrocyanide,  a  white 
precipitate  (K^FeFCy),  gradually  becoming  blue  by  oxida- 
tion ;  with  potassium  ferricyanide,  a  precipitate  dark-blue 
from  the  first  (Fe,F  Cyg). 

The  ferric  salts  are  oxidising  agents,  are  mostly  broAvn  or 
red,  and  in  solution  exhibit,  with  hydrochloric  acid,  a  nega- 
tive reaction;  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  give  a  white 
precipitate  of  sulphur ;  with  ammonium  hydrosulphide,  the 
black  ferrous  and  ferric  sulphides,  together  with  sulphur ; 
with  caustic  alkalies,  a  brown-red  precipitate  of  ferric 
hydrate ;  with  potassium  ferrocyanide,  a  deep-blue  precipi- 
tate of  Prussian  blue  at  once  goes  down;  with  potassium 
ferricyanide,  no  precipitate,  but  an  olive  or  brown  discoloura- 
tion ;  with  solution  of  galls,  neutral  solutions  yield  a  blue- 
black  precipitate— the  basis  of  writing  ink;  with  potassium 
sulphocyanide,  an  intense  blood-red  colour. 


252  IRON    A    CARRIER    OF    OXYGEN 

Actions  and  Uses. — Iron  and  its  salts  were  the  first  mineral 
substances  employ cd  in  medicine;  they  have  been  used  for 
three  thousand  years ;  but  although  anciently  and  exten- 
sively prescribed,  a  good  deal  has  still  to  be  learned  regarding 
them. 

In  the  economy  of  nature  iron  performs  the  part  of  a 
carrier  of  oxygen.  The  ferrous  oxide  being  a  strong  base, 
has  great  affinity  for  all  acids.  In  the  soil  it  combines  with 
carbonic  acid,  and  thus  becomes  soluble  and  freely  diffused. 
In  contact  with  air  it  is  further  oxidised  into  ferric  oxide, 
when  carbonic  acid  is  given  off,  to  be  used  for  plant  nutrition 
and  for  solution  of  plant  food.  But  the  unstable  ferric 
oxide  in  contact  with  organic  matters,  again  gives  up  oxygen, 
forming  more  carbonic  acid,  and,  reduced  to  the  state  of 
ferrous  oxide,  is  ready  again  to  begin  the  cycle. 

In  the  bodies  of  the  higher  animals  iron  occurs  chiefly  in 
the  blood.  About  15  grammes,  or  nearly  half  an  ounce, 
is  yielded  from  the  blood  of  a  horse  or  ox  of  about  1000  lbs. 
live-weight.  In  the  ha3moglobin  and  oxyhpemoglobin  the 
iron  performs  much  the  same  functions  as  it  does  in  the 
ferrous  and  ferric  oxides  in  the  soils.  In  the  lungs,  haemo- 
globin takes  up  oxygen,  and  becomes  oxyhsemoglobin,  Avhich 
readily  parts  with  oxygen  as  it  circulates  through  the 
capillary  vessels.  Thus  maintaining  the  healthy  activity  of 
these  blood  constituents,  iron  is  said  to  act  as  a  haematinic 
or  blood  tonic.  Its  curative  effects  are  specially  manifested 
in  anaemia,  in  which  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  and 
amount  of  haemoglobin  are  seriously  reduced,  sometimes  to 
the  amount  of  one-fifth  of  their  normal  proportion,  impair- 
ing tissue  oxidation  and  functional  activity.  Clinical 
observation  testifies  that  full  doses  of  iron  restore  the 
pallid  soft  textures  to  their  normal  colour  and  firmness,  and 
improve  general  health.  These  curative  results  have  hitherto 
been  supposed  to  depend  upon  the  medicine  being  absorbed, 
and  directly  furnishing  iron  to  the  haemoglobin,  restoring  its 
deficiency,  and  aiding  the  formation  of  red  blood  corpuscles 
from  leucocytes. 

The  recent  investigations  of  Professor  Bunge  discredit  this 
view.     Dr.   Stockman  in   an    abstract   of  these   researches, 


IRON    SALTS    PARTIALLY    AND    SLOWLY    ABSORBED       253 

published  in  Part  iv.  of  the  Journal  of  Comparative 
Pathology  and  Therapeutics,  points  out  —  (1)  That  the 
normal  waste  of  iron  and  haemoglobin  in  the  blood  is 
proved  to  be  small.  (2)  This  waste  is  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  ordinary  food,  which  contains  iron  in  an 
organic  form,  probably  as  hsematogen.  (3)  But  although 
this  form  of  iron  present  in  food  is  soluble  in  alkaline  solu- 
tions, and  is  readily  absorbed  from  the  intestines,  ordinary 
iron  salts,  contrary  to  the  views  generally  held,  do  not  appear 
to  be  absorbed,  or  are  absorbed  only  in  minute  quantity, 
and  hence  cannot,  as  has  been  hitherto  supposed,  directly 
restore  iron  to  the  blood.  Professor  Bunge  and  Dr.  Stock- 
man believe  that  the  primary  factor  in  the  production  of 
anaemia  and  chlorosis  '  is  great  poverty  of  the  gastric  juice, 
with  attendant  dyspepsia  and  formation  of  alkaline  sulphides. 
These  alkaline  sulphides  are  capable  of  decomposing  the 
absorbable  albuminous  iron  compounds,  and  thereby  render 
them,  like  ordinary  iron  salts,  incapable  of  absorption.  Hence 
the  deficiency  of  haemoglobin.' 

Iron  preparations  are  believed  to  cure  anaemia  by  re- 
moving the  dyspepsia  which  interferes  with  the  assimilation 
of  the  soluble  iron  in  the  food.  They  are  attacked  by  the 
excess  of  alkaline  sulphides.  '  In  favour  of  this  view,'  con- 
tinues Dr.  Stockman,  '  is  the  fact  that  such  enormous  doses 
of  iron  require  to  be  given  to  cure  a  case  of  chlorosis,  small 
doses  being  of  no  value.  In  two  or  three  days  more  iron 
may  be  given  than  is  present  in  the  whole  body ;  secondly, 
good  hygienic  measures  and  attention  to  diet  frequently  cure 
chlorosis  without  iron;  thirdly,  in  a  healthy  subject  con- 
tinued administration  of  iron  does  not  raise  the  red  cor- 
puscles and  haemoglobin  above  the  normal  standard.  In  all 
forms  of  anaemia  which  have  their  origin  outside  the 
alimentary  canal,  iron  must  therefore  be  powerless.' 

Neither  ferrous  nor  ferric  salts  dissolve  or  pass  through 
the  epidermis.  Both  coagulate  albumin,  and  exert  astringent 
effects  on  mucous  and  denuded  skin  surfaces,  and  also 
coagulate  blood.  Professor  Bunge  is  very  confident  that  iron 
salts,  like  those  of  manganese,  howsoever  administered,  are 
not  absorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal.     They  certainly 


254  ACTIONS  OF  IRON  SALTS 

do  not  directly  iucrease  the  percentage  of  iron  in  the  blood, 
nor  the  amonnt  excreted  hy  the  urine,  or  in  the  secretions 
poured  into  the  intestines.  Soluble  iron  salts,  which  do  not 
coagulate  albumin,  when  injected  into  the  circulation  pro- 
duce metallic  poisoning,  characterised  by  muscular  and 
nervous  depression,  cardiac  weakness,  and  renal  inflamma- 
tion. But  when  iron  salts  are  swallowed  no  such  effects 
are  produced,  Avhich  would  certainly  be  the  case  if  they  were 
freely  absorbed.  Professor  Bunge  further  states  '  that  all  the 
iron  salts — inorganic,  organic,  and  albuminates — become  in 
the  stomach  cither  ferrous  or  ferric  chlorides.  In  the  intes- 
tine the  sodium  carljonate,  which  is  always  present,  turns  the 
ferric  chloride  into  ferric  oxide,  which  remains  dissolved  in 
the  organic  matters  of  the  alimentary  canal.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  ferrous  chloride  is  transformed  into  ferrous  car- 
bonate, which  also  remains  dissolved  in  the  carbonic  acid  and 
organic  matters.  Both  are  finally  converted  into  sulphide 
by  the  alkaline  sulphides  formed  during  digestion,  and  are 
so  excreted  in  the  faeces.' 

It  would  thus  appear  that  iron  salts  are  only  partially 
and  slowly  absorbed  from  the  alimentary  tract;  only 
infinitesimal  proportions  of  the  doses  prescribed  can  be  used 
by  the  red  blood  corpuscles ;  the  absorbed  portions,  as  occur 
with  so  many  other  metallic  salts,  accumulate  in  the  liver, 
spleen,  bone  marrow,  and  lymphatic  glands,  and  arc  again 
returned  to  the  intestine. 

The  numerous  salts  of  iron  possess  much  the  same  kind  of 
action,  but  differ  considerably  in  the  degree  of  their  activity. 
Comparing  the  ferrous  with  the  ferric  salts,  the  latter  are 
darker  coloured,  more  soluble  and  stable,  as  well  as  more 
irritant  and  astringent.  Small  dogs  are  injured  by  4  or  5 
grains  of  ferric  chloride,  but  swallow  without  harm  40 
grains  of  ferrous  sulphate.  The  more  soluble  ferric  salts  are 
notably  irritant,  astringent,  and  corrosive.  In  the  earlier 
stages  of  convalescence,  where  the  stomach  is  irritable,  in 
young  patients,  and  especially  in  dogs,  ferrous  iodide  or  the 
carbonate,  in  the  conveniently  keeping  saccharated  form,  is 
usually  better  borne  than  the  ferric  chloride,  or  even  the 
ferrous  sulphate.     But  in   order   to   secure   the   full   tonic 


IRON    CITRATE    AND    PHOSPHATE  255 

effects  of  iron  it  is  essential  that  the  bowels  be  inaintained 
in  a  natural  state,  and  an  occasional  laxative  should  be  given 
to  clear  away  the  excess  of  alkaline  sulphides  which  charac- 
terise most  cases  of  anaemia.  "Where  prompt  astringent 
etiects  are  to  be  produced,  full  doses  of  the  chloride  or  other 
soluble  ferric  salt  are  given. 

The  salts  of  iron  chiefly  used  in  veterinary  practice,  and 
hence  demanding  special  notice,  are  the  saccharated  car- 
bonate, ferrous  sulphate,  and  iodide,  Avith  the  ferric  oxide 
and  chloride. 

Metallic  iron,  as  filings  or  pulvis  ferri,  is  occasionally  given 
in  poisoning  with  salts  of  mercury  and  copper.  Ferrum 
redactum,  or  reduced  iron,  is  a  greyish-black  powder,  con- 
taining 75  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron  with  iron  oxide.  Taste- 
less, and  without  astringency,  it  is  frequently  prescribed  for 
young,  unthrifty  animals  as  a  h?ematinic,  which  is  less  apt 
to  derange  digestion  than  the  sulphate.  Iron  arsenate  has 
been  prescribed  in  squamous  and  herpetic  skin  diseases,  in 
about  the  same  doses  as  arsenic,  and  is  also  applied  externall}^ 
Citrate  of  iron  and  quinine,  conjoining  the  tonic  properties 
of  its  components,  and  the  less  astringent  citrate  of  iron 
and  ammonium  are  occasionally  used  for  dogs,  in  doses  of 
4  to  10  grains.  Dialysed  iron  and  amorphous  quinine 
have  been  conjoined.  The  phosphate  (FcgP^O^),  recom- 
mended as  beinof  the  form  in  which  iron  occurs  in  the  blood, 
is  sometimes  prescribed  in  diseases  of  the  bones,  in  diabetes, 
and  in  nervous  exhaustion.  It  is  occasionally  given  to 
delicate  dogs  and  foals,  along  with  other  phosphates,  in  the 
form  of  Squire's  Chemical  Food,  which  contains  the  phos- 
phates of  iron,  calcium,  sodium,  and  potassium,  and  in  nervous 
depression  with  quinine  and  strychnine  in  the  preparation 
known  as  Easton's  Syrup. 

The  acetate,  lactate,  citrate,  and  tartrate,  are  very  soluble, 
readily  absorbed,  and  only  slightly  astringent,  are  sometimes 
preferred  to  the  le.ss  expensive  sulphate  and  carbonate. 

Ferratin,  a  brownish-red  powder,  prepared  from  alkaline 
solution  of  tartarated  iron  and  albumin,  and  containinof 
7  per  cent,  of  iron,  is  prescribed  as  a  tonic  for  dogs,  in  doses 
of  grs.  5  to  grs.  30. 


256  IRON    SULPHATE 

Iron  Carbonate.      Ferri   Carbonas.      Ferrous    Carbonate. 

FeCOg. 
Saccharated  Iron  Carbonate.   Ferri  Carbonas  Saccharatus. 

The  ferrous  carbonate  occurs  in  clay  iron  ore  and  in  many 
mineral  waters.  It  is  prepared  by  mixing  solutions  of  iron 
sulphate  and  ammonium  carbonate.  It  is  greyish-green,  has 
a  chalybeate,  inky-taste,  and  dissolves  with  brisk  effervescence 
in  hydrochloric  acid.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  rapidly  absorbs 
oxygen,  gives  off  carbonic  anhydride,  and  becomes  converted 
into  ferric  oxyhydrate — a  change  constantly  taking  place 
along  the  banks  of  chalybeate  streams. 

The  saccharated  carbonate  is  greatly  more  stable.  It  is 
made  by  rubbing  the  freshly-prepared  carbonate  with  sugar 
in  a  porcelain  mortar.  It  occurs  in  small,  coherent,  grey 
lumps,  has  a  sweet,  feebly  chalybeate  taste,  and  should 
contain  about  20  grains  of  ferrous  carbonate  in  a  drachm. 
It  is  readily  soluble,  is  a  mild  chalybeate,  especially  con- 
venient in  canine  practice,  and  administered  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  sulphate,  in  three  times  larger  doses. 

Iron  Sulphate.    Ferri  Sulphas.     Ferrous  Sulphate.     Green 
Vitriol.     Copperas.     FeSO^.THgO. 

Iron  sulphate  may  be  prepared  by  the  interaction  of 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  and  iron. 

Ferrous  sulphate  occurs  in  bluish-green,  oblique,  rhombic 
prisms,  which,  exposed  to  the  air,  gradually  oxidise,  becom- 
ing opaque,  and  covered  with  a  brown  coating  of  the  normal 
and  basic  ferric  sulphate ;  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  retards 
this  oxidation.  It  has  an  inky,  styptic  taste;  is  insoluble  in 
rectified  spirit,  but  soluble  in  less  than  two  parts  of  cold 
water;  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  212°  F.,  until  aqueous 
vapour  ceases  to  be  given  off",  it  parts  with  six-sevenths  of 
its  water  of  crystallisation,  and  forms  the  exsiccated  sulphate. 
The  dried  sulphate  is  a  white  poAvder,  slowly  but  entirely 
soluble  in  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Topically  applied,  it  is  astringent  and 
antiseptic.  When  swallowed  it  is  a  ha^matinic  tonic,  aslrin- 
u-ent,  and,  in  large  doses,  irritant.     It  is  twice  as  active  as 


IRON  SULPHATE  257 

the  oxides  and  carbonates,  but  it  is  not  so  astringent,  cor- 
rosive, or  irritant  as  the  ferric  chloride  or  nitrate.  As  an 
antiseptic  it  is  not  so  powerful  as  the  ferric  chloride,  but  has 
about  the  same  power  as  the  sulphates  of  alumina  and  zinc. 
Professor  Goliier  administered  10^  ounces  to  a  horse,  6  ounces 
to  a  donkey,  and  3  ounces  to  a  six-months  foal.  All  were 
nauseated ;  no  appreciable  increase  of  iron  appeared  in  the 
excretions  from  either  bowels  or  kidneys.  The  three  subjects 
died  the  following  day,  and  their  intestines  were  found  to  be 
gangrenous  (Kaufmann). 

Medicinal  Uses. — Iron  sulphate  is  administered  to  all 
veterinary  patients  in  anaemia,  and  especially  when  it  is  con- 
nected with  dyspepsia.  It  improves  the  appetite,  diminishes 
exhausting  discharges,  and  abates  glandular  enlargements. 
It  is  specially  beneficial  in  anaemia  occurring  in  young  horses, 
cattle,  or  sheep,  kept  throughout  the  late  autumn  or  winter 
on  grass  that  has  lost  its  nutritive  value,  or  in  young  stock 
that  have  been  reduced  by  restriction  to  indigestible,  poor 
straw  fodder.  Along  with  concentrated,  good  food,  the  iron 
salt  in  many  such  cases  is  advantageously  conjoined  or 
alternated  with  quinine  and  other  bitter  tonics,  nux  vomica, 
acids,  and  occasionally  with  arsenic. 

In  conjunction  with  nutritive  and  oleaginous  diet,  iron  is 
given  to  horses  and  cattle  in  the  earlier  stages  of  tuber- 
culosis. It  is  said  to  abate  nasal  gleet  and  leucorrhcea.  It 
is  prescribed  with  aloes  for  atonic  torpidity  of  the  bowels, 
and  for  destroying  intestinal  worms.  Combined  with  iodine, 
it  arrests  diabetes  insipidus  in  horses.  It  is  one  of  the 
remedies  given  to  check  the  earlier  progress  of  liver-rot  in 
sheep.  Chorea  and  epilep.sy,  when  connected,  as  they  often 
are,  with  anaemia,  are  benefited  by  iron.  In  septicaemia, 
pyaemia,  and  other  forms  of  blood-poisoning,  the  sulphate  or 
other  soluble  salt  is  used.  In  haemorrhagic  cases,  as  in  pur- 
pura, it  is  prescribed  with  a  mineral  acid,  and  alternated 
with  quinine.  Given  after  a  laxative,  it  aids  recovery  of 
cattle  and  sheep  from  red-water. 

In  convalescence  from  debilitating  disorders  it  is  regarded 
as  a  valuable  hsematinic.  In  the  several  forms  of  in- 
fluenza and  bronchitis,  Professor  Robertson  prescribed  ferrous 

R 


258  IRON   SULPHATE 

sulphate  and  nux  vomica,  of  each  half  a  drachra,  with  four 
drachms  of  powdered  gentian,  in  bolus.  In  irritability, 
chronic  catarrh,  or  hsemorrhagic  conditions  of  the  urinary 
bladder,  such  as  accompany  or  follow  epizootic  disorders  in 
horses,  it  has  been  prescribed  with  sulphuric  acid  and  alter- 
nated with  salicylic  acid.  A  like  prescription,  or  a  course  of 
iron  and  quinine,  is  advised  in  convalescence  from  nephritis. 
Although  itself  devoid  of  purgative  effect,  iron  sulphate  is 
stated  to  increase  the  activity  of  most  cathartics  with  which 
it  is  combined.  The  sulphate  in  solution,  2  to  10  per  cent., 
is  much  used  as  an  astringent  antiseptic.  Mixed  with 
sulphates  of  lime  and  alumina,  Tuson's  disinfectant  powder 
is  formed,  which,  when  moistened,  gives  off  sulphurous 
anhydride. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  5ss.  to  5ij-  5  cattle,  5i-  to  ^\y.  ; 
sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx. ;  dogs,  grs.  ij. 
to  grs.  x.  The  smaller  doses  are  given  as  hoematinics  and 
tonics,  the  larger  as  astringents.  Two  and  a  half  parts  of 
the  dried  sulphate  are  equal  to  four  of  the  sulphate.  The 
drug  is  administered  in  bolus,  solution  in  water-gruel,  infu- 
sion of  calumba,  or  ale,  or  mixed  with  soft  food,  and  repeated 
twice  or  thrice  daily.  As  a  tonic  for  horses  and  cattle,  one 
to  two  drachms  iron  sulphate,  and  half  an  ounce  each  of 
gentian  and  ginger,  are  made  into  bolus,  or  dissolved  in  a 
pint  of  ale  or  gruel.  Such  proportions  make  three  or  four 
doses  for  sheep  and  eight  or  ten  for  dogs.  Preparations  of 
iron  intended  to  act  as  tonics  should  be  given  during  or 
shortly  after  meals.  Full  doses  introduced  into  the  empty 
stomach,  especially  of  dogs,  are  apt  to  cause  dyspepsia.  To 
obviate  gastric  irritation  or  constipation,  and  maintain  the 
continued  good  effects  of  iron  tonics,  after  being  used  for  a 
week  or  ten  days  they  should  for  several  days  be  withheld, 
or  replaced  by  other  tonics.  Constipation  and  the  dark 
colour  and  foitor  communicated  to  the  dejections  are  abated 
by  appropriate  diet,  combination  with  Epsom  or  Glauber 
salt,  or  by  an  occasional  laxative. 


IRON   IODIDE  259 

Iron  Iodide.     Ferri  lodidiim.     Fel24Aq.     (Not  official.) 

When  iodine,  iron  wire,  and  distilled  water  are  gradually 
heated  together,  combination  occurs,  and  the  solution,  filtered 
and  evaporated,  yields  tabular  green  crystals,  which  are  in- 
odorous, have  a  styptic,  metallic  taste,  and  are  soluble  in 
about  their  own  weight  of  water  and  alcohol.  When  heated, 
iron  iodide  gives  off  violet-coloured  fumes  of  iodine,  and,  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  deliquesces  and  acquires  a  red-brown  colour. 
This  oxidation  is  retarded  by  keeping  the  solution  in  contact 
with  fresh  iron  wire,  in  well -stoppered  bottles,  secluded  from 
light,  or  by  boiling  the  freshly-prepared  solution  in  syrup. 

Actions,  Uses,  and  Doses.— It  is  a  hoematinic  tonic,  altera- 
tive, and  astringent.  Poisonous  doses  are  irritant,  and  pro- 
duce the  effects  of  iron  rather  than  of  iodine.  Thus  Dr. 
Cogswell  found  that  three  drachms  caused  in  dogs  vomiting 
and  purging,  while  one  drachm  in  concentrated  solution 
killed  a  rabbit  in  three  hours  and  a  half,  with  the  symptoms 
and  post-mortem  appearances  of  poisoning  with  other  soluble 
salts  of  iron. 

Besides  being  used  for  the  same  hsematinic  purposes  as  the 
sulphate,  it  is  given  to  promote  absorption  of  glandular  en- 
largements, especially  in  young  and  weakly  animals ;  it  is 
serviceable  in  swellings  of  joints,  and  was  commended  by 
Mr.  Morton  for  its  efficacy  in  polyuria  and  nasal  gleet  in 
horses.  The  doses  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  sulphate.  It 
is  prescribed  in  bolus,  saccharated  powder,  and  in  the  form 
of  the  official  syrupus  ferri  iodidi.  This  syrup,  containing 
about  5|  grains  of  ferrous  iodide  in  each  drachm,  is  fre- 
quently given  in  bronchitis  and  canine  distemper. 

Iron  Peroxide  Moist.  Ferri  Peroxidum  humidum.  Moist 
Ferric  Oxide,  Fe203.(H20),  with  about  86  per  cent,  of 
uncombined  water. 

Red  or  ferric  oxide  is  found  native  in  the  several  varieties 
of  hsematite,  ochre,  red  chalk,  and  specular  ore.  The  hydrate 
may  be  prepared  by  mixing  together  three  ounces  of  liquor  ferri 
perchloridi  and  one  ounce  of  sodium  carbonate  diluted  with 
water.  This  moist  ferric  oxide,  freshly  prepared,  is  the  best 
antidote  for  arsenic.     Twelve  parts  are  stated  to  neutralise 


260  CHLORIDE    OF    IRON    SOLUTIONS 

one  part  of  arsenious  acid.  It  mechanically  entangles  the 
particles  of  the  poison,  and  further  converts  it  into  an  in- 
soluble arsenite.  The  antidote  should  be  followed  by  a 
saline  purgative.  In  human  patients  doses  of  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  the  jDeroxide  are  given  every  five  or  ten  minutes. 
Another  arsenic  antidote  is  tl^e  ferri  oxidum  hydratum  cum 
magnesia,  made  by  mixing  a  solution  of  magnesia  with  a 
solution  of  iron  tersulphate  (U.S. P.). 

Iron  Perchloride,     Ferri  Perchloridum.     Ferri  Chloride. 
Fe^Clg.     Liquor  Ferri  Perchloridi  Fortis. 

Iron  perchloride  is  prepared  by  boiling  the  metal  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  water,  and  adding  a  little  nitric  acid  to 
ensure  production  of  the  higher  chloride.  The  green  crystals, 
having  a  great  affinity  for  water,  quickly  melt.  The  strong 
solution,  liquor  ferri  perchloridi  fortis,  is  orange-brown, 
odourless,  with  a  styptic  taste,  and  miscible  with  water  and 
alcohol  in  all  proportions.  Specific  gravity  about  142  ;  110 
minhns  contain  22 J  grains  of  iron.  Diluted  with  three 
measures  of  distilled  water,  it  constitutes  the  medicinal 
solution,  liquor  ferri  perchloridi,  which  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses is  as  effectual  as  the  tmcture.  Tinctura  ferri  per- 
chloridi, known  as  tincture  of  steel,  is  made  by  mixing  five 
ounces  each  of  strong  solution  of  ferric  chloride  and  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.)  and  adding  ten  ounces  of  distilled  water.  This 
tincture  has  a  red-brown  colour,  an  ethereal  odour,  and  an 
acid,  chalybeate  taste. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Iron  perchloride,  whether  in  watery  or 
alcoholic  solution,  is  one  of  the  most  soluble,  irritant,  and 
corrosive  preparations  of  iron.  It  is  prescribed  as  a  hrema- 
tinic  tonic,  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  styptic,  and  is  used 
topically  as  an  antiseptic,  astringent,  and  caustic. 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  solutions. of  the  chloride  are  service- 
able in  most  of  the  cases  for  which  the  sulphate  has  been 
recommended.  They  conjoin,  with  general  tonic  effects, 
marked  astringent  action.  They  are  prescribed  in  atonic 
dyspepsia,  and  for  the  removal  of  intestinal  worms.  In 
relaxed  throat,  which  accompanies  and  follows  catarrhal 
fever  in  horses,  half-drachm  doses,  with  an  equal  quantity  of 


ACTIONS   AND   USES  261 

glycerin  and  six  or  eight  ounces  of  water,  are  given  every 
two  hours,  administered  slowly,  as  a  gargle,  or  applied  as  a 
spray.  Solutions  are  used  in  anaemia  and  the  several  con- 
ditions connected  with  it.  Professor  Williams  states : — 
'  When  debility  and  ansemia  are  associated  symptoms,  I  have 
found  the  salts  of  iron,  more  especially  the  tincture  of  the 
perchloride,  to  have  a  marked  effect  in  promoting  absorption 
of  inflammatory  products.  I  have  a  far  higher  opinion  of 
the  effects  of  iron  salts  than  of  iodine  or  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium. The  practitioner,  however,  is  at  liberty  to  combine 
the  iodine  with  the  iron.'  In  influenza  and  purpura  in 
horses  the  chloride  improves  the  apjDctite,  and  is  credited 
with  tonic  effects  both  on  the  blood  and  blood-vessels.  In 
hsemorrhagic  cases  it  is  sometimes  prescribed  with  turpen- 
tine, in  purpura  with  quinine.  Professor  Robertson  treated 
purpura  with  iron  chloride  and  sulphuric  acid,  alternated 
with  occasional  doses  of  potassium  chlorate.  Liquor  ferri 
pernitratis,  containing  3 J  grains  of  iron  in  110  minims,  is 
sometimes  preferred  to  the  chloride,  in  obstinate  diarrhoea, 
dysentery  and  hsematuria.  In  rheumatism,  especially  in 
weakly  subjects,  it  is  useful,  and  may  be  alternated  with 
salicylic  acid.  It  is  administered  as  an  astringent  and 
stimulant  of  the  urino-genital  mucous  membranes,  the  tinc- 
ture, on  account  of  its  greater  tendency  to  be  excreted  by 
the  kidne3^s,  in  such  cases  being  preferable  to  the  watery 
solution.  After  the  bowels  have  been  freely  opened  it  is 
serviceable  in  red- water  in  cattle. 

The  chloride  is  particularly  suitable  in  cases  of  distemper 
and  rheumatic  lameness  in  weakly  dogs,  and,  with  or  with- 
out arsenic,  benefits  most  attacks  of  chorea  and  many  of 
epilepsy.  In  dogs,  as  in  other  animals,  it  promotes  recovery 
from  exhausting  diseases. 

Externally,  it  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  and  astringent.  It 
coagulates  albumin,  and  hence  is  a  valuable  styptic.  Tow 
or  wool  saturated  with  the  liquor,  and  applied  directly  to  the 
orifice  of  the  bleeding  vessel,  is  an  effectual  haemostatic. 
Diluted  with  six  or  eight  parts  of  water  the  medicinal 
solution  is  injected  into  the  uterus  in  cases  of  post-partum 
haemorrhage,  and  into  the  nose  in  epistaxis.     Two  drachms 


262  ANTIMONY 

to  a  pint  of  water,  injected  into  the  rectum,  destroy  and 
bring  away  ascarides.  The  growths  of  actinomycosis,  after 
scraping,  are  sometimes  dressed  with  the  strong  liquor,  and 
subsequently  Avith  weaker  solutions.  The  strong  solution 
has  been  applied,  with  beneficial  results,  in  canker  of  the 
horse's  foot. 

Although  not  so  effectual  an  antiseptic  as  corrosive  sub- 
limate, it  readily  yields  part  of  its  chlorine,  and  arrests  the 
actions  of  ferments.  A  solution  of  five  per  cent,  in  water  in 
two  days  retarded  the  growth  of  anthrax  bacilli,  and  in  six 
days  effectually  destroyed  both  bacilli  and  their  spores, 
which  was  effected,  however,  in  two  days  by  corrosive 
sublimate  (Koch).  As  caustics,  the  liquor  ferri  perchloridi 
fortis,  and  the  chloride  in  substance,  are  sometimes  used. 

Doses,  etc, — Of  the  medicinal  liquor  and  tincture,  horses 
and  cattle  take  fgss.  to  fgj.;  sheep,  TT^xx.  to  'n[xxx. ;  pigs,  TT|,x. 
to  7I[xx. ;  dogs,  W.  to  'tT[x.  The  smaller  doses  suffice  for 
hcematinic  or  tonic  purposes,  arc  repeated  two  or  three  times 
daily,  are  diluted  with  at  least  ten  parts  of  w\ater,  ale,  or 
gruel;  are  sometimes  conjoined  with  mineral  acids,  quassia, 
calumba,  and  other  bitters,  or  with  alcohol  or  ether.  They 
are  incompatible  with  ammonia,  alkalies,  or  their  carbonates, 
and  with  tannin-containing  substances.  The  larger  doses 
mentioned  are  given  when  powerful  astringent  effects  are 
required. 

ANTIMONY  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  SALTS 
The  salts  and  preparations  of  antimony  in  their  physio- 
logical as  well  as  their  chemical  relations  resemble  those 
of  arsenic  and  bismuth.  They  combine  Avith  albumin,  are 
precipitated  by  acid  solutions,  and  consequently  exert  their 
irritant  effects  on  parts  where  they  meet  with  acid  secretions, 
as  in  the  stomach  and  around  the  orifices  of  the  sweat 
glands.  With  tlio  exception  of  the  chloride,  Avhich  is  n 
pow^erful  escharotic,  antimony  salts,  locally  applied,  produce 
inflanunation  of  isolated  spots,  causing  first  papules,  and 
subsequently  pustules.  The  solubility  of  the  several  pre- 
parations mainly  determines  their  activity.  In  animals  that 
vomit  they  cause  emcsis,  cardiac  and  vascular  depression, 


ANTIMONY    OXIDE    AND   SULPHIDE  263 

and  increased  secretion.  Large  doses  produce  gastro-enteritis, 
and  paresis  of  the  spinal  cord.  Given  for  a  considerable 
period,  they  induce  fatty  degeneration.  The  geese  in  the 
Duchy  of  Brunswick,  fed  for  their  fatty  livers,  receive  daily 
doses  of  antimonious  oxide.  Tartar  emetic  is  almost  the 
only  antimonial  prescribed  internally. 

Antimoxious  Oxide.     Antimonii  Oxidum. 

The  medicinal  oxide,  also  known  as  native  white  or  flowers 
of  antimony  (Sb^Og),  is  often  used  as  a  paint  instead  of  white 
lead.  It  is  prepared,  by  direction  of  the  B.P.,  by  pouring 
solution  of  the  chloride  into  water,  and  decomposing  the 
precipitated  antimony  oxy- chloride  with  sodium  carbonate. 
It  is  a  greyish-white,  tasteless,  heavy,  crystalline  pow^der, 
insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  hydrochloric,  tartaric,  and 
acetic  acids  and  forms,  by  oxidation  with  nitric  acid,  anti- 
mony tetroxide,  and  antimony  pentoxide.  An  imitation  of 
the  patent  James's  powder  is  made  by  thoroughly  mixing 
one  part  of  antimony  oxide  and  two  parts  of  calcium 
phosphate. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Antimony  oxide  is  chiefly  important 
on  account  of  its  employment  in  the  prej^aration  of  tartar 
emetic,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  its  actions  and  uses, 

Antimonious  Sulphide.  Antimonium  Nigrum  Purificatum. 
The  native  sulphide  or  stibnite  (SbgSg),  the  most  abun- 
dant ore  of  antimon}'-,  when  purified  by  fusion,  washing  and 
drying,  occurs  in  dark-gre}^  metallic,  heavy,  brittle  cakes, 
or  as  a  heavy,  greyish-black,  crystalline  powder,  devoid  of 
odour  and  taste,  insoluble  in  water,  and  known  as  black 
antimony.  The  orange-red  sulphurated  antimony  of  the 
B.P.  is  obtained  by  boiling  black  antimony  with  sublimed 
sulphur  and  caustic  soda,  neutralising  the  solution  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  washing  the  precipitated  mixture.  The 
following  sulphides  are  used  in  the  arts,  and  have  occasion- 
ally been  employed  in  medicine : — Glass  of  antimony,  a  red, 
transparent  body,  consisting  of  about  eight  parts  of  oxide 
and  one  of  sulphide;  liver  of  antimony,  a  double  sulj)hide  of 
antimony  and  potassium ;  and  Kermes  mineral,  a  red-brown 


264  ANTIMONY   CHLORIDE 

powder   containing    a   variable    proportion    of    oxide    and 
sulphide. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Being  uncertain,  irregular,  and  often 
violent  remedies,  the  antimony  sulphides  are  now  seldom 
used  in  either  human  or  veterinary  medicine.  Their  irregular 
action  mainly  depends  on  their  variable  composition  and 
their  insolubility  in  water.  They  once  had  the  reputation 
of  being  alterative,  expectorant,  and  anthelmintic,  and  were 
given  to  horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of  one  to  three  drachms, 
usually  along  with  sulphur  or  nitre.  They  cause  emesis 
in  dogs. 

Solution  of  Antimonious  Chloride.     Liquor  Antimonii 
Chloridi.     Butter  of  Antimony.     SbClg. 

When  native  sulphide  is  boiled  with  about  five  times  its 
weight  of  hydrochloric  acid,  hydrogen  sulphide  is  evolved, 
and  the  chloride  remains  in  solution — a  transparent,  yellow- 
red  liquid,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1"47.  The  colour  darkens 
by  exposure,  depending  upon  oxidation  of  the  iron  chloride, 
which  is  sometimes  added  intentionally.  Containing  excess 
of  hydrochloric  acid,  it  has  an  acid  reaction,  and  fumes  on 
exposure  to  air.  Addition  of  water  separates  a  white  pre- 
cipitate of  basic  oxy-chloride  (SbOCl),  which,  if  persistently 
washed,  yields  the  oxide.  The  true  butter  of  antimony — a 
hard,  while,  crystalline,  fusible  solid — is  got  by  evaporating 
and  then  distilling  the  commercial  solution. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Although  less  used  than  formerly,  the 
chloride  in  solution  is  still  employed  as  a  desiccating  caustic 
for  thrush,  canker,  and  luxuriant  granulations;  and  for 
wounds  of  the  feet  in  cattle,  and  foot-rot  in  sheep.  Its  appli- 
cation causes  little  pain ;  but,  except  in  cautious  hands,  it  is, 
however,  too  energetic  for  general  use.  As  it  cannot  be 
diluted  with  water  without  undergoing  decomposition,  it 
should  be  mixed  with  three  or  four  parts  of  tincture  of  myrrh. 

Antimonium  Tautauatum.     Potassio-tartrate  of  Antimony. 
Tartar  Emetic.     [K(SbO)C4H,Oe].,H20. 
Prepared  by  setting  aside  a  mixture  of  antimonious  oxide, 
and  acid  potassium  tartrate,  made  into  a  paste  with  a  little 


TARTAR  EMETIC  265 

■water,  until  combination  has  taken  place,  and  then  purifying 
by  crystallisation  from  water  (B.P.). 

Properties. — Tartar  emetic  is  sold  as  a  white  powder,  and 
in  colourless,  transparent  crystals,  exhibiting  triangular 
facets,  becoming  opaque  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  crepi- 
tating and  blackening  when  heated.  It  is  devoid  of  odour, 
has  a  sweet,  metallic  taste,  is  insoluble  in  strong  alcohol, 
sparingly  soluble  in  weak  spirit ;  dissolves  in  about  seventeen 
parts  of  water,  and  in  three  parts  boiling  water.  The  watery 
solution  is  slightly  acid  ;  is  decomposed  by  strong  acids, 
alkalies,  alkaline  earths  and  their  carbonates,  and  by  solution 
of  tannic  acid,  but  not  by  gallic  acid.  Iron  oxide,  the  most 
common  impurity,  communicates  to  the  salt  a  yellow  or 
brown  colour;  cream  of  tartar  diminishes  its  solubility. 
If  purchased  in  crystals  instead  of  powder,  impurities  are 
more  readily  discoverable. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Tartar  emetic  applied  to  the  skin  causes 
eruption  of  isolated  papules,  which  shortly  become  pustules. 
Poisonous  doses  produce  gastro-enteritis,  nervous  depression, 
and,  when  repeated,  fatty  degeneration.  Medicinal  doses 
given  to  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  are  emetic,  expectorant,  sedative, 
and  antipyretic.  Their  physiological  effects  on  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep  are  not  so  well  marked.  It  is  occasionally  used 
externally  as  a  counter-irritant. 

General  Actions. — Tartar  emetic  in  substance  or  in  con- 
centrated solution  acts  as  an  irritant  upon  the  alimentary 
mucous  membrane.  In  the  stomach  it  is  partly  decomposed 
by  the  acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  soluble  chlorides  of  antimony 
and  potassium  being  formed  (Kaufmann).  It  probably  com- 
bines with  albumin.  Horses  and  cattle  when  receiving  even 
poisonous  doses,  do  not  vomit,  and  doses  of  one  to  four 
drachms  sometimes  given  medicinally  do  not  produce  the 
nausea  and  depression  which  are  the  notable  results  of 
medicinal  doses  in  man,  dogs,  cats,  or  pigs.  Dogs  receiving 
two  to  four  grains  are  nauseated,  and  vomiting  occurs  usually 
within  fifteen  minutes.  Emesis  depends  upon  irritation  both 
of  the  stomach  and  vomiting  centre,  but  more  especially 
of  the  latter.  Magendie,  after  extirpation  of  the  stomach, 
induced  vomiting  by  intravenous  injection  of  tartar  emetic. 


266  TARTAR    EMETIC — TOXIC   EFFECTS 

Reficxly,  from  the  stomach,  as  well  as  by  actinf^  directly  on  ' 
the  heart  aud  vessels,  it  produces  in  men  and  carnivora  cardiac 
and  vascular  depression,  with  lowered  blood  pressure;  it 
slightly  increases  but  subsequently  diminishes  the  number 
of  the  respirations ;  reduces  temperature,  relaxes  voluntary 
and  involuntary  muscles ;  and  increases  secretion  from  the 
skin,  bronchial  and  gastro-intestinal  membranes.  Poisonous 
doses  cause  purging  and  gastro-enteritis,  and  when  their 
action  is  very  violent,  after  slightly  exciting,  they  paralyse 
both  the  motor  and  sensory  tracts  of  the  spinal  cord.  In 
many  of  its  actions  it  resembles  phosphorus  and  arsenic 
notably  in  arresting  the  formation  of  glycogen,  and  in  causing 
fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver  and  other  organs.  It  is 
eliminated  in  the  mucus  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and 
also  in  the  bile  and  urine.  It  increases  the  excretion  of  urea. 
As  with  arsenic,  animals  receiving  small  doses  acquire  a 
condition  of  tolerance,  and  with  impunity  take  doses  which 
would  otherwise  prove  dangerous. 

The  Toxic  Effects,  like  the  general  actions,  are  less  marked 
in  herbivora  than  in  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs,  which  are  affected 
much  in  the  same  way  as  men.  According  to  Kaufmann,  dogs 
are  poisoned  by  three  to  six  grains.  But  these  and  even 
larger  doses  are  apt  to  be  speedily  ejected  by  vomiting  if  the 
dogs  are  left  by  themselves.  If  the  oesophagus,  however,  be 
tied  so  as  to  prevent  vomiting,  such  doses,  and  sometimes 
even  one  grain,  cause  nausea,  accelerated  and  difficult  respira- 
tion, fluid  dejections,  gastro-intestinal  inflammation,  and 
death  in  a  few  hours.  Dr.  Alfred  Taylor,  in  his  volume  On 
Poisons,  records  that  three  to  six  grains  injected  into  the 
jugular  vein  of  dogs  caused  death  in  eight  or  ten  hours. 
Frohner  states  that  half  a  grain  to  a  grain  injected  intra- 
venously proves  fatal  in  half  an  hour,  while  small  quantities 
applied  to  the  broken  skin  also  kill. 

Pigs  are  not  so  susceptible.  Hcrtwig  {ArznciinUteUehre) 
mentions  that  ten  to  twenty  grains  cause  nausea  and  vomit- 
ing, but  act  neither  very  rapidly  nor  very  certainly;  that  one 
drachm  in  solution,  given  to  a  boar  nine  months  old,  caused 
vomiting,  dulncss,  and  uneasiness,  which  continued  for  three 
days;  but   that   two  drachms   given   to   a   similar   animal 


EXPERIMENTS  267 

dissolved  in  half  a  litre  of  water,  within  an  hour  and  a  half 
caused  vomiting  five  times,  loss  of  appetite,  thirst,  spasms,  pro- 
stration, and  death  the  following  day.  Poultry  swallowing 
one  to  three  grains  in  bolus  vomit  freely. 

Horses  take,  per  orem,  Avithout  injury,  thirty  to  forty  times 
the  quantity  of  tartar  emetic  which  would  prove  fatal  to  a 
man  or  dog.  Without  notable  effect  they  may  be  given  one 
to  four  drachms  in  bolus,  and  such  doses  may  be  repeated 
night  and  morning  for  several  days  without  causing  impaired 
appetite,  nausea,  or  gastric  derangement.  This  insuscepti- 
bility of  horses  to  the  action  of  tartar  emetic  was  strongly 
impressed  upon  me  by  a  number  of  experiments  made  many 
years  ago  at  the  Edinburgh  (Dick's)  Veterinary  College  by 
the  late  Mr.  Barlow  and  myself.  Notes  of  several  of  these 
experiments  are  subjoined: — 

Case  I.— On  9th  September  1852,  about  10  a.m.,  a  bro^\n  mare,  unfit  for 
work  on  account  of  lameness,  with  the  pulse  38  and  respirations  7,  got  three 
drachms  of  tartar  emetic  in  a  ball  made  up  with  treacle  and  linseed  meal. 
In  the  evening  the  pulse  was  unaffected,  and  the  dose  was  repeated. 

lOth. — The  pulse  was  40,  the  respirations  7,  appetite  good,  bowels  and 
kidneys  regular.     A  dose  of  four  drachms  was  given  morning  and  evening. 

11th. — At  10  A.M.,  the  pulse  was  42,  respirations  7,  appetite  and  bowels 
quite  normal.  Got  an  ounce  in  a  ball  as  before.  In  the  evening  the  pulse 
was  40,  no  perceptible  nausea,  appetite  good,  bowels  and  kidneys  regular. 
Dose  of  an  ounce  repeated. 

12i/t. — In  the  morning  the  pulse  was  37,  somewhat  weaker  than  yesterday, 
but  still  firm.  The  appetite  was  very  good,  and  there  was  no  change  in  the 
state  of  the  kidneys  or  bowels.  Got  a  dose  of  an  ounce.  In  the  evening 
the  pulse  was  40,  and  the  patient  in  other  respects  as  in  the  morning.  Gave 
an  ounce,  being  five  ounces  six  drachms  in  four  days. 

IZth. — At  10  A.M.  the  pulse  was  35,  the  appetite  good,  and  the  bowels 
and  kidneys  normal.  About  1  a.m.  the  animal  had  dropped  or  lain  down, 
and  while  lying  the  pulse  was  somewhat  irregular,  varying  between  60  and 
70.  The  respu-ations  were  quiet.  At  12  the  animal  was  lifted,  when  the 
pulse  fell  in  a  few  minutes  to  55,  and  the  respirations  to  6.  The  appetite 
still  remained  very  good.  Gave  ten  drachms  in  the  usual  way.  In  the 
evening  the  pulse  was  40,  the  respirations  6,  the  appetite  and  evacuations 
natural.     Gave  fourteen  drachms. 

lUh. — 10  A.M.  No  change  from  last  night.  Got  an  ounce  ;  but  when 
having  it  pxit  over,  the  animal  ran  back  and  went  down.  At  1  she  was 
raised,  still  continued  to  eat,  and  at  1.30  got  another  dose  of  an  ounce. 
She  remained  down  all  day,  and  appeared  nauseated.  The  pulse  was  not 
quite  regular,  probably  owing  to  occasional  struggling,  but  reached  about 
60  when  at  its  maximum.  Respirations  about  12.  At  6.30  the  animal 
was  still  eating  and  drinking,  but  only  sparingly  ;  was  much  nauseated 
and  lying  pretty  quiet,  with  the  lips  much  retracted,  and  the  pulse  75  and 
weak. 

Ibth. — 10  A.M.  Found  dead,  having  taken  ten  ounces  and  six  drachms 
of  tartar  emetic  in  six  days.     Mr.  Barlow  made  the  following  notes  of  the 


268  TARTAR   EMETIC 

post-mortem  examination  : — The  muscular  tissue  in  every  part  of  the  V.ody 
was  unusually  tiaccid,  althout/li  rigor  moi-tis  Wiis  well  established.  The 
right  lung,  which  was  lowermost  as  the  animal  lay,  was  much  congested  in 
its  deeper  and  central  parts  ;  the  several  margins  were  comparatively  pale  ; 
at  the  anterior  part  of  the  anterior  lobe  there  was  much  emphysema.  The 
left  lung  wiis  perfectly  healthy,  and  not  at  all  emphysematous.  The 
bronchial  tubes  and  smaller  bronchi  in  both  lungs  contained  frothy 
mucus.  The  pleura  and  pericardium  were  in  every  way  healthy.  The  heart 
was  very  large,  its  cavities  being  filled  with  firmly  coagulated  blood.  At 
the  junction  of  the  villous  and  cuticular  coats,  the  stomach  was  much  con- 
tracted, and  exhibited  a  slight  blush,  not  amounting  to  redness.  The 
cuticular  coat  was  marked  with  several  indentations,  such  as  are  produced 
by  bots  ;  but  in  all  other  respects  the  stomach  was  perfectly  healthy. 
The  intestines  were  also  perfectly  healthy  both  within  and  without.  The 
liver  was  in  a  state  of  cirrhosis,  such  as  is  often  seen  in  old  and  worn-out 
horses.  The  organs  of  urination  and  generation  were  quite  normal.  The 
brain  was  healthy,  but  the  sul)arachnoid  spaces  contained  a  considerable 
quantity  of  fluid. 

Case  II. — A  mare,  about  IG  hands  high,  and  in  good  health  and  condi- 
tion, got  three  drachms  of  tartar  emetic  daily,  in  bolus,  for  five  days,  and 
then  four  drachms  daily  for  thirteen  days — making  in  all  ten  ounces  and 
three  drachms  in  eighteen  days — but  without  exhibiting  any  physiological 
effect.  The  animal  was  destroyed  by  cutting  the  carotid  artery,  but  the 
post-mortem  examination  revealed  nothing  at  all  abnormal.  It  may  be 
mentioned  that,  on  the  twelfth  day  of  experiment,  twenty  ounces  of  urine 
were  removed,  and  found  to  contain  a  perceptible  but  not  very  large 
quantity  of  antimony. 

Case  III. — A  black  marc,  of  sound,  healthy  constitution,  took  ten 
ounces  and  a  half  of  tartar  emetic  (in  doses  of  four  drachms,  repeated  twice 
and  thrice  a  day)  during  ten  consecutive  days  ;  yet  she  was  in  no  way 
affected  by  it :  her  pulse  and  respiration  were  scarcely  at  all  altered  ;  her 
appetite  throughout  was  voracious  ;  her  evacuations  natural  in  aii]3earance 
and  quantity  ;  and  her  condition  considerably  improved.  She  was 
poisoned  by  a  fluid  drachm  of  P'leming's  tincture  of  aconite.  On  dissection 
not  a  single  morbid  appearance  referable  to  the  tartar  emetic  was  observed. 
The  stomach  and  intestines  were  carefully  examined,  and  found  '  beautifully 
healthy.' 

Case  IV. — A  healthy,  well-bred  horse  was  given  ten  ounces  of  tartar 
emetic  in  solution,  and  after  showing  a  good  deal  of  nausea,  uneasiness,  and 
pain,  died  in  about  six  hours.  The  only  notable  appearances  on  post- 
mortem examination  were  softness  and  increased  vascularity  of  the  intes- 
tines, analogous  to  what  is  seen  in  patients  that  have  died  while  aifected  by 
diarrhoea.  Neither  in  this  nor  in  any  of  the  other  cases  were  the  lungs 
congested  or  inflamed,  as  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  Magendie's  experi- 
ments. 

Frohner's  recent  experiments  sliow  similar  results. 
Healthy  horses,  he  states,  take  one  to  two  drachms 
without  causing  any  notable  effect  except  increased  dis- 
charge from  the  bowels ;  but  these  doses  if  continued  are 
said  to  sloAv  the  ]mi1sc  and  cause  palpitation,  lassitude, 
diarrhoea,  polyuria,  and,  when  further  continued,  great 
weakness.  An  ounce  in  pill  or  electuary  was  not  fatal,  but 
in  solution  caused  spasms,  and  death  in  eight  days ;  while 


EFFECTS    DIFFER    IN    DIFFERENT    ANIMALS         269 

sixty  grammes  (nearly  two  ounces)  in  solution  proved  fatal 
in  two  and  a  half  hours  (Lehrhuch  de  Arzneimittellehre  filr 
Thierdrzte).  Hertwig  records  that  four  drachms  in  solution 
in  water  induced  colic,  trembling,  and  acceleration  of  the 
pulse ;  the  symptoms  after  a  few  hours  abated,  but  death 
resulted  after  six  or  eight  days.  Much  greater  activity  is, 
however,  observed  when  tartar  emetic  is  administered  to 
horses  intravenously.  One  drachm  thus  given  raised  the 
pulse  to  120  beats  per  minute,  caused  difficult  breathing, 
purging,  sweating,  flow  of  tears  and  saliva,  eructation, 
retching,  and  muscular  spasms.  Two  drachms  further  pro- 
duced severe  fits,  vertigo,  paralysis,  and  death  in  one  and  a 
half  to  three  hours,  but  without  action  of  the  bowels,  Kauf- 
mann  states  that  horses  receiving  fifteen  grains  intravenously 
in  a  few  minutes  exhibited  efforts  to  vomit,  great  inquietude, 
dilatation  of  the  nostrils,  and  lowering  of  the  neck,  as  if 
suffering  abdominal  pain. 

Cattle,  like  horses,  take  large  doses  with  impunity.  Hert- 
wig and  Viborg  gave  quantities  varying  from  two  to  ten 
drachms,  and  Gilbert  gave  ten  drachms  in  solution — all 
without  effect  (Hertwig,  ArzneiTnittellehre).  I  have  re- 
peatedly administered  an  ounce  twice  a  day  to  cattle,  and, 
except  in  a  few  cases  where  purgation  occurred,  have  not 
observed  any  evidence  of  its  action.  Mr.  Balfour,  Kirkcaldy, 
informed  me  that  he  has  given  half  a  pound  in  solution 
without  any  very  obvious  effects.  Sheep  exhibit  similar  in- 
susceptibility. Yiborg  gave  one  drachm,  and  Gilbert  three 
drachms  in  solution,  and  four  in  the  solid  state,  without 
effect.  But  Gilbert  found  that  four  to  six  drachms  in  solu- 
tion destroyed  one-year-old  sheep.  Intravenous  injection  of 
five  to  six  grains  produces,  however,  lassitude,  small,  frequent 
pulse,  difficult  breathing,  and  purgation  (Frohner). 

No  very  satisfactory  explanation  has  been  given  of  this 
insusceptibility  of  horses,  ruminants,  and  also  of  rabbits.  It 
is  evidently  due  in  great  part  to  imperfect  development  of 
the  vomiting  centre;  but  the  gastric  functions  have  also, 
doubtless,  some  connection  with  it,  as  is  shown  by  the  drug 
being  about  ten  times  more  active  when  administered  intra- 
venously than  when  given  by  the  mouth. 


270  TARTAR   EMETIC    A    TOPICAL    IRRITANT 

Antidotal  treatment  consists  in  the  removal  of  any 
unabsorbcd  poison  by  promoting  vomiting  or  using  the 
stomach  pump,  and  subsequently  giving  large  quantities  ot 
tannic  acid,  or  of  tannin-containing  solutions,  which  form  an 
insoluble  compound,  and  thus  delay  absorption.  Denuilccnts 
abate  gastric  irritiition,  which,  with  irritation  of  the  vomiting 
centre,  may  also  be  relieved  by  morphine  and  chloral,  while 
tendency  to  collapse  is  treated  by  stinuilants. 

Medicinal  Uses. — As  tartar  emetic  in  safe  doses  produces 
no  very  marked  physiological  actions  in  horses  and  cattle,  it 
can  scarcely  exert  any  marked  curative  effects  on  these 
animals.  The  febrifuge  and  sedative  virtues  formerly 
ascribed  to  it  were  doubtless  the  result  of  other  medicinal 
or  hygienic  remedies  with  which  it  was  used.  As  a  vermi- 
fuge it  is  still  occasionally  given  with  aloes  to  horses,  and 
with  Epsom  salt  to  cattle;  but  although  increasing  the 
activity  of  purgatives,  it  has  no  special  anthelmintic  action. 

When  the  stomach  of  the  dog,  cat,  or  pig  is  to  be  emptied 
of  undigested  food,  irritants,  or  poisons,  ipecacuanha,  mustard, 
or  zinc  sulphate,  being  more  prompt  and  less  nauseating,  is 
preferred.  But  tartarised  antimony  is  occasionally  used  as  a 
nauseating  emetic  for  robust  subjects  at  the  outset  of  febrile 
and  inflammatory  complaints.  It  promotes  bronchial  and 
gastric  secretion,  and  relieves  engorgement  of  the  stomach, 
liver,  throat,  and  chest.  It  hence  mitigates  the  early  acute 
catarrhal  symptoms  of  distemper,  and  relieves  bilious  attacks 
in  pampered  overfed  dogs. 

As  a  counter-irritant,  unless  employed  with  much  caution, 
it  is  apt  to  induce  painful,  deep-seated  inflammation,  slough- 
ing, and  blemishing,  and  is  consequently  unsuitable  either 
for  horses  or  dogs.  For  cattle,  however,  it  is  sometimes 
applied  in  chest  diseases  and  chronic  rheumatism.  Unlike 
cantharidcs,  it  does  not  irritate  the  kidneys;  but  if  it  be 
absorbed,  it  produces  in  dogs,  cats,  and  pigs  nauseating 
effects  similar  to  those  which  follow  its  administration  by 
the  mouth. 

Doses,  etc. — When  given  to  horses  or  cattle  with  the 
view  of  producing  sedative,  alterative,  or  expectorant  effects, 
5i.  to  3iv.  are  administered  three  or  four  times  daily,  in 


ARSENIC  271 

either  bolus  or  solution.  It  may  be  conjoined  with  nitre, 
camphor,  Epsom  salt,  calomel,  or  aloes.  As  an  emetic  for 
dogs  or  cats,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iv.,  and  for  pigs,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  x. 
are  given  in  bolus,  rolled  in  a  piece  of  meat,  or  dissolved 
in  hot  water.  Two  to  four  grains,  with  about  half  the 
quantity  of  calomel,  or  twenty  grains  of  jalap,  are  some- 
times given  to  strong  dogs  at  the  outset  of  inflammatory 
complaints.  Such  a  mixture  causes  vomiting,  and  subse- 
quently purging,  accompanied  by  cardiac  and  vascular 
depression.  Doses  considerably  less  than  one  grain,  con- 
joined with  ipecacuanha,  have  been  prescribed  for  carnivora 
as  antipyretics  and  expectorants  in  acute  attacks  of  bron- 
chitis and  pneumonia. 

Externally  it  is  occasionally  used  in  the  form  of  saturated 
watery  solution  or  of  ointment,  which  is  made  with  one 
part  of  tartar  emetic  and  four  of  lard.  The  ointment  is  some- 
times added  to  ordinary  blisters  to  increase  their  activit}^ 
Antimonial  wine,  prepared  by  dissolving  forty  grains 
tartar  emetic  in  an  ounce  of  distilled  water,  and  adding: 
sufficient  sherry  to  form  twenty  ounces,  is  seldom  used  in 
veterinary  practice. 


ARSENIC 

AciDUM  Arseniosum.     Arsenicum  Album.     Arsenious  An- 
hydride.    Arsenium.     As^Og. 

Arsenic  is  abtained  by  roasting  certain  arsenical  ores.  The 
crude  arsenious  anhydride  is  conducted  into  condensing 
chambers,  and  purified  by  sublimation. 

Properties. — The  anhydride  or  white  arsenic,  used  in 
medicine,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  colours, 
and  shot,  occurs  as  a  heavy  white  powder,  consisting  of 
minute  glassy  fragments  and  octahedral  crystals.  It  is 
odourless  and  tasteless,  rough  and  gritty  between  the  teeth, 
and  if  held  in  the  mouth  shortly  causes  irritation.  When 
long  kept  it  loses  its  transparency,  and  becomes  opaque.  At 
a  temperature  of  400°  Fahr.  it  is  volatilised.  Sprinkled  on 
ignited    charcoal    it    emits    a    characteristic   garlic   odour. 


272  ARSENIC 

Arsenic  is  soluble  in  one  hundred  parts  cold,  and  in  ten  parts 
boiling  water,  and  in  live  parts  of  glycerin.  Moderately 
soluble  in  solutions  of  alkaline  carbonates,  and  in  diluted 
hydrochloric  acid  (B.P.).  Boiled  in  water  for  two  or  three 
hours,  the  ordinary  crystalline  arsenic  is  converted  into  the 
vitreous  form,  and  in  each  pint  219  grains  are  dissolved 
(Bloxam).  Solubility  is  diminished  by  organic  matters,  but 
increased  by  acids,  alkalies,  and  alkaline  arsenites. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Arsenious  acid  is  a  corrosive  irritant 
poison,  killing  either  by  gastro-enteritis  or  by  nervous  paresis. 
Continued  doses  cause  fatty  degeneration.  It  is  prescribed 
as  a  gastro-intestinal  stimulant  and  alterative,  acting  espe- 
cially on  the  digestive  and  respiratory  mucous  membranes 
and  skin,  as  an  antiperiodic,  and  tonic  in  nervous  diseases. 
It  is  used  externally  as  a  stimulant,  parasiticide,  antiseptic, 
and  caustic. 

General  Actions. — Arsenic  belongs  to  the  triatomic  group, 
which  also  comprises  phosphorus,  antimony,  and  bismuth. 
These  agents  diminish  oxidation,  decompose  albuminoid 
tissues,  produce  fatty  degeneration,  and  impair  the  glyco- 
genic functions  of  the  liver.  With  the  exception  of  bismuth, 
the  members  of  this  group  are  irritant,  corrosive  poisons. 
Their  hydrogen  compounds  are  specially  active. 

Locally  applied,  arsenic  causes  congestion,  heat,  and  pain, 
with  destruction  of  tissue,  but  the  slough  is  preserved  by  the 
antiseptic  effect  of  the  poison.  It  is  absorbed  from  any 
mucous,  serous,  or  skin-abraded  surface,  and  exerts  its  effects 
by  whatever  channel  it  enters  the  body.  Small  medicinal 
doses  stimulate  the  stomach  and  promote  gastric  secretion. 
Be<Tinning  with  small  doses,  animals  shortly  acquire  a 
tolerance  of  arsenic,  and  take  with  impunity  doses  which 
would  otherwise  prove  fatal.  Full  doses  irritate  the  surfaces 
with  which  they  come  into  contact ;  cause  gastro-intestinal 
derangement;  in  dogs  and  other  carnivora  vomiting,  weak- 
ened cardiac  action,  reduced  temperature,  cramps,  general 
oedema,  delirium,  coma,  and  death.  Although  its  power  to 
produce  fatty  degeneration  is  not  so  great  as  that  of 
phosphorus,  it  softens  the  protoplasm  of  the  colunmar  cells 
of  the  epidermis  of  frogs.     A  similar  fatty  degeneration  is 


TOXIC    DOSES  273 

also  often  observed  in  the  epithelial  lining  of  the  alveoli  of 
the  lungs  of  animals  poisoned  by  arsenic.  The  glycogenic 
function  of  the  liver  is  impaired  by  continued  doses,  and  in 
pigs,  fowls,  and  rabbits  fatty  degeneration  in  three  or  four 
weeks  invades  most  of  the  soft  textures  and  attacks  the 
bones.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  and  to  a  less  extent 
by  the  liver,  skin,  and  glands  generally.  Five  to  six  hours 
after  administration  it  may  be  found  in  the  urine  and  milk. 
It  is  longest  retained  by  the  bones. 

All  arsenical  compounds  are  poisonous,  and  the  most 
soluble  are  the  most  active.  Deadliest  of  all  is  arseniuretted 
hydrogen,  which  has  occasioned  the  death  of  three  chemists, 
who  unfortunately  inhaled  it.  Orfila  found  that  the  sulphides, 
in  doses  of  forty  to  seventy  grains,  destroyed  dogs  in  two  to 
six  days,  and  had  much  the  same  effect  whether  they  were 
swallowed  or  applied  to  a  wound.  Metallic  arsenic,  although 
itself  innocuous,  unites  so  readily  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
that  it  speedily  acquires  poisonous  activity. 

The  toxic  dose   for  the   horse  is  liable  to  considerable 
variation.     Kaufmann's    estimate    is    240    to    720    grains. 
Berthe  gave  a  mare  affected  with  inveterate  mange  two,  and 
afterwards  three,  drachms  without  injury  (Recueil  de  Mede- 
cine  Veterinaire,  1825).     Beissenhirz  gave  one,  four,  three, 
two,   and   eight   drachms,   on   successive   days;   and   death 
occurred  twenty-four   hours   after   the   last   dose   (Pereira's 
Elements  of  Materia  Medica).     Hertwig  gave  eight  horses 
doses,  beginning  with  20  grains  and  gradually  increasing  to 
a  drachin. ;  continued  the  administration  in  some  cases  for 
thirty  days,  in  others  for  forty  days,  but  observed  no  bad 
effects,  either  during  the  use  of  the   poison  or  afterwards; 
the  pulse  became  a  little  stronger  and  harder,  and  some  of 
the  animals  improved  in  condition  (PraJdische  Arzneimit- 
tellehre  fur    Thierdrzte,    Berlin).      Mr.    William    Percivall 
gave  a  horse  affected  with  glanders  one  drachm  in  bolus  with 
linseed  and  treacle,  and  increased  the   dose   by  20   grains 
daily  for  seventeen   days,  when   the   animal   received   380 
grains  in  one  dose.     By  the  eighteenth  day  the  animal  had 
taken  upwards  of  seven  ounces  of  arsenic.     Yet  no  physio- 
logical effect  was  obvious,  no  loss  of  appetite,  no  uneasiness 

s 


274  ARSENICAL   POISONING 

or  pain,  and  no  alteration  of  the  pulse  or  respiration  ( Veter- 
inarian, 1843). 

Such  comparatively  negative  effects  are  doubtless  explained 
by  the  drug  being  given  in  insoluble  form,  and  hence  being 
only  partially  and  slowly  absorbed.  Much  smaller  doses 
occasionally  act  with  greater  violence.  Thus,  according  to 
Gerlach,  twenty  grains  cause  acute  diarrhoea;  and  Mr.  Percivall 
mentions  that  two  glandered  horses,  receiving  five  grains 
daily  in  bolus,  were  attacked,  one  on  the  eighth,  the  other 
on  the  ninth  day,  with  shivering,  loss  of  appetite,  nausea, 
purging,  and  other  symptoms  of  abdominal  irritation  and 
prostration  of  strength.  One  died,  the  other  recovered. 
These  dift'crent  effects  depend  partly  on  varying  suscepti- 
bility ;  on  the  amount  of  food  in  the  alimentary  canal ;  and 
mainly  on  gradually  acquired  tolerance  which  enables 
animals  receiving  arsenic  regularly  to  take  with  impunity, 
at  one  dose,  as  much  as  would  kill  a  patient  unused  to  the 
drug.  Large  doses,  moreover,  produce  inflammatory  changes 
in  the  lining  of  the  aliuientary  canal  which  greatly  retard 
absorption.  Arsenic  anhydride  is  much  more  active  in 
solution  than  in  substance.  Thirty  grains  given  daily,  in 
solution  of  potassium  carbonate,  destroyed  a  horse  in  four 
days  (Veterinarian,  1843).  Applied  to  wounds,  Kaufmann 
states,  it  is  much  more  active  than  when  swallowed. 

Mr.  Baldwin  reports  the  case  of  six  horses  poisoned  by 
drinking  from  a  pail  in  which  some  arsenical  sheep-dipping 
mixture  had  been  dissolved.  Two  died,  and  post-mortem 
exainination  revealed  inflaniiTiation  of  the  mucous  coat  of 
the  stomach,  and  patches  of  inflammation  extending  through- 
out the  intestines.  The  others  suffered  from  dulness,  colicky 
pains,  and  purging;  the  pulse  was  upwards  of  70,  and  wiry; 
the  extremities  cold ;  the  visible  mucous  membranes  highly 
injected.  One  mare  was  ill  for  tiiree  or  four  days.  The 
treatment  consisted  of  opiates  and  lime-water  (Veterinarian, 
1858). 

Eleven  cart  horses  were  poisoned  at  Edgeware  from 
drinking  water  containing  arsenic.  They  had  been  drawing 
heavy  loads  of  building  materials  fully  eight  miles  from 
London,  were  tired,  and  their  stomachs  empty,  which  doubt- 


IN  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  DOGS,    ETC.  275 

less  accounts  for  the  rapid  and  serious  results.  Although 
arsenic  is  not  known  to  have  proved  fatal  in  the  human 
subject  under  seven  hours,  one  of  the  horses  dropped  and 
died  ten  minutes  after  drinkins^,  and  several  were  dead 
within  an  hour.  The  s3^mptoms  were  colic,  staggering  gait, 
pallid  membranes,  cold  ears,  pulse  40  to  GO,  quickened 
breathing,  and  latterly  coma.  Brandy  and  ammonia  were 
the  remedies  prescribed  {Veterinarian,  1874). 

Cattle  take  with  less  danger  even  larger  doses  than 
horses,  for  the  comparatively  insoluble  poison  mixes  with 
the  food  in  the  rumen,  and  hence  slowly  reaches  the 
abomasum  and  intestine;  while  the  small  amounts  thus 
gradually  introduced  into  the  circulation  are  continuously 
excreted,  and  toxic  effects  are  delayed  or  prevented.  Mr.  J. 
V.  Blake,  Isle  of  Wigrht,  records  the  death  of  fourteen  in-calf 
cows,  which  had  an  arsenical  dip  powder  mixed  with  their 
hay.  Symptoms  of  poisoning  appeared  in  twenty  hours,  and 
consisted  of  'acute  abdominal  pains,  profuse  diarrhoea, 
heavy  breathing,  staggering  gait,  cold  extremities,'  etc. 
Thirteen  of  the  cows  died  within  three  days,  while  one 
survived  a  week  {Veterinarian,  1892).  Kaufmann  fixes  the 
toxic  dose  at  four  to  eight  drachms. 

Sheep  are  poisoned  by  75  to  90  grains.  A  strong  sheep 
received  an  ounce  of  arsenic  in  water  containing  a  handful 
of  common  salt,  and  after  exhibiting  most  of  the  symptoms 
mentioned  as  occurring  in  horses,  died  on  the  fifth  day. 
Hertwig  states  that  5  to  10  grains  given  in  solution  to 
healthy  sheep  produced  gastro-intestinal  irritation;  that  a 
second  dose  of  10  to  20  grains,  given  twenty-four  hours  after, 
caused  death;  and  that,  on  examination,  the  poison  was 
found  in  the  blood,  urine,  lungs,  liver,  and  muscles.  But 
dogs  have  eaten  with  impunity  the  carcases  of  sheep 
poisoned  by  arsenic  {Veterinarian,  1843). 

Dogs,  cats,  pigs,  and  poultry  are  more  quickly  and 
powerfully  affected  than  horses  or  cattle,  and,  relatively  to 
their  weight,  exhibit  about  the  same  susceptibility  as  human 
patients,  in  whom  2*5  grains  is  the  smallest  dose  known  to 
have  proved  fatal.  Dogs  to  which  I  administered  3  to  10 
grains  in  solution  within  a  few  minutes  exhibited  nausea, 


27G  CHRONIC   ARSENICAL   POISONING 

vomiting,  moaning,  difficult  breathing,  a  wiry,  rapid  pulse  of 
120  or  upwards,  and  shortly  passed  black  feces  with 
considerable  pain ;  while  death  with  convulsions  followed  in 
six  to  thirty  hours.  Dogs  receiving  a  quarter  of  a  grain  to  a 
grain,  repeated  twice  daily,  and  continued  during  eight  to 
fourteen  days,  exhibit  gradually  diminishing  appetite  and 
increased  vomiting.  From  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  day, 
diarrhoea,  lowered  temperature,  rapid  emaciation,  and  painful 
cough  ensue,  and  death  occurs  in  twenty  to  thirty  days. 
Half  an  ounce  of  Fowler's  solution  injected  into  the  jugular 
vein  of  a  dog,  although  it  caused  immediate  vomiting, 
proved  fatal  in  eighteen  hours,  and  left  the  stomach  and 
intestines  reddened  and  injected.  Kossel  gave  sodium 
arsenite  to  dogs  in  doses  of  1|  to  3  grains  for  ten  days,  and 
found  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted  rose,  even  in 
inanition,  to  48  and  60  grains,  and  in  healthy  dogs  receiving 
arsenic  reached  110  to  120  grains  (Centralhlatt  filr  die  Med. 
Wiss.  No.  l^,  1876). 

Pigs  have  been  poisoned  by  1  to  15  grains,  and  poultry  by 
half  a  grain  to  a  grain. 

Chronic  arsenical  poisoning,  with  symptoms  of  indigestion, 
thirst,  wasting,  and  chronic  disease  of  the  bones  and  joints, 
is  sometimes  met  with  amongst  both  cattle  and  horses  near 
the  tin  and  copper  smelting  works  of  CornAvall  and  Wales. 
Mr.  W.  H.  Michael,  Swansea,  one  of  the  witnesses  examined 
before  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  on  the 
effects  of  noxious  vapours,  stated :  '  I  have  known  rabbits, 
sheep,  and  horses  poisoned.  I  have  seen  a  great  amount  of 
injury  done  to  ponies.  The  gentleman  who  occupied  the 
farm  of  which  I  am  speaking  kept  several  hundred  ponies, 
which  ho  bought  very  young  generall}'-,  and  fattened  them 
for  sale.  He  was  obliged  to  give  up  keeping  them,  owing  to 
the  peculiarly  starved  and  shaggy  appearance  those  animals 
acquired.  The  knee-joints  began  to  swell,  they  got  lame 
and  hide-bound,  the  hair  fell  off",  the  teeth  became  black 
and  fell  out,  necrosis  of  the  bones  occurred,  and  the  result 
was  that  he  gave  up  grazing  on  a  large  tract  of  land' 
{Report,  August  1862).  Arsenical  green  paper  left  in  the 
way  of  animals   has   sometimes   been   eaten   in  quantities 


LESIONS    AND    ANTIDOTES  277 

sufficient  to  cause  death.  Rabbits  at  shows  have  been 
destroyed  by  nibbling  the  bright  green  prize  cards.  An 
aged  donkey  is  reported  to  have  died  in  three  hours, 
poisoned  by  eating  green  paper  (Vetcrmarkm,  1865  and 
1871). 

The  post-mortem  appearances  of  poisoning  by  arsenic, 
although  very  similar  in  all  animals,  differ  with  the  con- 
centration of  the  poison  and  the  severity  and  duration  of 
the  case.  In  the  horse  the  cuticular  portion  of  the  stomach 
is  not  usually  much  altered;  but  the  villous  portion  is 
intensely  inflamed,  especially  if  the  drug  has  been  given  in 
powder.  The  mucous  membrane  is  softened,  easily  separated, 
and  sometimes  eroded  or  perforated.  Except  in  rapidly 
fatal  cases,  patches  of  inflammation  with  extravasation  will 
be  found  in  the  small  intestine,  colon,  and  rectum.  The 
serous  membranes  are  ecchymosed.  In  chronic  cases  fatty 
degeneration  affects  the  epithelial  tissues,  liver,  and  brain, 
and  owing  to  the  antiseptic  power  of  the  drug  cadaveric 
changes  are  retarded.  In  most  cases  the  lesions  are  fairly 
characteristic  ;  but  the  discovery  of  arsenic  in  the  organs 
of  the  body  affords  the  only  positive  proof  of  arsenical 
poisoning. 

In  treating  acute  cases  of  poisoning,  the  stomach  must 
be  washed  out  with  copious  draughts  of  tepid  water,  and 
emptied,  in  carnivora  by  emetics,  such  as  mustard  or  zinc 
sulphate,  in  horses  or  cattle  by  the  stomach  pump.  The 
best  chemical  antidote  is  prepared  by  precipitating  ferric 
chloride  solution  with  ammonia,  washing  the  precipitate  w^th 
warm  water,  and  administering  it  moist  and  freshly  made. 
Some  authorities  recommend  precipitation  of  two  to  three 
ounces  of  liquor  ferri  perchloridi,  with  one  ounce  of  sodium 
carbonate  diluted  with  water;  these  quantities,  freshly  pre- 
pared, suffice  to  neutralise  ten  grains  of  arsenic  converting 
it  into  insoluble  iron  arsenite.  Dialysed  iron,  which  has  the 
advantage  of  being  ready  in  most  pharmacies,  is  nearly  as 
efFectual  as  the  ferric  oxide  or  carbonate.  These  iron  anti- 
dotes should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible,  in  repeated  doses 
at  intervals  of  ten  minutes,  until  a  quantity  at  least  twelve 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  poison  has  been  swallowed. 


278  ARSENIC 

Magnesia  in  its  h3'drated  or  gelatinous  form,  prepared  by 
precipitating  a  solution  of  Epsom  salt  with  caustic  potash, 
also  greatly  diminishes  the  solubility  of  arsenic.  Insoluble 
powders,  charcoal  and  clay,  envelop  the  particles  of  poison, 
and  retard  absorption;  but  such  agents  to  be  of  service  nnist 
be  given  before,  along  with,  or  immediately  after  the  poison. 
Oils,  lard,  glycerin,  mucilage,  lime-water,  white  of  egg,  and 
milk,  exercise  similar  mechanical  effect,  and  some  of  these 
bodies  also  slightly  diminish  the  solubility  of  arsenic.  Sub- 
cutaneous injection  of  morphine,  repeated  at  intervals  of 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  retards  absorption  of  the  poison. 
Demulcents  and  opium  are  given  to  combat  gastro-intestinal 
irritation.  In  chronic  cases  oleaginous  laxatives  and  enemata 
relieve  griping  and  constipation ;  while  easily-digested, 
nutritive  food  helps  to  sustain  the  powers  of  life,  and 
occasional  diuretics  hasten  excretion  of  the  poison  by  the 
kidneys. 

Medicinal  Uses. — ^Arsenic  is  administered  to  animals  as 
a  gastric  stimulant  in  dyspepsia  and  gastralgia,  and  in 
chronic  catarrhal  diarrhoea,  where  imperfectly-digested  food 
is  hurried  through  the  intestines.  In  such  cases  it  is 
frequently  conjoined  Avitli  antacids  and  opium.  It  is  often 
given  as  an  anthelmintic. 

Chronic  diseases  of  the  air-passages,  notably  catarrh  and 
ozffina  in  horses,  are  often  benefited  by  a  course  of  arsenic. 
It  promotes  recovery  from  influenza,  hastens  removal  of  lung 
deposits,  and  relieves  irritable  cough,  as  well  as  thick  and 
broken  wind.  Professor  Robertson  was  confident  of  its  value 
in  roaring ;  in  abating  the  dyspnoea  and  cough  of  thick  wind, 
he  enjoined  its  use  daily  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnight,  when 
some  other  remedy  was  directed  to  be  substituted ;  and  in 
broken  wind,  frequently  with  advantage,  prescribed  two  to 
three  grains  twice  a  week  for  months  (Eqiime  Medicine). 

As  an  alterative,  modifying  tissue  changes,  it  has  been 
given  in  the  earlier  stages  of  tuberculosis,  and  rheumatism, 
in  chorea  and  epilepsy,  and  in  maladie  du  c6it,  for  which 
Continental  veterinarians  conjoin  it  with  iron,  or  with  oil  of 
aurpentine.  In  febrile  attacks  manifesting  periodicity 
strenic  is  sometimes  as  effectual  as  quinine.     Dr.  Lauder, 


MEDICINAL   USES  279 

Brunton  believes  that  its  efficacy  in  phthisis  depends  upon 
its  hastening  the  removal  of  the  effused  products  of  pneu- 
monia which  form  a  suitable  nidus  for  the  bacillus 
tuberculosis  (Phai-inacology,  Therapeutics,  and  Materia 
Medica).  In  antemia  medicinal  doses  probably  increase 
both  the  white  and  red  corpuscles,  especially  when  conjoined, 
as  it  usually  is  in  such  cases,  with  iron.  When  mixed  with 
freshly-drawn  blood  it  retards  coagulation  and  putrefaction, 
and  preserves  the  globules,  and  possibly  exerts  similar  effects 
internally.  Full  doses  freely  diluted  are  prescribed  thrice 
daily,  immediately  after  meals,  for  dogs  suffering  from 
chorea,  and  are  sometimes  also  serviceable  in  epilepsy.  Its 
value  in  these  nervous  disorders  appears  to  depend  partly  on 
its  alterative  actions,  and  partly  on  its  diminishing  irrita- 
bility of  motor  nerves.  It  stimulates  the  dermis,  hastens 
removal  of  morbid  epidermal  cells,  and  is  hence  useful  in 
chronic  eczema,  psoriasis,  impetigo,  scab,  and  mange,  and  in 
such  cases  is  used  both  internally  and  externally.  In  chronic 
scaly  skin  complaints  Professor  Williams  prescribes  it  with 
mercury  and  iodine. 

In  Styria  it  is  eaten  by  the  peasantry,  with  the  view^  of 
improving  the  complexion,  producing  plumpness,  increasing 
general  vigour,  and  preventing  breathlessness  in  running  or 
climbing.  In  various  parts  of  England,  as  well  as  in 
Southern  Europe,  small  doses  are  sometimes  regularly  given 
to  horses,  and  as  it  diminishes  oxidation,  muscle  waste,  and 
production  of  carbonic  acid,  active  exertion  is  performed 
with  a  minimum  of  fatigue.  So  long  as  it  is  used  cautiously 
and  regularly,  the  animals  appear  to  be  in  excellent  health, 
and  have  fine  sleek  coats ;  but  when  the  arsenic  is  discon- 
tinued they  fall  off  in  appearance,  and  for  many  months  are 
greatly  more  difficult  to  keep  in  condition.  A  small  portion 
of  arsenic  in  a  thin  bag  is  sometimes  attached  to  the  bit,  to 
produce  the  frothy  muzzles  which  seem  to  be  admired  in 
hio-h- stepping  carriage  horses.  These  practices  should  not  be 
tolerated,  for  they  are  attended  with  much  risk  of  poisoning, 
and  are,  moreover,  liable  to  injure  the  horse's  constitution. 

Externally,  arsenic  is  occasionally  used  to  eradicate  warts 
and  destroy  fistulse  and  malignant  tumours.     For  foot-rot, 


280  ARSENICAL   SHEEP   DIPS 

Professor  William  recommends  that  the  affected  sheep  be 
slowly  driven  through  troughs  containing  a  tolerably  strong 
solution  of  arsenic  and  alkaline  carbonate  (Principles  and 
Practice  of  Veterinary  Surgery).  In  solution  it  is  sometimes 
applied  to  remove  the  scurfiness  of  psoriasis.  Used  in- 
cautiously, it  causes  sloughing  and  blemishing,  and  if 
absorbed  may  produce  constitutional  disturbance.  In  virtue 
of  its  antiseptic  properties  it  is  employed  in  powder  or  in 
solution  with  soap  for  the  preservation  of  skins  and  natural 
history  specimens. 

For  sheep  dips  arsenic  is  much  used.  Such  dips  destroy 
ticks  and  keds  more  effectually  than  solutions  of  tobacco, 
spirit  of  tar,  alkaline  and  non-poisonous  dips,  and  are  safer 
and  more  convenient  than  mercurial  baths  or  ointments. 
Two  to  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  arsenic,  with  about  the 
same  quantities  of  soda  ash  or  impure  sodium  carbonate, 
soft  soap,  and  sulphur,  are  dissolved  in  a  hundred  gallons  of 
water.  Three,  four,  and  even  five  pounds  of  arsenic  are 
sometimes  used  without  untoward  results.  In  many  parts 
of  England,  pearl  ash  or  impure  potassium  carbonate  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  soda  ash,  and  makes  a  more  cleansing  and 
softening  ley.  Some  flock-masters  double  or  quadruple  the 
quantity  of  soap,  which,  with  the  alkaline  carbonate,  aids  in 
dissolving  the  arsenic,  while  the  sulphur  whitens  and  softens 
the  fleece,  and  also  for  a  considerable  time  prevents  attacks 
of  flies,  which  are  further  deterred  by  addition  of  a  pint  or 
two  of  naphtha,  or  of  impure  carbolic  acid.  The  ingredients 
are  best  dissolved  in  five  to  ten  gallons  of  boiling  water ; 
cold  water  is  added  to  make  up  a  hundred  gallons,  which, 
with  careful  dripping,  will  dip  about  a  hundred  sheep.  The 
sheep  held  in  the  dip  for  forty  to  sixty  seconds,  is  lifted  on 
to  a  sparred  drainer  placed  over  a  second  tub,  or  over  a 
trough  communicating  with  the  dipping  tub,  and  the  wool 
well  squeezed  with  the  hands,  or  with  a  scraper.  The  head 
must  of  course  be  kept  out  of  the  dip. 

Serious  and  fatal  consequences  sometimes,  however, 
result  from  the  use  of  arsenical  dipping  mixtures.  A 
Lincolnshire  friend,  twenty  hours  after  dipping  150  half-bred 
Leicester  sheep,  lost  eleven,  and   several  some  days   later. 


CASES    OF   POISONING  281 

A  greatly  more  serious  case  occurred  at  Burton,  in  North- 
umberland, during  the  summer  of  1858,  Mr.  Black  of 
Burton,  purchased  from  Mr.  J.  Elliot,  chemist,  Berwick-on- 
Tweed,  fifteen  packets  of  dipping  mixture.  Every  packet 
contained  twenty  ounces  each  of  arsenic  and  soda  ash,  and 
two  ounces  of  sulphur,  and  was  directed  to  be  dissolved, 
with  four  pounds  of  soft  soap,  in  three  or  four  gallons  of 
boiling  water.  With  forty-five  gallons  of  cold  water  subse- 
quently added,  this  made  sufficient  for  fifty  sheep.  On  14th 
August  Mr.  Black  had  869  sheep  dipped  in  the  usual 
manner ;  the  apparatus  and  arrangements  were  good,  and 
the  dripping  was  satisfactory.  In  two  days,  however,  the 
sheep  began  to  die;  they  were  seized  much  in  the  same 
order  as  they  had  been  dipped,  and  within  a  month  850  had 
perished.  In  many  cases  the  symptoms  appeared  suddenly, 
and  Mr.  Bird,  veterinary  surgeon  in  attendance,  records  that 
several  died  in  twenty  minutes  after  he  had  observed  them 
eating  or  ruminating,  and  apparently  well.  The  symptoms 
were  dulness  and  nausea,  frothing  at  mouth,  bloodshot  eyes, 
pain  in  the  bowels,  discharge  of  black  and  bloody  urine, 
laboured  breathing,  blackening  of  the  skin,  with  the  wool 
falling  off  in  patches,  especially  about  the  back  and  loins. 
Post-mortem  examination  discovered  the  bowels  inflamed, 
and  covered  with  patches  of  extravasated  blood,  the  lungs 
blackened  and  inflamed,  the  liver,  black,  soft,  and  friable,  the 
spleen  congested,  the  bladder  empty.  On  analysis  arsenic 
was  found  in  the  stomachs  and  bowels. 

The  case  came  to  trial  at  Newcastle  in  February  1859, 
and  the  jury  found  a  verdict  for  Mr,  Black,  with  damages 
amounting  to  £1400.  Mr.  Black's  case  rested  mainly  on  the 
fact  that  his  sheep  had  been  carefully  dipped  in  the  usual 
manner,  and  according  to  the  printed  instructions  sent  with 
each  packet  of  the  dipping  mixture.  It  was  sought  to  be 
proved  that  the  mixture  might  in  some  way  have  been 
improperly  made  up,  and  was  of  such  strength  that  the 
poison  had  become  absorbed  through  the  skin.  The  poison- 
ing of  a  donkey,  which  had  carried  the  skins  of  the  dead 
sheep,  some  sores  and  gangrenous  patches  on  the  hands  and 
arms  of  several  of  the  men  employed  in  the  dipping,  were 


282  ARSENICAL    DIPS    LIABLE   TO    POISON 

also   adduced  as  evidence   of  the   undue  strength   of  the 
mixture. 

In  defence  of  Mr.  Elliot,  it  was  shown  on  the  other  hand, 
that  thousands  of  sheei?  had  without  accident  been  dipped 
in  mixtures  of  the  same  strength  as  that  sold  to  Mr.  Black ; 
that,  indeed,  on  the  same  day  as  the  Burton  sheep  were 
dipped  another  gentleman  in  the  neighbourhood,  without 
any  bad  effect  whatever,  used  eight  packages  of  the  same 
mixture  made  in  the  same  way  and  at  the  same  time.  Pro- 
fessor John  Gamgee  and  Dr.  Stevenson  Macadam  made 
various  experiments,  using,  in  two  instances,  arsenic  in  the 
proportion  of  28  and  G8  ounces  for  fifty  sheep,  instead  of  the 
20  ounces  present  in  Mr.  Elliot's  dip.  An  Oxfordshire  sheep- 
dipper,  who  annually  passed  through  his  hands  several 
thousand  sheep  without  losing  one,  for  years  employed 
2^  lbs.  of  arsenic  for  fifty  sheep,  or  exactly  double  the 
strength  of  Elliot's  mixture.  In  1859,  I  made  experiments 
with  dips  three  and  four  times  the  strength  of  Elliot's ;  some 
of  the  sheep  I  kept  immersed  for  several  minutes,  and  had 
these  concentrated  solutions  well  rubbed  into  the  skin.  I 
abstained  in  several  instances  from  pressing  or  drying  the 
wool,  dipped  the  same  sheep  twice  within  two  hours,  and 
several  times  within  a  week,  and  yet  failed  in  destroying  or 
injuring  in  the  smallest  degree  any  one  of  the  sheep  subjected 
to  these  severe  trials.  These  experiments  were  subsequently 
repeated  and  verified. 

Arsenical  sheep-dipping  mixtures  obviously  are  not  ab- 
sorbed through  the  sound  skin.  Their  danger  depends  on 
the  poisonous  fluid  being  retained  by  the  fleece,  from  which 
it  drips  on  the  grass  or  other  food  over  which  the  animals 
stray.  In  this  manner  undoubtedly  the  serious  mortality  at 
Burton  can  be  explained.  The  sheep  were  rapidly  dipped 
at  the  rate  of  eighty  per  hour ;  and,  according  to  the  usual 
calculation,  each  sheep  carries  away  in  its  fleece,  even  after 
it  has  been  reasonably  drained,  about  a  gallon  of  the  fluid, 
which,  of  Elliot's  strength,  would  contain  nearly  200  grains 
of  arsenic  —  a  quantity  sufficient,  if  swallowed,  to  poison 
several  sheep. 

Sheep  after  dipping  are  turned  out  hungry,  and  at  once 


PRECAUTIONS    IN    DirPING    SHEEP  283 

begin  to  eat ;  while  the  drippings  fall  on  the  grass,  which 
in  the  Burton  case,  appears  to  have  been  still  further  con- 
taminated by  rain  during  the  night  following  the  dipping, 
freely  Avashing  the  solution  out  of  the  fleeces  on  to  the 
pastures.  Here  it  was  found  in  three  sods,  removed  ten 
days  after  and  examined  by  Sir  Douglas  Maclagan,  who 
failed,  however,  to  find  any  arsenic  in  sods  brought  from  an 
adjoining  pasture,  where  no  dipped  sheep  had  grazed.  It  is 
obvious  how  the  donkey,  two  oxen,  and  two  horses  shared 
the  fate  of  the  sheep ;  whilst  the  drippings,  left  in  the  yards 
before  the  flock  was  turned  out,  would  account  for  the  alleged 
mortality  amongst  the  poultry. 

It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  sheep,  pigs,  or  other  animals 
refuse  to  eat  food  over  which  arsenical  dipping  mixtures 
with  their  nauseous  soft  soap  and  alkali  have  fallen,  I  have 
seen  sheep  eat  grass  watered,  for  the  purpose  of  experiment, 
with  such  solutions,  and  afterwards  die  from  their  poisoned 
meal.  Horses,  pigs,  and  poultry  sometimes  die  from  gaining 
access  to  yards  where  recently-dipped  sheep  have  been  con- 
fined. Two  colts  under  my  cognisance  were  poisoned  by 
eating  vetches  carelessly  left  in  a  yard  where  some  sheep  had 
been  placed  to  drip. 

The  practical  precautions  suggested  by  such  cases  are : — 
Yards  into  which  freshly-dipped  sheep  are  to  be  turned 
should  previously  be  cleared  of  all  green  food,  hay,  and  even 
fresh  litter;  if  perfectly  empty  they  are  still  safer.  When 
the  dipping  is  finished,  they  should  be  cleaned,  washed,  and 
swept,  and  any  of  the  unused  dipping  solution  at  once  poured 
down  the  drains.  Obviously,  however,  no  such  poison  should 
be  run  into  drains  emptying  into  pools  or  streams  accessible 
to  live  stock.  Dipped  sheep  should  remain,  if  possible,  in  an 
airy,  exposed  place,  as  on  a  dry  road,  or  in  a  large  open  yard. 
Overcrowding  should  be  avoided,  and  every  facility  given 
for  rapid  drying,  which  is  greatly  expedited  by  fine,  clear, 
sunny  weather.  On  no  account  should  tsheep  be  returned 
to  their  grazings  until  they  are  dry,  and  there  is  no  risk  of 
their  poisoning  the  pastures. 

Doses,  etc.  Of  Arsenic. — Horses  and  cattle  take  grs.  ij.  to 
grs.  X.  ;  sheep,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  ij. ;  and  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.  -jV 


284  ARSENICAL   SOLUTIONS 

When  it  is  desired  to  produce  local  action  on  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  small  doses  are  given  before  food ;  when  its 
absorption  is  required,  it  is  administered  immediately  after 
meals.  It  is  usually  given  once  daily,  and  continued  for  a 
week  or  ten  days,  when  a  change  of  prescription  is  often 
desirable.  When  it  causes  acceleration  or  hardness  of  the 
pulse,  injection  of  the  conjunctiva,  indigestion,  diarrho'a,  or 
other  jjhysiological  action,  the  drug  should  be  discontinued, 
or  the  dose  materially  reduced. 

It  is  most  active  and  uniform  in  its  effects  when  prescribed 
in  solution  with  diluted  acid  or  alkali.  The  Liquor  Arsenici 
hydrochloricus  contains  one  grain  of  arsenic  in  110  minims. 
Liquor  Arsenicalis  or  Fowler's  solution — made  with  arsenious 
anhydride,  potassium  carbonate,  compound  tincture  of 
lavender  and  distilled  water — is  the  preparation  most  fre- 
quently used  in  veterinary  practice.  It  contains  one  grain 
of  arsenic  in  110  minims  or  about  4^  grains  to  the  ounce. 
The  dose  for  horses  or  cattle  is  from  half  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce  and  a  half.     Dogs  may  be  given  2  to  10  minims. 

The  Liquor  Arsenii  et  Hydrargyri  lodidi  or  Donovan's 
solution,  of  which  110  minims  correspond  to  one  grain  each 
of  arsenious  iodide  and  mercuric  iodide,  is  useful  in  chronic 
skin  and  rheumatic  complaints.  The  dose  for  horses  and 
cattle  is  5iv.  to  §j.  Professor  Williams  treats  the  scaly 
eruptions  of  psoriasis,  both  internally  and  externally,  with 
a  triple  compound  of  iodine,  arsenic,  and  mercury,  each 
ounce  of  which  contains  1  grain  arsenic,  2  grains  mercurous 
oxide,  and  rather  more  than  6  grains  of  hydriodic  acid 
{Principles  and  Practice  of  Veterinary  Surgery).  Arsenical 
preparations  are  frequently  administered  in  the  drinking 
water,  or  in  the  mash.  For  hypodermic  or  intra- tracheal 
injection  minimum  doses  of  Fowler's  solution  diluted  with 
two  parts  of  distilled  water  may  be  prescribed. 


MERCURY  285 

MERCURY  AND  ITS  MEDICINAL  COMPOUNDS 
Mercury.     Hydrargyrum.     Quicksilver.     Hg. 

From  its  mobility  and  volatilit}^  this  metal  is  named 
mercury;  to  its  silvery  appearance  it  owes  its  synonym 
hydrargyrum ;  to  its  mobility  and  metallic  lustre  such 
appellations  as  aqua  argentum,  aqua  metallica,  and  quick- 
silver. Although  occasionally  found  in  metallic  globules,  its 
most  important  source  is  the  sulphide  or  cinnabar  (HgS). 
When  the  ore  is  roasted  or  heated  with  iron  or  lime,  sulphur 
is  got  rid  of  and  mercury  distils  over. 

Mercury  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  mobility,  liquidity, 
and  silver-white  lustre.  It  is  tasteless  and  odourless ;  freezes 
at  —40°  Fahr., forming  octahedral  crystals;  slowly  volatilises 
at  all  temperatures,  and  boils  at  662^  Fahr.,  forming  a  dense, 
colourless  gas.  Its  specific  gravity  at  60°  is  13  6,  its  atomic 
weight  200.  Triturated  with  fatty  or  saccharine  substances, 
as  in  the  preparation  of  mercurial  ointments,  liniments,  and 
pills,  the  metal  loses  its  fluidity  and  globular  structure,  is 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  dark-grey  powder,  while  a 
small  portion  is  oxidised. 

Mercury  forms  two  series  of  salts — (1)  the  mercurous, 
which  are  univalent ;  (2)  the  mercuric,  which  are  bivalent. 

Mercurous  salts  in  solution  treated  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  produce  a  white  precipitate  of  calomel  (HgCl).  Silver 
and  lead  have  similar  white,  insoluble  chlorides ;  and  these 
three  are  distinguished  by  their  reaction  with  ammonia 
solution,  which  blackens  the  mercurous  chloride,  dissolves 
che  silver  chloride,  but  leaves  the  lead  chloride  unaltered. 

Mercuric  salts  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  give  negative 
results.  To  this  acidulated  solution  hydrogen  sulphide, 
cautiously  added,  throws  down  a  white  precipitate  (HgCl.,-)- 
2HgS),  which,  on  further  addition  of  the  precipitant,  becomes 
brown  and  then  black  (HgS),  and  is  insoluble  in  dilute  acids 
and  ammonium  sulphide.  Caustic  potash  yields  a  yellow 
precipitate  of  oxide  (HgO),  insoluble  in  excess.  Potassium 
iodide  gives  a  precipitate  yellow  at  first,  but  rapidly  becom- 
ing red  (Hgig),  soluble  in  excess  either  of  the  mercury  or 
potassium  salt. 


286  POISONING   BY   MERCURIAL    VAPOURS 

Actions  and  Uses. — Mercury,  mercnrous  salts,  and  mercuric 
salts  differ  in  their  local  effects.  Metallic  mercury  has  no 
topical  irritant  action,  and  is  slowly  absorbed,  unless  in  the 
state  of  vapour.  Mercurous  salts  have  a  very  slight  topical 
stimulant  action,  and  are  slowly  absorbed.  But  the  more 
soluble  mercuric  salts  readily  unite  with  albumin,  are  cor- 
rosive, act  as  irritant  poisons,  and  are  quickly  absorbed. 
When  absorbed,  all  mercurials  produce,  however,  the  dis- 
tinctive condition  of  mercurialism.  Calomel,  grey  powder, 
and  blue  pill,  are  prescribed  to  develop  mild  mercurialism 
which  modifies  the  course  of  localised  infiammations,  and 
aids  the  removal  of  recent  fibrinous  deposits.  They  are 
cathartics,  increasing  both  secretion  and  peristalsis,  and 
especially  when  conjoined  with  a  small  amount  of  any 
cathartic.  They  are  cholagogue,  and  also  diuretic.  Corrosive 
sublimate,  the  biniodide,  and  the  double  cyanide  of  mercury 
and  zinc  are  effectual  g-ermicides.  Ointments  of  mercury 
and  of  mercuric  iodide  are  applied  as  antiparasitics,  absor- 
bents, and  counter-irritants.  Mercurials  are  excreted  in  the 
saliva,  bile,  intestinal  mucus,  urine,  and  sweat.  They  pass 
into  the  milk  of  nursing  females;  and  Gasparin  has  seen 
lambs  die  from  mercurialism  when  the  ewes  had  been  freely 
dressed  with  ointment.  Elimination  is  tolerably  rapid,  even 
when  repeated  doses  have  been  given ;  it  is  completed  in 
about  four  days  after  administration  has  ceased. 

Mercury,  so  long  as  it  remains  uncombined,  like  other 
metals  is  devoid  of  physiological  action.  Several  pounds 
which  were  formerly  given  to  huinan  and  veterinary  patients 
for  the  removal  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  produce  only 
mechanical  effects.  In  a  state  of  fine  division  it  is,  however, 
oxidised  and  dissolved,  and  hence  acquires  activity.  Mer- 
curial vapours  thus  speedily  become  poisonous,  as  was 
strikingly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  Triumph  man-of-war 
and  the  PJtipps  schooner,  which  received  on  board  several 
tons  of  quicksilver,  saved  from  the  wreck  of  a  vessel  near 
Cadiz  in  1809.  From  the  rotten  bags  the  mercury  escaped, 
and  within  three  weeks  two  hundred  men  were  salivated, 
two  died,  and  all  the  animals — cats,  dogs,  sheep,  fowls,  a 
canary  bird,  and  even  the  rats,  mice,  and  cockroaches  were 


MERCURIALISM  287 

destroyed  (Pereira).  Men  working  with  the  metal  frequently 
suffer  from  mercurial  poisoning.  Out  of  516  workmen 
employed  at  the  quicksilver  works  at  Idria,  122  were,  in 
1856,  affected  with  dyspepsia,  scrofula,  ansemia,  neuralgia, 
mercurial  gout,  tremor,  and  caries.  The  finely-divided  mer- 
cury so  pervaded  the  atmosphere  tnat  cows  feeding  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  furnaces  suffered  from  excessive  secre- 
tion of  saliva,  became  unthrifty,  and  aborted ;  the  calves 
were  also  often  ailing;  while  trout  m  adjacent  reservoirs, 
contaminated  by  the  waste  products  of  the  furnaces,  lost 
their  red  spots  and  became  sickly. 

Mercurialism  in  all  animals  consists  in  a  chronic  condition 
of  anaemia,  prostration,  and  wasting ;  secretion  and  excretion 
are  increased.  The  abundant  flow  of  saliva  so  notable  in 
man  is  not,  however,  observed  to  the  same  extent  amongst 
the  lower  animals.  The  mouth  becomes  tender ;  the  gums 
red,  soft  and  swollen  ;  the  breath  foetid.  There  is  impaired 
appetite,  nausea,  gradual  loss  of  condition,  oedema,  and 
general  weakness.  The  heart  action  is  enfeebled  and  respira- 
tion impaired.  The  freces  increased  in  quantity,  are  largely 
mixed  with  mucus,  and  are  very  offensive.  The  functions 
of  the  kidneys  and  skin  are  exalted.  The  joints  are  often 
stiff  and  painful.  The  blood  is  deficient  in  fibrin,  albumin, 
and  corpuscles ;  forms  a  soft,  friable  clot,  and  is  loaded  Avith 
a  foetid  oil.  In  man  there  occur  peculiar  tremors,  passing 
into  paralysis,  and  affecting  certain  muscles  and  groups  of 
muscles.  Mr.  Percivall  and  Professor  Williams  describe  a 
form  of  eczema  resembling  red-mange,  and  occurring  especi- 
ally in  cattle  arid  dogs.  Professor  Williams  gives  woodcuts 
of  cancer-like  deposits  found  in  the  shafts  of  the  long  bones 
of  a  dog  which  had  been  in  the  habit  of  lapping  vermilion 
paint  (Frinciples  of  Veterinary  Surgery). 

Different  species  of  animals  show  a  diminishing  suscepti- 
bility to  mercurialism  in  the  following  order:  birds,  cats, 
sheep,  cattle,  dogs,  pigs,  and  solipeds  (Kaufmann).  Although 
generally  less  susceptible,  individual  horses  exhibit  different 
degrees  of  susceptibility.  Mr.  Percivall  mentions  that  ten 
grains  of  calomel  given  daily  to  a  four-year-old  horse  made 
the  mouth  so  sore  by  the  fifth  day  that  he  '  cudded '  his  hay ; 


288  MERCURY   OINTMfiNT 

while  a  mare  received  six  draclims  of  calomel,  two  ounces  of 
blue  pill,  and  had  mercurial  ointment  well  rubbed  into  her 
thighs,  without  suffering  either  from  sore  mouth  or  saliva- 
tion. Mercurialism  occasionally  results  from  one  large  dose, 
when  it  is  apt  to  be  violent  and  difficult  to  control,  but  is 
induced  more  certainly  and  safely  by  small  and  repeated 
doses  of  calomel,  or  any  mild  mercurial,  and  its  production  is 
hastened  by  using  the  medicine  both  externally  and  internally. 
The  patient  under  the  effects  of  mercury  must  be  pro- 
tected from  cold  and  wet.  To  arrest  excessive  action  the 
drug  must  be  withheld ;  its  excretion  hastened  by  admini- 
stration of  potassium  iodide,  followed  by  a  saline  purge  ;  the 
mouth,  if  sore,  washed  repeatedly  with  solution  of  chlori- 
nated lime  or  alum ;  aniemia  and  Avasting  combated  by  good 
food,  iron  salts,  and  quinine.  In  poisoning  by  irritant  mer- 
curial salts,  the  preliminary  treatment  consists  in  repeated 
full  doses  of  albumin  and  other  demulcents. 

Mercury  Ointment.     Unguentum  Hydrargyri,    (B.P.) 

Mercury  or  blue  ointment  of  good  quality  cannot  be  made 
on  the  small  scale  without  iminense  labour  and  loss  of  time, 
It  is  composed  of  one  pound  of  mercury,  one  pound  of  lard, 
and  one  ounce  of  suet.  Trituration  is  continued  until 
metallic  globules  cease  to  be  visible.  A  good  ointment  con- 
tains about  one  per  cent,  of  its  mercury  in  a  state  of  oxide, 
and  infriction  and  exposure  during  application  increase  this 
more  active  oxidised  portion,  which  is  dissolved  by  the  salts 
and  fatty  acids  of  the  skin.  This  strong  ointment  is  usually 
diluted  with  two  or  three  parts  of  hog's  lard  or  soft  soap ;  or 
used  in  the  form  of  unguentum  hydrargyri  compositum, 
which  contains  ten  parts  mercury  ointment,  six  parts  each  of 
yellow  wax  and  olive  oil,  and  three  parts  of  camphor. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Mercurial  ointment,  when  merely  laid 
on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  exerts  slight  topical  effect,  and  is 
only  very  gradually  absorbed.  When  applied  with  smart 
friction  it  is  more  quickly  absorbed,  and,  in  considerable 
amount,  irritates,  vesicates,  and  induces  constitutional 
effects.  Two  ounces  of  the  strong  ointment,  rubbed  daily 
into  the  skin  of  a  horse,  salivates  in  four  or  five  days :  but 


MERCURIAL    LINIMENTS  289 

according  to  Professor  H.  Boiile}',  three  ounces  may,  withoiU 
fatal  effects,  be  thus  applied  daily  for  a  week.  Lafosse  pro- 
duced, however,  grave  constitutional  effects  in  cattle  by 
rubbing  three  ounces  into  the  throat  (Kaufmann). 

Mild  dressings  encourage  the  healing  of  indolent  ulcers, 
and  promote  a  healthier  action  in  psoriasis  and  other  per- 
sistent scaly  skin  disorders.  For  the  successful  treatment 
of  psoriasis  and  allied  complaints,  Professor  "Williams  recom- 
mends the  internal  as  well  as  the  external  use  of  liquor  arsenii 
et  hydrargj'ri  iodidi.  Although  not  superior  to  many  safer 
remedies,  it  is  sometimes  used  for  destroj-ing  tinea  and  favus, 
and  killing  lice,  the  acari  of  mange  and  scab,  and  other  skin 
parasites,  and  for  such  purposes  is  frequently  conjoined  with 
tar  oils,  sulphur,  or  iodine.  As  a  counter-irritant  and 
absorbent  the  strong  ointment  is  employed  in  reducing 
swelling  of  joints  and  tendons. 

Mercurial  ointment  is  apt,  however,  to  be  used  too  freely 
and  indiscriminately.  Professor  John  Gamgee  states  that  a 
druggist  in  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  sold  in  one  year  twenty-five 
tons  of  mercurial  ointment,  mostly  to  farmers.  When  in- 
cautiously used  it  not  only  causes  undue  irritation,  but  is 
apt  to  become  absorbed.  I  have  known  of  many  cattle  and 
sheep,  dressed  for  skin  complaints  and  skin  parasites,  suffer 
from  mercurial  poisoning,  and  seen  some  of  these  cases  ter- 
minate fatally.  In  Lincolnshire  a  lot  of  scabby  sheep  were 
treated  with  blue  ointment,  and  forty  died,  with  symptoms 
of  short  breathing,  a  peculiar  grunt  indicative  of  pain,  and 
drooping  heads  (Taylor  On  Poisons).  The  maximum  amount 
of  the  strong  ointment  to  be  used  for  horses  is  two  ounces, 
for  cattle  an  ounce,  for  sheep  half  an  ounce,  for  dogs  thirty 
grains  to  a  drachm.  For  topical  purposes  a  second  dressing, 
if  required,  should  not  be  applied  for  two  or  three  days. 

Liniment  of  Mercury.     Linimentum  Hydrargyri. 
Mercuric  Oleate.     Hydrargyri  Oleas. 

One  part  of  mercury  ointment,  one- third  part  of  strong 
ammonia  solution,  and  one  and  a  half  of  camphor  liniment, 
thoroughly  mixed,  constitute  the  B.P,  liniment.  Its  effects 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  ointment.    Two  liniments  suitable 

t 


290  OLEATE    AND    PLASTER 

for  persistent  scaly  skin  diseases,  enlarged  glands,  and  chronic 
indurations  are  subjoined : — 

Mercurial  ointment,  2  ounces.  Mercurial  ointment,  2  ounces. 

Camphor,      .         .     1  drachm.  Creosote,       .         .     1  drachm. 

Oil  of  tar,      .         ,     4  ounces.  Liquor  ammoniae,      2  ounces. 

Linseed  oil, .        .     4  ounces.  Linseed  oil,  .        .     6  ounces. 

The  oleate  is  prepared  with  one  ounce  mercuric  chloride, 
two  ounces  hard  soap,  one  drachm  oleic  acid,  and  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  distilled  Avater.  One  part  mixed  with  three 
parts  of  benzoated  lard  is  diffusible  and  penetrating.  It 
promotes  absorption,  and,  used  repeatedly,  acts  as  a  counter- 
irritant.  It  is  applied  in  articular  inflammation,  exostoses, 
indurations  of  the  udder,  and  other  glandular  and  indolent 
swellings.  Diluted  solutions  destroy  tinea  and  favus,  and 
are  also  fatal  to  animal  parasites.  Morphine  is  added  to 
the  oleate  when  anodyne  is  to  be  conjoined  with  absorbent 
effects. 

Mercurial  Plaster.    Emplastrum  Hydrargyri. 

Is  made  with  olive  oil,  56  grains ;  suljihur,  8  grains :  mer- 
cury, 3  ounces ;  and  lead  plaster,  6  ounces.  The  olive  oil  is 
heated,  and  the  sulphur  gradually  added  until  they  unite. 
With  this  mixture  triturate  the  mercury  until  globules  are 
no  longer  visible;  then  add  the  lead  plaster,  previously 
liquefied,  and  mix  thoroughly  (B.P.).  This  plaster  is  occa- 
sionally used  as  a  stimulant  for  glandular  and  chronic 
enlargements,  wind-galls,  and  other  bursal  swellings. 

Mercury  with  Chalk.     Hydrargyrum  cum  Creta.     Grey 
Powder. 

This  mixture  is  made  by  triturating  together  one  part 
mercury  Avith  two  of  prepared  chalk  until  globules  disappear, 
and  a  uniform  grey  colour  is  acquired.  Grey  powder  should 
be  free  from  grittiness,  and  insoluble  in  water;  but  its  chalk 
dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid,  leaving  the  mercury  in  a 
tinely-divided  state. 

Grey  powder  is  antacid,  laxative,  and  alterative.     It  is 


MERCURY    PILL  291 

given  with  good  effect  to  young  calves  and  foals  suffering  from 
bilious  indigestion  and  diarrhoea,  in  doses  of  five  to  fifteen 
grains,  repeated  once  or  twice  a  day,  conveniently  placed  on 
the  patient's  tongue,  or  administered  Avith  a  drachm  of 
ginger,  in  spirit  and  water,  milk,  or  gruel.  To  allay  gastric 
irritation,  and  as  an  alterative  for  dogs,  one  to  three  grains 
are  prescribed  two  or  three  times  daily.  In  the  earlier  stages 
of  distemper,  Mr.  Mayhew  recommends  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xv.  of 
grey  powder,  conjoined  with  gr.  i.  to  grs.  v.  of  ipecacuanha ; 
but  such  treatment  is  only  advisable  for  robust  patients. 

Mercury  or  Blue  Pill.     Pilula  Hydrargyri. 

This  pill,  so  much  used  in  human  medicine,  is  seldom 
employed  in  veterinar}-  practice.  It  consists  of  two  parts 
mercury,  three  of  confection  of  roses,  and  one  of  liquorice 
root.  The  addition  to  this  of  about  one  part  of  ferric  oxide 
produces  a  pill  mass,  which  Mr.  Morton  used  to  prescribe 
as  an  alterative  for  horses,  in  doses  of  half  a  drachm  to  a 
drachm.  Mr.  Mayhew  recommends,  as  a  cathartic  for  a 
medium-sized  dog,  five  grains  blue  pill,  six  grains  powdered 
colchicum,  and  ten  grains  colocynth  extract.  Five  grains 
blue  pill  and  eight  grains  compound  extract  of  colocynth, 
flavoured  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  peppermint  or  of  cloves, 
make  a  convenient  laxative  for  a  large  dog,  or  two  or  three 
doses  for  a  smaller.  The  activity  of  mercury  pill  in  part 
results  from  its  containing  a  small  proportion  of  oxide,  which 
is  readily  dissolved  by  the  acid  gastric  juice. 

Mercurous  Oxide.     Hydrargyri  Suboxidum.     Hg.^O. 

Mercurous,  black,  grey,  or  lower  oxide  is  prepared  by 
decomposing  calomel  (HggClg)  with  caustic  potash  solution, 
and  Avashing  with  water.  It  is  a  heavy  black  powder,  devoid 
of  taste  or  odour,  insoluble  in  water  and  alkalies,  but  soluble 
in  nitric  and  acetic  acids.  It  is  unstable,  and  on  exposure 
to  light  or  gentle  heat  decomposes  into  mercuric  oxide  and 
metallic  mercury.  It  is  less  active  than  the  mercuric  oxide, 
and  is  frequently  used  as  a  stimulant  for  unhealthy  wounds 
and  ulcers,  in  the  form  of  the  black  wash  (lotio  hydrargyri 


•292  MRRCUROUS    CHLORIDE 

nigra),  made  by  mixing  80  grains  calomel,  half  an  ounce 
of  glycerin,  1|  ounces  of  tragacnnth  mucilage,  and  sufHcient 
lime-water  to  make  10  ounces  of  lotion. 

Red  Meucuric  Oxide.     Hydrargyri  Oxidum  rubrum.     lied 

Precipitate.     HgO. 
Yellovv'  Mercuric  Oxide.     Hydrargyri  Oxidum  Flavum. 

Red  mercuric  oxide  is  obtained  by  heating  mercurous 
nitrate  until  acid  vapours  cease  to  be  evolved.  Yellow 
mercuric  oxide  is  obtained  by  the  interaction  of  mercuric 
chloride  and  sodium  hydroxide  (B.P.).  The  red  oxide  occurs 
in  orange-red  crystals,  which  become  yellow  when  powdered 
and  brownish-black  Avhen  heated,  recovering,  however,  their 
original  colour  on  cooling.  It  dissolves  sparingl}'  in  water, 
but  readily  in  hydrochloric  acid.  The  yellow  oxide  is  con- 
tained in  lotio  hydrargyri  flava  or  yellow  wash. 

Mercuric  oxide  is  nearly  as  active  and  irritant  as  corrosive 
sublimate.  Two  or  three  grains  given  to  dogs  cause  fatal 
gastro-enteritis.  Eight  to  fifteen  grains  caused  colic  in 
horses,  and  one  or  two  drachms  enteritis  and  death  (Hert- 
wig).  It  is  applied  externally  as  a  stimulant  and  caustic  for 
indolent  ulcers,  over-luxuriant  granulations,  chronic  scaly 
eruptions,  and  glandular  enlargements,  being  used  in  the 
form  of  powder,  lotion,  or  ointment.  Red  precipitate  oint- 
ment is  made  with  \  ounce  mercuric  oxide  and  2|  ounces 
of  yellow  paraffin  ointment. 

Mercurous  Chloride.   Hydrargyri  Subchloridum.  Calomel. 
Hg.GU. 

Calomel  is  found  native  in  Carniola  and  Spain,  but  in  too 
small  amount  to  be  of  commercial  value.  It  is  obtained 
by  heating  a  mixture  of  mercurous  sulphate  and  sodium 
chloride.  The  calomel,  rising  in  vapour,  may  be  condensed 
in  fibrous  cakes  on  the  cool  part  of  the  vessel,  or  conducted 
into  a  large  chamber,  where  it  falls  in  fine  powder.  Traces 
of  corrosive  sublimate  are  removed  by  washing  with  boiling 
distilled  water.  The  powder  is  dried  at  a  temperature  not 
oxceeding  212"  Fahr. 


CALOMEL  29.1 

Calomel  is  a  dull-Avhite,  heavy,  and  nearly  tasteless  powder, 
sometimes  rendered  yellowish  by  prolonged  trituration.  It 
is  inodorous,  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether.  It  is 
slowly  decomposed  by  light ;  volatilises  unchanged  when 
heated;  and  yields  mercurous  oxide  when  acted  on  by 
alkalies  or  lime  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Calomel,  being  insolul)le  in  water,  has 
no  in-contact  effect  on  the  skin,  but  it  is  in  part  dissolved 
by  the  gastric  secretions.  It  irritates  the  gastric  membrane 
and  glands,  full  doses  producing  emesis  in  man  and  carni- 
vora.  Similar  irritation  is  exerted  on  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  small  intestines,  and  it  is  consequently  a  cathartic. 
It  does  not  increase  secretion  of  bile,  but,  acting  as  an 
indirect  cholagogue,  it  removes  bile  lodged  in  the  duodenum. 
Like  other  mercurials,  repeated  doses  cause  mercurialism, 
and  increase  secretion  of  the  salivary,  pancreatic,  and 
intestinal  glands,  and  also  of  the  kidneys.  The  earlier 
stages  of  mercurialism  are  produced  with  the  view  of  alter- 
ing metabolism  and  nutrition,  and  promoting  especially 
absorption  of  fibrinous  exudation.  Externally,  it  is  used  as 
a  desiccant,  stimulant,  and  anti-parasitic. 

General  Actions. — Professor  Tuson  show^ed  that  calomel 
and  distilled  water,  digested  in  a  glass  vessel  at  100-2''  Fahr. 
(the  temperature  of  the  stomach),  when  mixed  with  either 
pepsin  or  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid 
remained  unaltered,  even  after  twenty-four  hours;  but  when 
both  pepsin  and  hydrochloric  acid  were  used,  solution 
speedily  occurred,  and  a  black  precipitate  of  mercury  sul- 
phide was  formed  (Veterinarian,  1872).  The  mucus  and 
fats  of  the  canal,  and  also  the  bile,  further  aid  solution.  It 
is  chiefly  absorbed  as  an  albuminate,  which,  although 
insoluble  in  water,  dissolves  in  excess  of  albumin  and  in 
sodium  chloride  solution.  In  the  blood  all  mercurials  pro- 
bably circulate  as  mercuric  oxide  (Brunton).  Small  propor- 
tions even  of  small  doses  of  calomel  are  absorbed,  and  most 
of  that  absorbed,  as  well  as  that  unabsorbed,  is  excreted  by 
the  bowels  in  the  state  of  metallic  sulphide  and  sulphate 
exerting  an  antiseptic  effect,  and  usually  imparting  a  green 
colour  to  the  ftcces.     The  opinion  that  calomel  undergoes 


294  MERCUROUS    CHLORIDE 

partial  conversion  into  the  liiglier  chloride  appears  disproved 
by  the  fact  that  the  chlorides  in  the  canal  are  insufficient  to 
effect  such  a  change,  while,  moreover,  each  mercury  chloride 
has  distinctive  actions. 

Toxic  Effects. — Calomel  is  less  irritant  than  mercuric 
chloride  or  nitrate,  but  irritant  effects,  usually  followed  by 
constitutional  disturbance,  are  produced  in  horses  by  three 
or  four  drachms ;  in  cattle  by  two  or  three  drachms ;  in 
sheep  by  fifteen  to  thirty  grains ;  in  dogs  by  six  to  thirty 
grains.  Hertwig  found  that  these  doses,  within  tAventy-four 
or  thirty-six  hours,  and  in  dogs  in  less  time,  caused  occa- 
sional colic  and  copious  discharge  of  fseces,  which  contained 
bile,  and  were  greyish-green  in  cattle,  but  darker  in  dogs. 
Such  doses,  especially  if  repeated  daily  for  three  or  four 
days,  further  induce  fluid  and  stinking  evacuations,  foetid 
breath,  soreness  of  the  mouth,  rapid  impairment  of  appetite 
and  condition,  and  fatal  low  fever  and  dysentery. 

At  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary  College,  in  June  1853,  a 
healthy  donkey  was  given  a  drachm  of  calomel  daily  in 
three  separate  doses.  About  the  sixth  day  the  animal 
became  excitable,  and  the  pulse  rose  to  85.  By  the  eighth 
day  secretion  of  saliva  was  augmented,  the  breath  was 
foetid,  the  gums  red  and  tender,  and  appetite  impaired;  but 
the  ffeces  and  urine  were  normal.  By  the  twelfth  day  these 
symptoms  became  more  aggravated,  the  pulse  softer  and  less 
frequent,  the  strength  much  reduced.  On  the  fourteenth 
day  administration  of  the  calomel  Avas  suspended,  but  death 
occurred  two  days  later.  The  animal  had  received  fourteen 
drachms  in  fourteen  days.  Post-mortem  examination  dis- 
co\ered  the  teeth  loose,  the  nmcous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  and  air-passages  blanched,  while  that  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines  was  softened,  easily  torn,  and  in  many  places 
thickly  covered  with  mucus.  The  liver  was  rather  friable, 
but  the  kidneys,  spleen,  and  lungs  were  healthy. 

Dogs  Aveighing  80  lbs.  to  40  lbs.  receiving  three  or  four 
grains  night  and  morning  were  salivated  in  a  Aveek,  and  died 
in  nine  days.  The  most  notable  appearance  was  inflamma- 
tion of  the  large  intestines.  HertAvig  considers  that  dogs 
and  swine,  on  account  of  their  often  getting  rid  of  the  drug 


ANTISEPTIC,  ELIMINATIVE,  AND    ALTERATIVE        295 

by  vomiting,  are  less  easily  affected  than  the  other  domesti- 
cated animals,  and  that  horses  are  less  susceptible  than 
cattle. 

The  action  of  calomel  on  the  liver  was  investigated  by  a 
Committee  of  the  British  Medical  Association.  They  experi- 
mented chiefly  on  dogs  with  fistulous  openings  into  the 
duodenum,  and  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  neither 
calomel  nor  blue  pill  affects  secretion  of  bile,  unless  it 
purges  or  impairs  health,  when  the  quantity  of  bile  is 
diminished  (Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1869).  Dr.  A. 
Rohrig  curarised  dogs,  maintained  life  by  artificial  respira- 
tion, and  placed  a  glass  tube  in  the  gall  duct.  Croton 
oil,  in  doses  of  18  drops,  introduced  into  the  duodenum, 
increased  or  re-established  the  biliary  secretion.  Colocynth, 
jalap,  aloes,  rhubarb,  and  senna  acted  with  a  power  decreas- 
ing in  the  order  named.  Castor  oil  and  bitter  salts  had  little 
effect.  Calomel,  even  in  twenty-grain  doses,  did  not  re- 
establish the  secretion  when  it  had  ceased,  but  had  a  marked 
power  in  increasing  and  maintaining  it  beyond  the  natural 
time  for  its  cessation  (Medicinische  Jahrhucher,  1873). 

Professors  Rutherford  and  Vignal,  also  experimenting  on 
curarised  dogs,  found  that  doses  of  ten,  five,  or  even  two 
grains  of  calomel,  placed  in  the  duodenum  of  fasting  sub- 
jects, produced  purging;  they  did  not,  however,  increase 
secretion  of  bile,  but  actually  diminished  it.  Similar  results 
occurred  even  when  calomel  was  introduced  into  the  intes- 
tine, mixed  with  bile  or  hydrochloric  acid.  These  repeated 
experiments  justify  the  conclusion  that  calomel  and  the 
milder  mercurials  have  no  special  cholagogue  action ;  they 
do  not  stimulate  secretion  of  bile,  as  they  notably  do  of 
saliva  and  pancreatic  fluid.  The  small  intestines,  irritated 
by  the  mercurial,  reflexly  stimulate  the  liver  and  contract 
the  gall  bladder  and  hepatic  ducts,  in  the  same  way  as  do 
resinous  purgatives,  croton,  and  acid  chyme.  The  increased 
intestinal  action  sweeps  out  bile  lodged  in  the  duodenum,  as 
well  as  in  the  hepatic  ducts,  and  thus  prevents  its  reabsorp- 
tion,  and,  moreover,  abates  congestion  of  the  portal  system. 
Calomel,  therefore,  although  not  increasing  secretion  of 
bile,  notably  hastens  its  expulsion. 


29G  MERCUROUS   CHLORIDE 

Medicinal  Uses. — Few  remedies  have  been  applied  to  so 
many  and  diversified  uses,  but  neither  in  veterinary  nor  in 
human  medicine  is  it  as  much  used  as  formerly.  Gastric 
irritation,  intestinal  catarrh,  as  well  as  bilious  diarrhoea,  are 
frequently  treated  with  small  doses,  either  used  alone  or  con- 
joined with  chalk  or  opium.  For  foals  and  calves  calomel 
may  be  substituted  for  grey  powder,  when  the  bowels  are 
irregular  and  the  discharges  malodorous.  In  such  cases, 
like  other  mercurials  it  owes  its  good  effects  to  its  combina- 
tion of  antiseptic  and  eliminative  properties.  Although 
useful  in  biliousness  and  congestion  of  the  liver,  and,  along 
with  laxatives,  removing  waste  bile  from  the  duodenum,  it 
has  no  special  remedial  effect  in  jaundice,  arrested  secretion 
of  bile,  or  chronic  liver  complaints.  Such  cases  are  fittingly 
treated  by  nitro-hydrochloric  acid  and  other  liver  stimulants. 
That  type  of  influenza  in  horses  complicated  with  gastric 
derangement  and  yellow  mucous  membranes  is  often  success- 
fully treated  in  the  early  stages  with  calomel  grs.  xx.,  and 
opium  5ss.,  with  or  without  oil,  repeated  twice  or  thrice,  at 
intervals  of  twelve  hours,  and  alternated  with  or  followed  by 
salines. 

It  is  a  useful  adjuvant  cathartic.  Four  drachms  of  aloes, 
with  half  a  drachm  of  calomel,  purge  most  horses  as  effec- 
tually as  eight  drachms  of  aloes.  Such  a  combination  is 
advantageously  used  in  lymphangitis  and  other  cases  where 
prompt  and  full  catharsis  is  desired.  But  as  an  adjuvant 
purgative  it  is  more  serviceable  amongst  cattle  than  in 
horses.  As  an  anthelmintic,  combined  sometimes  with  san- 
tonin, and  followed  by  a  laxative,  it  removes  lunibrici.  In 
acute  rheumatism  calomel  is  given  Avith  a  purgative;  in 
chronic  cases,  and  also  in  malarial  disorders,  small  doses  are 
sometimes  used  with  quinine  sulphate.  Dogs  and  pigs 
frequently  have  calomel  conjoined  with  jalap  or  with  oils  as 
a  cathartic  and  febrifuge,  and  occasionally  with  ipecacuanha 
as  an  emetic. 

As  an  alterative  and  febrifuge  it  is  not  as  much  used 
as  formerl}',  but  some  practitioners  still  prescribe  it  in  acute 
localised  inflammation,  particularly  in  pneumonia,  pleurisy, 
peritonitis,  laminitis,  and  iritis.     It  is  most  effectual  when 


DESICCANT,  STIMULANT,   AND    ANTIPARASITIC      297 

such  cases  are  complicated  with  gastric  derangement,  and 
its  curative  action  probably  depends  upon  its  combination 
of  antiseptic,  cathartic,  and  diuretic  effects,  these  latter  being 
increased  by  the  laxatives  and  salines  with  which  it  is  usually 
conjoined.  In  chronic  inflammation  it  reduces  enlarged 
glands,  removes  recently  formed  deposits,  and  sometimes 
prevents  adhesions,  in  iritis  and  pleurisy.  For  such  objects, 
small,  frequently  repeated  doses  are  used,  conjoined  with 
opium  to  delay  excretion,  while  constitutional  effects  may  be 
hastened  by  in-rubbing  of  the  ointment.  In  muco-enteritis, 
whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  Mr.  Barlow  sometimes  used  half 
a  drachm  of  calomel  with  an  ounce  of  laudanum,  repeated  at 
intervals  of  one  or  two  hours,  until  three  or  four  doses  were 
taken.  Metritis  and  peritonitis,  affecting  cows  three  or  four 
days  after  calving,  are  often  relieved  by  a  drachm  of  calomel, 
two  ounces  laudanum,  and  one  pound  castor  oil,  mixed  with 
hot  water  and  treacle.  Calomel,  chalk,  and  opium  are 
frequently  prescribed  in  dysentery. 

Calomel  has  diuretic  effects;  it  notably  increases  the 
diuresis  caused  by  resinous  or  saline  drugs.  This  action  is 
stated  to  result  from  its  being  in-  part  converted  into  mercuric 
chloride,  which,  unlike  mercurous  chloride,  stimulates  the 
liver,  and  increases  the  amount  of  urea  in  the  blood  (Erunton). 

Externally,  calomel  destroys  the  acari  of  scab  and  mange, 
kills  lice,  abates  the  itching  of  those  eczematous  eruptions 
which  affect  the  limbs  of  underbred  cart  horses,  and  are 
also  common  in  dogs.  Although  of  small  benefit  in  soothing 
the  itching  of  urticaria,  it  relieves  the  irritation  of  prurigo, 
removes  the  scales  and  heals  the  cracks  of  psoriasis,  hastens 
removal  of  warts,  and  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  thrush 
in  the  horses'  frog,  while  in  the  form  of  ointment  it  relieves 
piles  in  dogs.  It  must  be  used  discreetly,  for  if  freely  applied 
it  may  be  absorbed,  and  cause  untoward  constitutional  effects. 

Doses,  etc. — As  an  alterative  and  febrifuge,  horses  and 
cattle  take  grs.  x.  to  3i- ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xxx. ; 
dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iij.,  usuall}^  given  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
frequently  with  an  equal  weight  of  opium,  to  prevent  too  rapid 
removal  by  the  bowels.  As  a  cathartic,  calomel  is  not  used 
alone,  and  the  dose  is  consequently  regulated  by  that  of  the 


298  MERCURIC   CHLORIDE 

drug  with  which  it  is  combined.  For  the  horse  a  full  purgative 
consists  of  calomel  5i>  with  aloes  5iv. ;  for  cattle,  3i-  to  5ij-. 
with  Epsom  or  common  salt,  lb.  1,  or  oil,  Oj. ;  for  dogs,  grs.  ij. 
to  grs.  iv.,  with  jalap,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xl.  As  a  vermifuge  for 
the  horse,  the  following  combination  is  given  before  feeding 
for  three  or  four  consecutive  mornings : — One  drachm  each 
of  calomel,  extract  of  male  fern,  and  aloes,  with  four 
drachms  of  ginger,  made  into  bqlus  with  linseed  meal  and 
treacle.  As  an  emetic  for  dogs  or  pigs,  two  or  three  grains 
are  given,  with  an  equal  quantity  of  tartar  emetic,  or  with 
grs.  XV.  to  grs.  xx.  of  ipecacuanha.  To  allay  irritation,  and 
promote  healthy  cutaneous  action,  or  to  destroy  skin  parasites, 
calomel  is  used  in  powder,  or  in  ointment,  1  in  10  of  vaseline, 
conjoined  sometimes  with  iodine,  boric  acid,  or  wood-tar  oils. 

Mercuric  Chloride.  Hydrargyri  Perchloridum.  Bichloride 
of  Mercury.     Corrosive  Sublimate.     HgClg. 

Corrosive  sublimate  and  calomel  are  both  chlorides  of  mer- 
cury ;  corrosive  sublimate  contains  twice  as  much  chlorine 
as  calomel,  is  the  higher,  per,  or  mercuric  chloride  (HgClg), 
and  is  a  soluble  and  actively -corrosive  poison;  while  calomel, 
the  lower  or  mercurous  chloride  (HgjClg),  is  an  insoluble, 
comparatively  mild  medicine.  By  using,  in  speakiug  or 
writing,  the  vernacular  names,  risk  of  mistaking  these 
chlorides  is  diminished. 

Corrosive  sublimate  may  be  prepared  by  heating  a  mixture 
of  mercuric  sulphate,  sodiuui  chloride,  and  a  little  black 
oxide  of  manganese. 

It  occurs  in  heavy,  colourless  masses  of  prismatic  crystals, 
devoid  of  odour,  but  with  an  acrid,  metallic  taste.  When 
heated  it  sublimes  without  decomposition,  leaving  only  a 
trace  of  tixed  residue.  It  is  soluble  in  about  three  parts  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  four  parts  of  ether,  two  parts  of  glycerin, 
two  of  boiling  water,  and  sixteen  of  cold  water,  or  nearly  four 
grains  to  the  ounce.  Its  solubility  is  increased  by  the  pre- 
sence of  salts,  such  as  the  chlorides  of  sodium  and  ammo- 
nium. Its  antiseptic  properties  recommend  it  for  preserving 
wood,  cordage,  and  anatomical  preparations.  It  is  not 
subject  to  intentional  adulteration. 


AN    IRRITANT    CORROSIVE   POISON  299 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  a  corrosive  and  irritant  poison  ;  is 
occasionally  prescribed  as  an  alterative,  antiseptic,  and  chola- 
gogue;  repeated  doses  cause  mercurialism.  Externally,  it 
is  used  as  an  antiseptic,  astringent,  caustic,  and  parasiticide. 

Corrosive  sublimate  precipitates  albumin,  and  hence  in 
powder  or  concentrated  solution  is  irritant  and  corrosive. 
Dissolved  in  water,  it  is  the  most  energetic  antiseptic :  one 
part  in  25 '250  prevents  the  development  of  bacteria  taken 
from  meat  infusion ;  one  part  in  10250  prevents  the  develop- 
ment of  spores  in  boiled  meat  infusion;  one  part  in  6500 
prevents  reproduction  of  spores  (Koch).  Spores  placed  in 
one  per  thousand  solution  in  Avater  are  effectually  destroyed 
in  one  to  two  days.  Solution  of  one  to  two  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water  effectually  destroys  vegetable  and  animal 
parasites  infesting  the  skin.  It  must,  however,  be  used  with 
caution,  for  it  not  only  irritates  and  corrodes  locally,  but  is 
readily  absorbed,  and  hence  liable  to  produce  constitutional 
effects. 

Toxic  Effects. — Swallowed  in  strong  solution  it  is  an 
irritant  corrosive  poison,  producing  gastro-enteritis  and 
collapse.  Smaller  or  more  diluted  doses  produce  mercurial- 
ism.  Seven  or  eight  grains  destroyed  dogs  in  seven  to  thirty 
hours ;  four  drachms  dissolved  in  three  pounds  of  water  killed 
a  horse  in  twelve  hours ;  two  drachms  caused  in  cattle  great 
emaciation,  and  death  in  fourteen  days ;  one  drachm  proved 
fatal  to  a  sheep  within  twelve  hours  (Hertwig).  Larger 
quantities,  however,  appear  to  be  tolerated  when  the  poison  is 
first  given  in  small  doses.  Thus,  Mr.  Percivall,  experimenting 
upon  a  horse,  commenced  with  ten  grains,  and  gradually 
increased  the  dose  to  live  drachms  before  the  appetite  or  pulse 
became  affected.  Injurious  effects  occur  whatever  the  channel 
by  which  poisonous  doses  enter  the  body.  Shepherds  using 
strons:  solutions  for  foot-rot  or  for  scab  have  suiYered  from  its 
irritant  and  also  from  its  constitutional  effects.  Dogs  dressed 
with  it  for  mange  have  occasionally  died  from  gastro-enteritis 
and  collapse. 

Compared  with  arsenical  poisoning,  the  symptoms  come 
on  more  rapidly  ;  there  is  more  chemical  and  corrosive  action, 
whilst  in  chronic  cases  salivation  usually  ensues. 


.'{00  MERCURIC   CHLORIDE 

Post-mortem  exainination  discovers  the  mucous  lining  of 
the  alimentary  canal  softened  and  bluish-grey ;  where  large 
iloses  have  been  given  it  is  disorganised  by  chemical  action  ; 
where  death  is  postponed  for  a  day,  patches  of  inflammation 
and  sloughing  are  found ;  the  kidneys  and  other  urinary 
organs  are  congested;  the  lungs  are  usually  spotted  with 
effused  blood. 

The  treatment  consists  in  the  free  use  of  albumin,  which 
forms  an  insoluble  mercuric  albuminate.  One  cg<^  suffices  to 
neutralise  four  cfrains  of  sublimate.  When  eg'ijs  cannot  be 
had,  wheat  or  barley  Hour,  milk,  or  other  albuminoids  should 
be  given,  followed  by  astringent  solutions.  Unless  the  drug 
has  caused  vomiting,  the  stomach  must  be  emptied  cither 
by  emetics,  the  stomach  pump,  or  syphon. 

Medicinal  Uses. — For  internal  use,  milder  mercurials  are 
preferred,  and  it  is  dangerous  to  use  it  for  the  production  of 
mercurialism.  For  horses  it  has  been  prescribed  in  chronic 
skin  eruptions,  and  swollen,  oederaatous  legs  resulting  from 
repeated  attacks  of  lymphangitis.  Half  or  even  a  quarter  of 
a  grain,  repeated  every  three  hours,  sometimes  arrests  the 
slimy,  bloody,  reducing  discharges  of  persistent  diarrhoea  and 
dysentery  in  cattle.  Professors  Rutherford  and  Yignal  found 
that  ^V  to  ^  grain  given  to  dogs,  although  not  stimulating 
the  duodenal  glands,  notably  excites  secretion  of  bile.  Con- 
joined with  opium,  hemlock,  and  salines,  it  has  been  advised 
in  rheumatism. 

As  an  effectual  antiseptic  it  is  used  for  many  surgical 
purposes.  Its  antiseptic  power  is  diminished  or  destroyed 
in  presence  of  albumin,  with  which  it  forms  an  insoluble 
albuminate.  To  prevent  this  change  Laplace  suggested  the 
addition  of  tartaric  acid  to  sublimate  lotions.  Fifteen  grains 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  seventy-five  grains  of  tartaric  acid  and 
thirty-five  ounces  of  distilled  water,  form  a  useful  antiseptic 
solution.  Foul  Avounds  washed  with  one  part  mercuric 
chloride  dissolved  in  500  to  1000  of  water,  are  rendered 
aseptic.  Instruments,  sponges,  towels,  ns  well  as  the  hands, 
are  disinfected  by  washing  in  a  one  thousandth  solution. 
But  sublimate  lotions  damage  most  metal  instruments,  and 
irritate  and  roughen  the  operator's  hands.  Solutions  of  average 


MERCURIC    CHLORIDE    SOLUTIONS  301 

Strength  destroy  the  cryptogamic  growths  of  ringworm, 
kill  lice,  and  acari,  and  allay  the  itching-  of  pruritus  and 

urticaria.  Fur  the  last-named  disease  Professor  Robertson 
prescribed  niercuric  chloride  grs.  xii.,  diluted  hydrocyanic 
acid  5iv.,  glycerin  5ij-,  and  water  §x.  A  solution  of  one  part 
in  1000  or  2000  of  water  is  injected  into  the  uterus  in  metritis, 
and  in  cases  of  abortion.  The  spread  of  contagious  abortion 
is  prevented  by  washing  with  the  solution,  twice  daily,  the 
external  genital  organs  and  the  tail.  A  similar  washing 
of  the  in-calvers  on  premises  Avhere  abortion  has  appeared 
usually  protects  them  from  the  mishap.  Warm  solutions 
are  much  more  active  than  cold.  An  aqueous  solution  of 
1  part  in  500  is  used  to  arrest  necrosis  in  bone  and  cartilage, 
and  10  to  15  grains  rolled  in  tissue  paper  (or  a  sublimate 
crayon),  and  introduced  deeply  into  sinuses  or  fistuhe 
in  four  to  eight  da3's,  slough  out  the  fibrous  walls.  As  a 
sj'^novial  styptic,  sublimate  in  fine  powder,  is  applied  to  the 
Avound  in  cases  of  open  joint.  In  conjunctivitis  and  keratitis 
a  solution  containing  half  a  grain  to  an  ounce  of  distilled 
water  is  used  as  an  astringent  antiseptic. 

For  most  external  purposes  the  B.P.  liquor  hydrargyri 
perchloridi  containing  10  grains  in  20  ounces  of  distilled 
water,  will  be  found  convenient.  Two  parts  of  sublimate  and 
four  of  glycerin  form  a  '  stock  solution,'  which  may  be  diluted 
as  required.  Van  Swieten's  solution  is  composed  of  one  part 
mercuric  chloride,  900  of  water  and  100  of  alcohol.  Lotio 
hydrargyri  flava,  or  yellow  wash,  is  made  with  40  grains 
corrosive  sublimate  and  a  pint  of  lime  water.  To  prevent 
accidents  which  sometimes  attend  the  use  of  uncoloured 
lotions,  pastils,  lotiforms  and  compressed  discs,  containing 
mercuric  chloride  and  sodium  chloride  and  coloured  with 
magenta  or  methyl- violet,  may  be  used.  Wool,  lint,  gauze, 
and  other  wound  dressings  impregnated  with  corrosive  sub- 
limate dissolved  in  glycerin  or  water  are  frequently  employed. 

With  suitable  precautions,  watery  solutions  are  used  for 
disinfecting  infected  premises,  and  the  carcases  of  animals 
which  have  died  of  anthrax  or  other  contagious  disease. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  grs.  v.  to  grs.  viij. ; 
sheep  and  large  pigs,  gr.  j. ;  dogs,  gr.  jL  to  gr.  i      It  is  best 


302  MERCFROUS    IODIDE 

given  freelv  dissolved  in  water  or  other  simple  fluid.  To 
relieve  itching,  especially  amongst  dogs,  one  grain  corrosive 
subhmute  and  one  minim  prnssie  acid  are  dissolved  in 
an  ounce  of  water.  An  ointment  containing  one  part  of 
sublimate  to  twenty  or  thirty  parts  of  fatty  matters  is 
sometimes  used  cautiously  for  skin  complaints,  and  for 
destroying  skin  parasites. 

Ammoniated  mercury,  or  white  precipitate,  is  an  opaque, 
Avhite,  insoluble  powder,  made  by  mixing  corrosive  sublimate 
solution  with  excess  of  ammonia  solution,  and  washing  and 
drying  the  precipitate  (XH.,HgCl).  It  is  devoid  of  irritant 
action.  An  ointment,  made  of  one  part  precipitate  to  nine 
of  white  paraffin  ointment,  is  used  as  a  parasiticide,  and  as 
a  mild  mercurial  in  skin  diseases. 

Mercuro-zinc  cyanide,  a  combination  of  mercuric  cyanide 
and  zinc  cyanide,  has  been  much  used  in  human  surgery. 
It  is  a  white  powder,  recommended  by  Lord  Lister  as  a  non- 
irritating  and  very  powerful  antiseptic. 

Mercurous  Iodide.      Green  Iodide.     Hydrargyri  lodidum 
viride  Hgl.     (Not  official.) 

Mercuric    Iodide.       Red    Iodide.     -Hydrargyri    lodidum 
rubrum.     Biniodide  of  mercury.     HgL.     (B.P.) 

Mercurous  iodide  is  an  unstable  salt,  prepared  by  tritu- 
rating together  iodine  and  an  excess  of  mercury  with  a  little 
alcohol,  or  by  mixing  solutions  of  mercurous  nitrate  and 
potassium  iodide.  Although  not  so  active  as  the  higher 
iodide,  twenty  grains  destroyed  a  rabbit  Avithin  twenty-four 
hours,  and  a  drachm  a  pointer  dog  in  five  days  (Cogswell). 

Mercuric  or  red  iodide,  formed  by  the  interaction  of 
mercuric  chloride  and  potassium  iodide,  is  a  vermilion- 
coloured,  heavy,  crystalline  powder,  with  a  disagreeable 
metallic  taste.  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  sparingly 
soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  ether,  acids,  solution 
of  potassium  iodide,  and  most  saline  fluids. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Mercuric  iodide  is  as  irritant  as 
mercuric  chloride  or  nitrate.  But  the  presence  of  iodine 
increases  the  solubility  of  albuminates,  and,  compared  with 


MERCURIC    IODIDE  303 

the  chloride,  the  iodide  is  hence  more  quickly  a,bsorbed  and 
excreted.  Twenty  grains  given  to  a  rabbit  induced  gastro- 
enteritis, collapse,  and  death  in  twenty-four  hours.  It  is 
used  internally  to  arrest  the  growths  of  actinomycosis  and 
scirrhous  cord,  and  solutions  are  applied  externally  as 
antiseptics,  and  ointments  as  stimulants,  counter-irritants, 
and  caustics. 

The  biniodide,  dissolved  in  water,  ether,  and  alcohol,  is 
occasionally  used  for  the  same  antiseptic  and  stimulant 
purposes  as  the  perchloride.  The  B.P.  ointment,  of  20 
grains  iodide  to  480  grains  of  benzoated  lard,  is  not  suffi- 
ciently strong  for  veterinary  purposes,  and  a  more  effective 
preparation  is  made  by  mixing  one  part  iodide  with  six  or 
eight  of  lard.  But  Mr.  William  Dollar  assures  me  that  one 
part  iodide  dissolved  in  ten  of  vaseline  makes  an  equally 
efficacious  ointment,  which  has  the  further  advantage,  even 
when  long  kept,  of  neither  changing  colour  nor  becoming 
rancid.  This  '  red  ointment '  is  very  effectual  for  condensing 
and  reducing  splints,  spavins,  ring-bones,  and  other  bony 
exostoses.  It  penetrates  deeply,  arrests  chronic  inflammation, 
and  aids  removal  of  chronic  enlargements  and  indurations  of 
strained  |,endons,  bursie,  and  joints.  It  is  occasionall}'^  used 
as  a  counter-irritant  in  sore-throat,  chronic  cough,  and 
roaring,  relieving  cases  that  have  resisted  milder  blisters. 
When  effusion  has  occurred  in  pleuro-pneumonia  in  horses, 
and  other  irritants  are  ineffectual,  an  ounce  of  iodide 
ointment  rubbed  (if  need  be)  into  each  side  is  stated 
sometimes  to  give  relief  It  is  frequently  applied  with 
advantage  to  the  rheumatic  joints  of  cattle.  Repeated 
dressings  are  serviceable  in  arresting  induration  of  the 
udder,  lymphatic,  and  other  glands.  When  absorbent  and 
counter-irritant  effects  are  to  be  produced,  it  is  sometimes 
used  diluted  with  iodine  ointment.  The  strong  red  iodide 
ointment  requires  to  be  used  with  care,  otherwise  it  destroys 
the  hair-roots,  causes  sloughing  and  blemishing,  and  pro- 
duces constitutional  efl^'ects. 


304  PHOSPHORUS 

Mercuric  Nitrate.     Mercury  Nitrate.     2Hg(N03)2. 
Un'GUENTUM  Hydr.\rgyri  Nitratis.     Citrine  Ointment. 

When  Diercury  is  dissolved  in  diluted  nitric  acid,  and  the 
solution  boiled  gently  for  fifteen  minutes,  there  is  produced 
the  B.P.  hydrargyri  nitratis  liquor  acidus,  a  colourless, 
strongly  acid,  caustic  solution. 

The  unguentum  hydrargyri  nitratis,  or  citrine  ointment, 
is  prepared  by  mixing  a  cold  solution  of  mercury  in  nitric 
acid  with  lard  and  olive  oil.  It  has  a  lemon-yellow  colour, 
a  nitrous  acid  odour,  and  is  apt  to  spoil  unless  well  made 
and  kept  in  earthenware  vessels  secluded  from  light.  One 
part  of  this  ointment  and  four  parts  of  soft  yellow  paraffin, 
constitute  the  B.P.  diluted  mercuric  nitrate  ointment. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  stronger  mercuric  nitrate  solutions 
are  caustics.  They  and  the  ointments  are  applicable  for 
many  of  the  purposes  of  corrosive  sublimate,  and  used  for 
reducing  and  destroying  malignant  growths,  and  stinmlating 
such  specific  sores  as  canker  in  the  feet  of  horses  and  foot-rot 
in  sheep.  Milder  solutions  and  citrine  ointment  are  good 
remedies  for  eczema,  especially  after  heat  and  pain  have 
been  subdued  and  desquamation  has  set  in,  and  are  usefully 
alternated  with  tar  preparations.  Along  with  good  feeding 
and  alkaline  washes,  they  are  applied  in  those  cases  of 
pityriasis  not  uncommon  amongst  cattle  in  poor  condition. 
They  destroy  lice  and  other  skin  parasites,  and  the  crypto- 
gamic  growths  of  ringworm.  Being  easily  absorbed,  if  too 
freely  applied  thc}^  induce  the  usual  specific  eft'ects  of 
mercury.  Diluted  with  olive  or  almond  oil,  or  lard,  citrine 
ointment  relieves  irritable,  swollen,  discharging  conditions 
of  the  eyelids. 

PHOSPHORUS 

A  solid  non-metallic  element  obtained  I'rom  Calcium  Phos- 
phate.    (B.P.) 

Phosphorus  is  prepared  by  the  digestion  of  bones  in 
sulphuric  acid;  the  acid  calcium  phosphate  remaining  in 
solution  is  evaporated,  mixed  with  charcoal,  and  distilled, 
when  phosphorus  comes  over,  and  is  condensed  under  water. 


PHOSPHORUS  305 

Two  allotropic  forms  occur.  The  first  is  wax-like,  easily  cut 
with  a  knife,  of  a  yellow-white  colour,  volatile,  readily 
oxidisable  and  intiaruinable,  luminous,  and  soluble  in  carbon 
disulphide,  eighty  parts  of  olive  oil,  twenty-five  parts  of 
chloroform,  and  in  sixty  of  oil  of  turpentine.  Tt  is  an  irritant 
corrosive  poison.  The  second — prepared  by  keeping  the 
yellow  phosphorus  for  a  considerable  period  at  a  temperature 
of  450°  Fahr.  in  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  anhydride  or 
nitrogen — is  red,  amorphous ;  at  ordinary  temperatures  has 
little  aflSnity  for  oxygen ;  is  not  volatile,  luminous,  or  soluble 
in  carbon  disulphide ;  heated  to  the  boiling  point  it  reverts 
to  the  vitreous  form.     It  is  innocuous. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Phosphorus  is  an  active  member  of 
the  group  of  pentad  elements,  comprising  nitrogen,  antimony, 
arsenic,  and  bismuth.  They  have  a  marked  affinity  for 
oxygen,  modify  tissue  change,  act  especially  on  the  glandular, 
nervous,  respiratory,  and  cutaneous  systems.  Phosphorus  is 
slowly  dissolved  and  absorbed,  stimulates  growth  of  bones, 
and  is  occasionally  prescribed  as  a  nerve  tonic,  alterative, 
and  aphrodisiac.  Full  doses  when  swallowed  cause  gastro- 
enteritis. Repeated  doses  break  up  the  albuminoid  textures 
and  induce  fatty  degeneration. 

Toxic  Effects. — A  piece  of  yellow  phosphorus,  or  a  strong 
solution  applied  to  the  skin,  abstracts  oxygen  and  produces 
limited  inflammation,  sometimes  terminating  in  gangrene. 
When  swallowed  it  is  oxidised,  perhaps  vaporised,  and  is 
slowly  dissolved  by  the  bile  and  any  fatty  matters  with  which 
it  comes  into  contact.  It  exerts  on  the  alimentary  tract  its 
local  irritant  effects;  minute  doses  are  gastro-intestinal 
tonics ;  larger  doses  cause  diarrhoea  and  emesis  in  animals 
that  vomit;  while  fifteen  grains  cause  gastro-enteritis  in 
horses  and  cattle.  When  absorbed,  minute  doses  promote 
development  of  bone  and  stimulate  the  central  nervous 
system.  Larger  doses,  such  as  thirty  grains  in  horses  or 
cattle,  and  half  a  grain  to  a  grain  in  dogs  or  men,  produce 
paresis,  convulsions,  coma,  and  death  usually  within  two  or 
three  days.  The  paresis  occasionally  affects  the  heart,  caus- 
ing sudden  death.  Moderate  to  full  doses,  repeated  several 
times  daily,  withm  a  few  days  produce  fatty  degeneration  of 

u 


nOG  BROMIDES 

the  aibuuiinoid  tissues,  hypertrophy  of  connective  structures, 
and  acute  cirrhosis.  It  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys  and  hmgs, 
chieHy  as  phosphorous  and  phosphoric  acids.  But  these 
acids  and  the  salts  they  form  have  not,  however,  the  specific 
action  of  phosphorus. 

The  antidotes  consist  in  emptying  the  stomach  by  emetics 
or  the  pump,  administering  mucilaginous  fluids,  but  avoiding 
milk,  oils,  and  eggs,  which  dissolve  the  poison,  and  pre- 
scribing frequently  repeated  doses  of  old  turpentine  and  of 
copper  sulphate. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Small  doses  promote  tissue  growth,  and 
replace  spongy  texture  of  bones  with  denser  tissue.  Plios- 
phorus  is  prescribed  in  rickets,  bone  softening,  and  chronic 
malnutrition.  It  has  been  substituted  for  arsenic  in  persistent 
skin  disorders.  It  is  empirically  administered  in  epilepsy, 
chorea,  and  general  paralysis,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  some- 
times applied  as  a  topical  irritant. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  v. ;  sheep 
and  pigs,  gr.  ^  i-^  ;  dogs,  gr.  .t^,  given  in  pill  or  electuary, 
or  dissolved  in  oil  or  vaseline.  Phosphorus  may  be  prescribed 
in  the  form  of  elixir  phosphori,  made  with  compound  tinc- 
ture of  phosphorus  and  glycerin,  and  containing  gr.  ^  in 
each  drachm.  For  external  purposes  a  liniment  is  made 
with  one  part  phosphorus  to  one  hundred  parts  olive,  almond, 
or  other  oil.  The  paste  for  the  destruction  of  rats  usually 
consists  of  one  part  phosphorus  to  sixty  each  of  water 
and  flour. 


BROMINE  AND  BROMIDES 

Bromine.  Bromum.  A  liquid,  non-metallic  element  obtained 
from  sea- water,  and  from  some  saline  springs.  (Not 
oflficial.) 

Bromide  OF  Potassium.     Potassii  Bromidum.     KHr.  (B.I\) 

Bromine,  like  its  analogues  chlorine  and  iodine,  has  a 
great  affinity  for  hydrogen,  removes  it  from  its  several  com- 
binations, and  hence  is  antiseptic  and  indirectly  an  oxidiser. 
It  is  very  ditiusiblc.     In  point  of  activity  it  stands  midway 


QUIET   NERVOUS    IRRITABILITY  307 

between  the  more  active  chlorine  and  the  weaker  iodine. 
Ent  this  gradation  of  the  halogens  is  reversed  in  their  com- 
pounds, depending  mainly  upon  the  iodine  holding  its 
combinations  more  firmly  than  the  bromine,  and  the  bromine 
than  the  chlorine.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  their  several 
alkaline  salts.  These  three  halogens  are  antiseptic,  disin- 
fectant, and  topically  irritant  and  stimulant. 

Bromine  is  a  dark,  red-brown,  volatile  liquid,  has  a  strong 
disagreeable  odour  and  taste,  and  produces  a  yellow  colour 
when  added  to  cold  solution  of  starch  :  soluble  in  thirty  parts 
of  water.  It  is  occasionally  used  as  a  caustic  in  malignant  and 
fungoid  diseases,  one  part  being  dissolved  in  ten  to  fifteen 
parts  of  rectified  spirit.  Diluted  Hydrobromic  Acid  contain- 
ing 10  per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  bromide,  is  devoid  of 
irritant  action,  and  is  occasionally  prescribed  as  a  nerve  seda- 
tive, but  is  not  so  convenient  or  eti'ectual  as  potassium  bromide. 

The  Bromides,  including  those  of  potassium,  sodium,  and 
ammonium,  do  not  ditl'er  materially  in  their  action.  They 
have  very  slight  topical  effect  on  the  skin  or  mucous  surfaces, 
but  are  rapidly  absorbed,  and  readily  decomposed,  the  potas- 
sium bromide  forming  in  the  stomach  sodium  bromide  and 
potassium  chloride.  They  are  quickly  eliminated  by  all  the 
excreting  channels,  chiefly  by  the  kidneys.  Largo  doses  act 
as  depressants  of  the  spinal  cord  and  reflex  portions  of  the 
brain,  impairing  afferent  conductivity  of  nerves.  They 
weaken  heart  action  and  stop  it  in  diastole.  They  contract 
arterioles,  and  thus  reduce  blood  supply.  They  are  hence 
antithermal.  They  are  devoid  of  true  hypnotic  action,  such 
as  that  of  chloral  hydrate,  but  diminish  cerebral  excitability 
by  reducing  the  activity  of  the  reflex  parts  of  the  brain. 

Potassium  Bromide  is  the  salt  in  general  use.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  heating  bromine  and  caustic  potash  with  charcoal, 
and  contains  67  per  cent,  of  bromine.  It  occurs  in  colourless, 
cubical,  odourless  crystals,  which  have  a  pungent  saline  taste ; 
soluble  in  two  parts  cold  water,  and  in  two  hundred  parts  of 
rectified  spirit.  Horses  receiving  about  an  ounce,  or  dogs 
45  grains,  become  listless,  exhibit  muscular  feebleness, 
unsteadiness  of  gait,  impaired  reflex  movements ;  the  pulse  is 
feeble,  respmition  slowed,  rectal  and  cutaneous  temperature 


308  BROMIDES 

are  diminished,  and  secretion  of  urine  increased.  Some 
of  these  effects,  however,  are  due  to  the  potassium  rather 
than  to  the  bromine.  In  animals  receiving  repeated  full 
doses  of  bromides,  mechanical  irritation  of  the  cortical  sub- 
stance of  the  brain  fails  to  produce  epileptic  convulsions 
(Brunton).  Full  doses  continued  for  souie  time  induce 
bromism,  a  form  of  chronic  poisoning,  characterised  by 
depression  of  the  cerebral  faculties,  increased  secretion  from 
the  mucous  glands,  feebleness,  amemia,  and  wasting,  dilatation 
of  the  pupils,  and  eczematous  eruptions  produced  as  portions 
of  the  drug  are  excreted  through  the  skin.  Toxic  doses 
kill  by  asphyxia. 

I'otassium  bromide  is  used  in  nervous  disorders  to  allay 
excitement  and  relieve  spasm,  and  thus  indirectly  may  pro- 
duce sleep.  Professor  Robertson  recommended  both  bromine 
and  bromides  in  sclerosis  of  the  spinal  cord,  combined  or 
alternated  with  iodine,  iron,  arsenic,  or  mix  vomica.  It 
alleviates  and  wards  off  epileptic  convulsions  in  dogs,  whether 
connected  with  distemper  or  other  causes,  and  is  serviceable 
in  violent  cases  of  chorea.  It  has  no  constant  or  decided 
influence  in  controlling  the  spasms  of  tetanus  in  horses. 
Kaufmann  records  that  Vogel  of  Stuttgart  gave  nine 
horses  suffering  from  tetanus  three  to  six  ounces  daily 
without  moderating  the  spasms.  It  is  of  little  use  in 
asthma,  sometimes  checks  persistent  vomiting,  and  has 
considerable  anaphrodisiac  effect.  It  is  occasionally  used 
with  digitalis  to  quiet  cardiac  excitement.  Bromol,  or 
Tribromophenol,  a  crystalline  product  of  the  action  of 
bromine  on  phenol,  is  used  as  a  caustic,  disinfectant,  and 
intestinal  antiseptic.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
glycerin,  and  not  affected  by  the  gastric  secretion. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  potassium  bromide  horses  and  cattle 
take  5iv.  to  §i. ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx.,  in  bolus,  electuary,  or 
watery  solution,  repeated  three  or  four  times  daily.  Where 
cerebral  excitement  is  great,  and  sleep  is  sought,  chloral 
or  other  hypnotics  are  conjoined  with  the  bromide.  Bromide 
of  zinc  has  been  introduced  for  epileptic  cases  in  the  belief 
that  it  imitcs  the  actions  of  bromine  and  zinc. 


CHLORINE  309 


CHLORINE 


Chlorine  may  be  obtained  by  the  interaction  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  manganese  peroxide.  It  is  a  yellow-green 
gas,  with  a  peculiar  sutlbcating  odour  and  an  astringent 
taste.  Water  charged  with  two  volumes  of  chlorine  gas 
constitutes  the  liquor  chlori  — a  yellow-green,  chlorine- 
smelling  liquid,  readily  decomposed  by  air  and  sunshine. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Chlorine,  whether  as  gas  or  in  solution, 
is  irritant,  stimulant,  antiseptic,  deodorant,  disinfectant,  and 
j^arasiticide. 

One  part  in  8540  of  a  watery  solution  arrests  the  action  of 
ptyalin  on  starch  paste ;  one  in  7411  part  arrests  the  action 
of  diastase  :  one  in  27167  part  arrests  the  action  of  pepsin. 
Although  not  so  active  as  corrosive  sublimate,  one  22768 
part  kills  developed  bacteria;  but  one  1431  part  is  required 
to  prevent  their  reproduction,  and  1008  to  prevent  reproduc- 
tion of  spores.  One  part  to  1500  prevents  development  oi 
anthrax  bacilli.  The  bleaching,  antiseptic,  and  other  actions 
of  chlorine  result  from  the  breaking  up  of  coniplex  organic 
substances  by  the  chlorine  seizing  their  hydrogen,  while  the 
nascent  oxygen  thus  liberated  exerts  active  oxidation. 

Applied  to  the  skin  or  mucous  surfaces,  it  causes  irrita- 
tion, relieved  by  lime-water,  white  of  egg,  soap,  or  diluents. 
Irritation  of  the  air-passages,  induced  by  the  insufficiently 
diluted  gas,  is  counteracted  by  inhalation  of  ether,  weak 
ammonia,  or  the  vapour  of  warm  water  or  of  alcohol. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Diluted  chlorine  gas  is  inhaled,  or  the 
freshly  -  prepared  solution  applied  in  spray,  to  increase 
bronchial  secretion,  to  stimulate  and  disinfect  ulcerated 
sore-throat  in  horses,  and  abate  the  discharge  and  fcetor 
from  diseases  of  the  facial  and  frontal  sinuses.  Both  gas 
and  solution  are  used  for  the  destruction  of  strongyli 
infesting  the  air -passages  of  calves  and  lambs,  and  the 
liquor  chlori,  and  the  equally  effectual  but  less  irritant 
sulphurous  acid  solution,  are  frequently  employed  intra- 
tracheally,  while  stock-owners  also  continue  to  use  turpentine 
drenches.  It  is  recommended  as  an  antidote  in  poisoning 
by  hydrocyanic   acid   and    strychnine,  forming    with    the 


310  IODINE 

alkaloid  an  insolnl»lc  compound.  The  liquor  clilori  is  used 
as  a  stimulant,  antiseptic,  and  deodorant  for  the  same  ])ur- 
poses  as  chlorinated  lime  and  soda.  It  relieves  the  itching 
of  various  skin  diseases. 

For  disinfecting  or  deodorising,  the  materials  for  evolving 
shlorine  should  be  placed  in  earthenware  vessels  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  boxes  or  sheds  in  order  to  facilitate 
(lifl'usion  of  the  heavy  vapour.  One  part  each  of  common 
salt  and  manganese  black  oxide,  intimately  mixed,  are 
treated  with  two  measures  of  oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  with 
two  measures  of  water.  For  more  gradual  production  of 
the  gas,  bleaching  powder  is  mixed  with  potash  alum. 
Where  chlorine  is  used  for  thorough  disinfection,  the  build- 
ings nnist  be  cleared  of  animals ;  large  volumes  of  gas 
liberated;  sunlight  admitted  to  intensify  the  action;  the 
walls  and  woodwork  washed  Avith  a  strong  Avatery  solution. 
It  may  be  fittingly  used  in  conjunction  Avith  the  tar  acids, 
but  is  incompatible  Avith  sulphurous  acid. 


IODINE 

loDUM.  A  solid  non-metallic  element,  obtained  from  the 
ashes  of  seaweeds,  and  from  natiA'e  iodides  and  iodates. 
(B.P.) 

Iodine  is  present  in  sea-Avater,  and  is  thence  taken  up  by 
sea  plants  and  animals.  It  is  prepared  from  kelp,  and  from 
the  mother-liquors  of  the  Chili  nitre  mines  iodine  is  also 
obtained. 

Properties. — Iodine  occurs  in  soft,  friable,  black  or  blue- 
black,  rhombic  prisms  or  octahedrons  of  a  metallic  lustre. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  4-95.  It  has  an  acrid,  disagreeable 
taste,  and  a  pungent,  unpleasant  odour,  resembling  that  of 
chlorine  or  sea-Avater.  Applied  to  the  skin  it  produces  a 
broAvn  stain,  readily  removed  by  alkalies.  At  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  it  slowly  evaporates  ;  at  237°  Fahr. 
it  melts;  at  392°  Fahr.  it  boils,  volatilising  entirely  in  violet- 
coloured,  irritating,  antiseptic  vapours,  nine  times  as  heavy 
as   air.     Willi  Avater  it  forms  a   broAvnish  -  yelloAV   solution, 


ANTISEPTIC,  IRRITANT,  AND    AL1ERATIVE  311 

containing,  however,  only  -05  per  cent.  It  is  dissolved  by 
twelve  parts  of  rectified  spirit,  and  still  more  readily  by 
ether,  volatile  oils,  chloroform,  carbon  disulphide,  and  also 
by  solution  of  potassium  iodide,  and  other  salts.  It  readily 
unites  with  metals;  the  iodides  of  the  alkalies  closely 
resemble  iodine  in  their  actions ;  the  iodides  of  the  heavy 
metals  exhibit  chiefly  the  properties  of  the  base. 

Iodine  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  characteristic  odour, 
by  the  brown  stain  it  leaves  on  the  fingers,  by  the  violet- 
coloured  vapour  it  evolves  when  heated,  and  by  the  blue 
colour  it  forms  with  a  cold  solution  of  starch.  This  starch 
test  is  inapplicable  when  iodine  is  in  combination,  from 
which,  however,  it  is  readily  set  free  by  a  drop  of  weak 
chlorine  solution,  or  of  diluted  nitric  acid.  Iodine  is  liable 
to  intentional  adulteration  as  well  as  accidental  impurities. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Iodine  resembles  the  other  halogens, 
alike  in  chemical  and  physiological  actions.  Its  notable 
affinity  for  hydrogen,  and  its  combining  with  albumin, 
determine  its  stimulant,  irritant,  and  caustic  effects,  as  well 
as  its  antiseptic,  alterative,  and  resolvent  actions.  It  acts 
notably  on  mucous  membranes,  skin,  and  lymphatic  glands. 
It  is  almost  a  specific  for  diabetes  insipidus  in  horses.  Full 
doses  persisted  with  produce  a  state  of  debility  and  emacia- 
tion termed  iodism.  Externally,  it  is  applied  as  an 
antiseptic,  stimulant,  counter-irritant,  and  parasiticide.  It 
is  employed  for  the  several  purposes  of  an  antiseptic, 
deodorant,  and  disinfectant. 

General  Actions. — It  is  an  active  antiseptic,  whether  used 
in  the  gaseous,  fluid,  or  solid  state.  One  part  in  4125  parts 
of  water  arrests  the  action  of  diastase  and  ptyalin ;  one  part 
in  7817  arrests  the  action  of  pepsin;  one  part  in  7000 
destroys  both  bacilH  and  their  spores  (Wernitz  and  Koch). 
Iodine  stains  the  skin  yellow-brown,  and  is  almost  the  only 
substance  that  penetrates  the  unbroken  skin ;  strong  solu- 
tions cause  hyper£emia,  irritation,  and  desquamation  of  the 
cuticle;  but  the  irritant  action  can  readily  be  regulated. 
The  skin  and  nutritive  processes  may  be  stimulated ;  struc- 
tures, whether  natural  or  morbid,  may  be  gradually  liquefied 
and  absorbed;   tissues  may  be  more  rapidly  dissolved  and 


3 1 2  IODINE — lODISM 

cauterised.  A  like  gradation  of  etiect  is  produced  when 
iodine  is  brought  into  contact  with  mucous  or  other  struc- 
tures. It  is  volatile,  penetrating,  and  adherent  for  consider- 
able periods  to  parts  with  which  it  is  j^laced  in  contact. 
Large  doses  if  swallowed  cause  gastro-enteritis,  and  if 
inhaled  produce  rhinitis,  laryngitis,  and  bronchitis.  In  the 
stomach  it  is  converted  into  iodides  and  iodates.  Medicinal 
doses  are  absorbed,  stimulate  glandular  activity,  and  promote 
metabolism.  In  the  tissues  iodine  may  again  be  set  free, 
and  combine  with  serum  albumin,  but  iodine  albuminates 
are  unstable,  and  hence  readily  removed.  This  appears  to 
explain  the  action  of  iodine  and  its  compounds  in  the 
liquefaction  and  absorption  of  pathological  products.  It 
combines  with  lead,  mercury,  or  other  metals  present  in  the 
body,  and  hastens  their  removal.  It  is  excreted  by  the 
mucous  surfaces  and  glands,  notably  in  the  saliva,  perspira- 
tion, and  urine,  while  full  doses  during  excretion  irritate  the 
excreting  channels. 

Although  the  element  itself  is  less  active  than  chlorine  or 
bromine,  its  compounds  are  more  active,  probably  becanes 
they  are  more  readily  decomposed.  The  iodides  of  potas- 
sium, sodium,  and  ammonium  conjoin  the  effects  of  their 
salt-radicle  and  base,  but  are  less  irritant,  less  active  as 
gland  stimulants,  although  more  prone  to  affect  the  kidneys. 
The  iodides  of  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  mercury  mainly 
exhibit  the  actions  of  their  powerful  bases.  In  stimulating 
the  skin  and  mucous  surfaces  iodine  shows  some  resem- 
blance to  arsenic  and  sulphur. 

Toxic  Effects. — Hertwig  gave  horses  forty  to  sixty  grains 
of  solid  iodine  twice  daily  for  fourteen  days,  with  the  efl'ect 
of  causing  slight  diarrhoea,  with  black  evacuations  and  in- 
creasing emaciation.  Professor  Dick  repeatedly  gave  larger 
quantities  for  several  weeks,  without  observing  any  other 
symptom  than  the  total  refusal  of  water.  To  one  horse  he 
administered  for  three  weeks  doses  of  two  drachms  per  day, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  experiment  doses  amoimting 
to  two  ounces  daily.  Several  ounces  have  also  been  given 
to  cattle  with  the  like  negative  results.  In  many  of  these 
cases  the  iodine,  having  been  given  in  the  solid  form,  must 


MEDICINAL   USES  313 

have  been  slowl}-,  perhaps  only  partially,  dissolved  and 
absorbed,  and,  during  tardy  solution,  may  in  great  part  have 
been  neutralised  b}-  contact  Avith  starch  food. 

Dogs  receiving  two  or  three  drachms  of  solid  iodine  S2)eedily 
get  rid  of  it  by  vomiting ;  but  when  the  cesophagus  is  tied 
such  doses  cause  fatal  gastro-enteritis  in  two  to  seven  days, 
leaving  numerous  yellow  spots  and  little  ulcers  in  the  stomach, 
and  a  peculiar  rose  tint  of  the  liver  (Cogswell).  Hertwig 
found  that  such  doses  killed  every  dog  to  which  they  were 
given,  inducing  sero-sanguineous  exudation  and  hsematuria. 
Fruhner  states  that  intravenous  injection  causes  solution  of 
the  red  globules,  inducing  hajmoglobinuria,  anaemia,  lung 
oedema,  hsemorrhagic  inflammation  of  the  pleura  and  peri- 
toneum, and  bloody  discharges  from  the  bowels  and  kidneys. 

lodism,  produced  by  prolonged  administration  of  full  doses, 
is  characterised  by  loss  of  appetite,  an  irritable,  catarrhal  con- 
dition of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nostrils,  eyes,  throat, 
and  digestive  organs,  a  vesicular  skin  eruption,  abstinence 
from  water,  diminution  of  the  urinary  secretion,  languor, 
inaptitude  for  exertion,  elevation  of  temperature  and  emacia- 
tion. Such  effects  are  produced  in  some  animals  by  full 
doses  given  for  eight  or  ten  days.  But  in  ordinary  practice 
iodism  is  exceedingly  rare  either  in  man  or  theloAver  animals. 
Where  it  occurs,  it  is  arrested  by  withholding  the  medicine, 
exhibiting  starch,  in  order  to  convert  any  unabsorbed  iodine 
into  the  innocuous  starch  iodide,  and  giving  mineral  tonics, 
bitters,  and  nutritive  diet. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Iodine  is  prescribed  as  an  alterative  and 
resolvent  in  enlargement  of  the  liver  and  udder,  in  chronic 
rheumatism,  especially  involving  the  joints,  in  hydro  thorax 
and  ascites,  and  in  persistent  cases  of  psoriasis,  in  which 
Professor  ^Villiams  uses  it  both  externally  and  internally 
in  the  form  of  liquor  arsenii  et  hydrargyri  iodidi.  Some 
American  practitioners  conjoin  iodine  with  carbolic  acid  in 
febrile  attacks,  especially  when  depending  upon  malaria. 
Dry,  congested  conditions  of  the  respiratory  mucous  mem- 
brane are  sometimes  relieved,  and  secretion  of  mucus  en- 
couraged, by  inhalation  of  steam  or  warm  air,  medicated  with 
a  little  iodine  tincture.    Similar  inhalations  are  also  beneficial 


314  IODINE 

in  checking  muco-purulent  discharges  from  the  nostrils  or 
sinuses  of  the  head,  and  in  putrid  and  infective  sore-throat. 
In  purpura  haemorrhagica,  Dieckerhoti"  reconunends  the 
intra-tracheal  injection  of  eight  to  twelve  drachms,  twice  daily, 
of  a  solution  of  one  part  iodine,  five  of  potassium  iodine,  and 
one  hundred  of  water.  Injections  carefully  and  slowly  made 
are  not  followed  by  coughing.  Many  British  veterinary 
surgeons  testify  to  the  value  of  this  treatment  in  reducing 
the  swellings  of  the  disease. 

Iodine  is  pre-eminently  useful  in  that  variety  of  diabetes 
insipidus,  or  polyuria,  atiecting  horses  in  which  twenty  i)r 
thirty  pints  of  urine  are  sometimes  passed  daily,  thirst  is 
insatiable,  and  strength  and  flesh  are  rapidly  lost.  Iodine 
given  night  and  morning  seldom  fails  to  arrest  this  disease 
in  two  or  three  days.  How  it  does  so  is  not  satisfactorily 
explained.  It  may  exert  some  specific  action  on  the  lymphatic 
glands  concerned  in  secondary  digestion,  or  its  antiseptic 
eflects  may  control  excessive  production  of  injurious  enzymes. 
But  neither  quinine  nor  iron,  although  possessed  of  notable 
antiseptic  properties,  is  as  effectual  as  iodine  in  this  form  of 
diabetes.  Neither  potassium  nor  iron  iodide  is  as  trustworthy 
as  the  crude  drug.  Mr.  Thomas  Dollar,  London,  has  experi- 
mented  with  various  more  correct  chemical  combinations, 
but  finds  none  so  reliable  as  iodine  5ss.,  iron  sulphate  5ij->  ^^d 
powdered  gentian  ^iv.,  made  into  bolus  with  treacle,  syrup, 
or  meal  and  w- ater.  This  is  repeated  once,  in  bad  cases  twice, 
daily.    Rarely  are  more  than  six  doses  required  to  eftect  a' cure. 

Externally,  iodine  is  used  as  a  stinudant  and  resolvent 
for  chronic  synovitis,  bursal  swellings,  muscular  pains,  slight 
strains  of  tendons,  thickening  of  periosteum,  and  indurations 
of  the  udder  and  other  glands.  It  is  also  used  as  a  counter- 
irritant  in  sore  throat  in  horses,  in  circumcribed  lung  con- 
solidation, especially  in  dogs,  and  in  sub-acute  attacks  of 
pleurisy.  It  is  a  serviceable  stimulant  and  deodoriser  for 
unhealthy  and  malignant  wounds.  Indolent  ulcers  are  some- 
times healed  by  application  of  a  piece  of  lint,  spread  with 
simple  cerate,  sprinkled  with  one  to  five  grains  of  iodine,  and 
covered  with  a  piece  of  oiled  silk  or  tinfoil.  But  excess  of 
iodine  nuist  be  avoided,  otherwise  corrosive  instead  of  healing 


IODINE    SOLUTIOXS  315 

effects  are  produced.  Dilute  iodine  solutions  are  injected, 
as  stimulating  antiseptics  and  promoters  of  adhesion,  into 
cysts  and  abscesses  from  which  the  contents  have  been  with- 
drawn. Conjoined  with  iodide,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  it  is 
injected  into  the  trachea  in  hoose  in  calves.  A  solution  of 
one  drachm  in  sixteen  drachms  of  rectified  spirit  is  employed 
as  an  injection  for  hydrocele.  On  account  of  its  penetrat- 
ing the  hair  follicles  aiid  ducts,  it  is  serviceable  in  per- 
sistent cases  of  mange,  eczema,  and  psoriasis,  in  both  the 
crj-ptogamic  contagious  and  herpetic  forms  of  ringworm, 
and  in  such  cases  is  sometimes  mixed  or  alternated  with 
wood-tar  oils,  sulphur,  or  mercurials.  Like  most  effectual 
antiseptics,  it  destroys  skin  parasites,  bots,  and  entozoa.  It 
is  an  effective  but  expensive  deodoriser  and  disinfectant. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses,  grs.  xx.  to  5i- ;  cattle,  5ss.  to  ^hs. ; 
sheep,  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xl.;  pigs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.;  dogs,  grs.  iij. 
to  grs.  viij.  Such  doses  are  repeated  once  or  twice  daily,  given 
a  couple  of  hours  after  eating,  in  order  to  diminish  the  pro- 
portion otherwise  converted  into  the  mild,  insoluble  starch 
iodide,  continued  for  a  week  qr  ten  days,  withheld  for  a  day 
or  two,  and,  if  necessary,  again  resumed.  Larger  doses, 
although  they  may  be  given  with  impunity,  do  not  ensure 
better  curative  results. 

Iodine  is  administered  in  bolus ;  but,  handy  although  this 
form  is  for  horses  and  dogs,  it  is  less  certain  than  a  good 
aqueous  solution,  such  as  is  obtained  by  mixing  two  parts 
iodine  and  one  potassium  iodide  with  six  or  eight  of  water. 
The  potassium  iodide  ensures  perfect  solution  and  full  action 
of  the  iodine.  This  concentrated  solution  is  diluted  with 
water  as  required,  the  dose  is  easily  ascertained,  for  the 
iodide  is  about  half  as  powerful  as  the  iodine. 

For  external  purposes  the  tincture  and  compound  aqueous 
solution  are  generally  suitable.  AYhen  gentle  stimulation 
and  absorption  of  iodine  are  desired  weak  solutions  are  used. 
As  a  counter-irritant  about  two  parts  iodine  and  one  potas- 
sium iodide  are  dissolved  in  sixteen  of  water  or  fatty  matters. 
For  reducing  bony  enlargements  iodine  ointment  is  some- 
times mixed  in  equal  proportion  with  mercury  biniodide 
ointment.     For   wounds   ten    strains    each    of    iodine   and 


3 1 G  SULPHUR 

potassium  iodide  to  an  ounce  of  water  usually  suffice.  Two 
parts  iodine,  one  part  potassium  iodide,  four  wood-tar  oil, 
and  thirty-two  of  lard  or  oil,  make  a  serviceable  mange 
dvcsswj;. 

Tincture  of  iodine  is  made  with  half  an  ounce  each  of 
iodine,  potassium  iodide,  and  water,  and  sufficient  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.)  to  produce  twenty  ounces  of  the  tincture. 
Liquor  iodi,  or  Lugol's  solution,  contains  iodine  two,  potas- 
sium iodide  three,  and  water  forty  parts.  Unguentum  iodi 
contains  20  grains  each  of  iodine  and  potassium  iodide,  GO 
grains  of  glycerin,  and  400  grains  of  lard.  Glycerin  of 
iodine  contains  1  of  iodine  to  50  of  glycerin.  An  injection 
for  bursa)  is  made  with  16  grains  each  of  iodine  and  jwtas- 
sium  iodide,  dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  pure  glycerin  or  of 
distilled  water.  Tinctura  iodi  decolorata  is  made  Avith 
250  grains  of  iodine  dissolved,  with  a  gentle  heat,  in  5| 
ounces  of  rectified  spirit;  when  cold,  add  10  drachms  of 
strong  solution  of  ammonia;  and,  when  decolorised,  dilute 
with  sufficient  spirit  to  form  1  pint.  Tinctura  iodi  oleosa 
is  composed  of  iodine  one,  rectified  spirit  nine,  and  castor 
oil  two  parts.  This  tincture  applied  as  a  pigment  does  not 
crack  the  skin  (Extra  Pharmacopceia). 

Iodide  of  sulphur  is  a  stimulant  and  parasiticide.  It  is 
prepared  by  mixing,  in  a  Wedgwood  or  glass  mortar,  four 
parts  iodine  with  one  sublimed  sulphur,  and  gently  heating 
imtil  the  mixture  liquefies.  The  red-brown  liquid,  as  it  cools, 
becomes  a  grey-black  crystalline  mass,  insoluble  in  Avater 
and  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  glycerin  and  fats,  Avith  eight  or 
ten  parts  of  Avhich  it  is  mixed  for  liniments  or  ointments, 
Avhicli  are  suitable  for  chronic  scaly  skin  complaints,  ring- 
Avorm  and  mange. 

SULPHUR 

Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  articles 
of  the  Materia  Mcdica.  It  occurs  in  many  animal  substances 
as  sulphates,  and  notably  in  bile  and  the  albuminoids ;  in 
the  strong-smelling  A'olatile  oils  of  the  Crucifera^  and  Um- 
bellifera3;  in  various  mineral  Avaters  as  hydrogen  sulphide, 


PREPARATIONS  317 

and  in  the  pyrites  or  metallic  sulphides,  from  which  it  is 
extracted  by  roasting.  The  extensive  supplies  of  sulphur 
required  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  sulphurous 
acid,  gunpowder,  lucifer  matches,  and  vulcanised  indiarubber, 
are,  however,  chiefly  obtained  froju  the  native  sulphur, 
occurring  as  a  product  of  volcanic  action  in  beds  of  blue 
clay  in  Sicily  and  Italy. 

The  crude  sulphur  is  purified  by  distillation,  and  when  run 
into  wooden  moulds  forms  the  stick  or  roll  sulphur,  which 
is  yellow,  crystalline,  and  so  bad  a  conductor  of  heat  that  it 
often  cracks  when  held  in  the  warm  hand. 

Sublimed  sulphur,  also  called  flowers  of  sulphur,  is 
prepared  by  distilling  the  crude  sulphur,  and  conductiug 
it  ij;i  the  state  of  vapour  into  large  chambers,  where  it 
condenses  in  a  fine  yellow  powder  consisting  of  spherical 
granules. 

Precipitated  sulphur,  or  milk  of  sulphur,  is  prepared  by 
boiling  sublimed  sulphur  with  slaked  lime,  when  calcium 
sulphide  and  thiosulphate  are  formed,  and  when  treated 
with  diluted  hydrochloric  acid  are  decomposed,  sulphur  being 
precipitated  in  a  finely  divided  white  powder. 

Sulphur  vivum,  caballum,  or  horse  sulphur,  the  residue 
left  in  the  subliming  pots,  must  be  used  with  caution,  for, 
besides  other  impurities,  it  contains  arsenic. 

Properties.^ — Sulphur  occurs  in  six  allotropic  forms,  mani- 
festing differences  in  physical  condition,  specific  gravity, 
fusing  point,  solubility  in  carbon  disulphide,  and  electric 
affinities.  Most  varieties  have  a  yellow  colour,  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  2-,  have  little  or  no  taste,  until  heated  are 
insoluble  in  water  and  cold  alcohol,  and  are  freely  soluble  in 
benzol,  carbon  disulphide,  fixed  and  volatile  oils.  All  varieties 
melt  at  240°  Fahr.,  are  entirely  volatilised  by  heat,  inflame  at 
500°  Fahr.,  burning  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  and  giving  off 
suffocating  fumes  of  sulphurous  anhydride  (SOg).  As  it  is 
raised  from  the  melting  to  the  boiling  point  it  exhibits 
various  curious  changes. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Sulphur  applied  to  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces  is  a  feeble,  mechanical  stimulant,  and  hence  relieves 
chronic  passive  congestion.     It  destroys  parasites  infesting 


313  SULPHUR 

the    skin.      Administered     internally   it     is    laxative    and 
alterative. 

General  Actions. — It  destroys  fungi  on  vines,  and  kills 
similar  parasites  atiecting  plants  and  animals.  How  much 
of  this  toxic  effect  depends  on  the  stdphur  acting  as  sulphur, 
and  how  much  on  the  alkaline  sulphides,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  and  sulphurous  acid,  into  which  it  is  gradually 
converted,  has  not  been  determined.  Sulphur  when 
swallowed  is  slowly  acted  upon  by  the  alkaline  secretions 
of  the  intestines,  and  small  quantities  are  converted  into 
sulphides,  which  stimulate  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane. 
A  further  change  liberates  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which 
imparts  its  disagreeable  smell  to  the  breath,  secretions  of 
the  skin,  and  bowels.  The  nuitton  of  sheep  receiving  d^ily 
several  ounces  of  sulphur  is  stated  to  acquire  a  distinct 
sulphurous  flavour.  The  greater  part  of  the  sidphur 
swallowed  is  removed  unchanged  by  the  bowels,  but  a  por- 
tion is  excreted  in  the  urine  as  sulphates.  The  alkaline 
sulphides  are  sometimes  substituted  for  sulphur,  and,  like 
it,  are  laxative  and  parasiticide. 

Toxic  Actions. — One  pound  given  to  horses  causes  colic, 
purging,  prostration,  and  sometimes  fatal  gastro- enteritis 
(Moiroud).  A  horse  aft'ected  with  glanders  received  doses 
beginning  with  an  ounce,  and  gradually  increased  by  addi- 
tion of  an  ounce  daily  until  the  sixteenth  day,  when  he  had 
got  136  ounces.  Diarrhoea  supervened  on  the  seventh  day; 
but  appetite  remained  throughout  unimpaired,  the  urinary 
secretion  unaffected,  the  pulse  and  breathing  normal.  By 
the  third  day  the  perspiration  had  a  sulphurous  smell,  and 
a  piece  of  paper,  moistened  with  load  acetate  and  laid  on  the 
skin,  became  grey.  The  muco-purulent  discharge  from  the 
nostrils  increased  daily;  the  patient,  though  well  fed, 
became  gradually  emaciated,  and  so  debilitated  that  by  the 
seventh  day  he  was  unable  to  rise.  After  the  tenth  day, 
the  blood,  even  in  the  arteries,  became  dark-coloured,  thin, 
and  slow  to  coagulate.  On  the  seventeenth  day  the  animal 
was  destroyed.  The  mucous  lining  of  the  stomach,  colon, 
and  ciecum  was  reddish-blue,  soft,  and  easily  torn.  The 
lungs,  muscles,  and  intestinal  contents  smelt   strongly  of 


MEDICINAL    USES  319 

hydrogen   suljihide,   but    the   blood    had    no    such    odour 
(Hertwig). 

Medicinal  Uses. — Sulphur  is  given  to  the  several  domestic 
animals  as  a  laxative  where  more  poAverful  purgatives 
might  irritate — as  in  pregnancy,  convalescence  from  acute 
diseases  in  young  animals,  and  in  piles.  Its  alterative 
and  stimulaiit  eftects  on  the  skin  have  led  to  its  use  in 
rheumatism,  eczema,  and  cutaneous  diseases.  Some  practi- 
tioners affirm  that  it  benefits  dry,  congested  conditions  of 
the  respiratory  membrane  by  stimulating  its  epithelial  cells 
and  increasing  movements  of  the  cilia  (Ringer).  It  has  no 
special  vermicide  action.  The  piece  of  roll  sulphur  fre- 
quently placed  in  the  dog's  trough,  being  insoluble  in  water, 
has  no  effect  in  preventing,  as  is  popularly  believed,  dis- 
temper and  other  canine  disorders. 

Sulphur  dusted  on  the  skin  slightly  stimulates,  but  when 
dissolved  by  admixture  with  an  alkali  or  oil,  and  smartly 
rubbed  in,  it  more  actively  stimulates  the  cells  of  the  rete 
Malpighii,  and  thus  hastens  desquamation;  while  it  also 
increases  contractility  of  the  muscular  textures,  and  hence 
overcomes  passive  cutaneous  hypersemia  (Practitioner  1881). 
It  thus  promotes  a  healthier  action  in  chronic  eczema  and 
psoriasis,  and  in  such  cases  sulphur  dressings  are  with 
benefit  conjoined  or  alternated  with  iodine  or  tar  acids,  and 
are  aided  by  the  internal  use  of  sulphur  and  arsenic. 
Infriction  of  sulphur  ointment  is  stated  to  relieve  the  pain 
of  rheumatic  muscles  and  joints. 

For  the  prompt  and  effectual  cure  of  mange  and  scab  it 
is  essential  to  reach  the  female  parasites  in  their  burrows. 
Hair  or  wool  must  be  closely  clipped  or  shaved  ;  the  affected 
parts  freely  rubbed  with  soft  soap,  allowed  to  remain  on  for 
twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour;  crusts  and  scales  are  thus 
softened,  and  removed  by  subsequent  thorough  scrubbing 
with  warm  water.  These  preliminary  measures  are  requisite 
to  enable  any  parasiticide  to  reach  the  sarcoptes.  Kiichen- 
meister  demonstrated  that  the  parasites,  although  they 
lived  for  several  days  in  sulphur  ointment,  perished  in 
fifteen  minutes  in  mixtures  of  sulphur  and  potash  solution. 
This  combination  quickly  produces  hydrogen  and  other  toxic 


320  SULPHUR 

sulphides.  Numerous  foruuibe  iire  iu  use.  Two  parts 
sulphur  and  one  part  potassium  carbonate  are  dissolved, 
with  the  aid  of  gentle  heat,  in  ten  or  twelve  of  lard  or  oil. 
A  still  more  effectual  sarcopticide  is  made  by  addition  of 
two  parts  of  benzine.  Sulphur  iodide  is  very  useful  for 
such  cases.  In  chronic  mange  and  scab  a  second  or  third 
soaping,  scrubbing,  and  dressing,  at  intervals  of  a  week, 
may  be  requisite;  and  in  inveterate  cases  some  of  the 
penetrating  tar  oils,  or  a  mercurial,  may  be  used. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  laxative,  horses  take  §j.  to  §iv. ;  cattle, 
giij.  to  gvi. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  5iv.  to  §j. ;  dogs,  3j-  to  5iv.  As 
an  alterative,  one-fourth  of  these  doses  may  be  given.  The 
precipitated  being  more  finely  divided  than  the  sublimed 
sulphur,  is  somewhat  more  certain  and  active  as  a  laxative. 
Sulphur  is  conveniently  administered  suspended  in  gruel,  or 
treacle  and  water,  or  dissolved  in  milk  or  oil,  and  is  often 
conjoined  with  aromatics,  salines,  or  mercurials.  For  horses 
or  cattle  a  laxative  mixture  is  made  with  one  to  two  ounces 
each  of  sulphur  and  cream  of  tartar,  dissolved  in  water, 
with  half  a  pound  of  treacle;  one-third  of  this  dose  suflices 
for  sheep  and  pigs ;  one-sixth  part  for  dogs.  A  convenient 
alterative  for  horses  or  cattle  consists  of  an  ounce  each  of 
sulphur  and  ginger,  and  half  an  ounce  of  nitre,  repeated 
once  or  twice  daily. 

Tlic  ointment  usually  consists  of  one  part  of  sulphur  and 
four  of  vaseline  or  lard ;  one-fourth  part  mercury  ointment 
is  sometimes  added.  A  liniment  is  made  with  one  part  of 
sulphur  and  six  or  eight  of  linseed  or  other  fixed  oil ;  one 
part  of  tar  oil  or  of  Barbadoes  tar  is  often  added.  Inveterate 
cases  of  grease  have  been  treated  with  eight  parts  of 
sulphur,  four  of  potassium  carbonate,  one  of  carbolic  acid, 
with  thirty- two  each  of  lard  and  olive  oil.  The  dress- 
ing is  freely  rubbed  in,  allowed  to  remain  on  for  two  or 
three  days,  and  then  washed  oft*  with  soap  and  warm  water. 
For  itch  papules  and  vesicles  in  human  patients.  Dr.  Tilbury 
Fox  recommends  a  drachm  of  sulphur,  eight  grains  each  of 
ammoniated  mercury  and  creosote,  twenty  minims  chamo- 
mile oil,  thoroughly  mixed  with  two  ounces  lard.  This 
prescription  answers  well  for  sijnilar  cases  in  dogs. 


ACIDS — ACIDA  321 


A.CIDS-ACIDA 


The  mineral  acids,  with  acetic,  tartaric,  and  oxalic  acids, 
resemble  each  other  in  their  actions  and  uses,  and  may  be 
conveniently  grouped  together.  Boric,  sulphurous,  carbolic, 
salicylic,  tannic,  and  hydrocyanic  acids  differ  chemically  and 
physiologically,  and  Avill  be  dealt  with  separately. 

Acids  are  hydrogen  salts  which  in  presence  of  an  alkali 
exchange  for  it  their  hydrogen,  or  a  portion  of  it.  They 
redden  various  blue  and  violet  colouring  matters,  and  most 
have  a  sour  taste.  In  virtue  of  their  affinity  for  basic  sub- 
stances and  for  water,  acids,  especially  when  concentrated, 
form  new  compounds  with  the  animal  tissues.  Their  primary 
effects  are  (1)  to  unite  with  and  neutralise  the  free  alkali 
which  is  present  in  most  normal  tissues ;  (2)  the  stronger  often 
displace  weaker  acids ;  (3)  they  precipitate  albumin,  while 
all  the  mineral  acids,  except  nitric,  again  dissolve  albumin. 
When  introduced  into  the  blood,  they,  moreover,  decompose 
haemoglobin,  forming  a  substance  which  parts  with  oxygen 
much  less  readily.  They  coagulate  m3^osin,  and  hence  cause 
muscular  rigidity.  The  stronger  acids,  especially  when  con- 
centrated, are  caustics  and  escharotics.  Weaker  and  more 
diluted  acids  act  as  rubefacients,  cause  temporary  congestion, 
and,  if  freely  or  continuously  applied,  inflame  the  dermis, 
producing  vesication.  They  destroy  enzymes  and  check 
proliferation  of  organised  ferments. 

Acids,  when  swallowed,  are  corrosive,  irritant  poisons. 
As  with  other  irritants,  they  are  more  active  and  fatal  in 
horses  and  dogs  than  in  cattle  or  sheep,  in  which  their  toxic 
effects  are  diminished  by  admixture  with  the  bulky  food 
usually  present  in  the  stomachs  of  these  ruminants.  '  In 
cases  of  acute  poisoning,  where  death  has  not  occurred  too 
quickly,  much  albumin,  hsematin,  and  indican  have  appeared 
in  the  urine,  and  fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver,  umscles,  and 
kidneys  has  been  found '  (Dr.  Lauder  Brunton).  Their  appro- 
priate antidotes  are  alkaline  bicarbonates,  or  calcium  and 
magnesium  carbonates,  given  with  such  diluents  and  demul- 
cents as  milk,  oil,  and  linseed  gruel,  and  followed  by  opium 
and  fluid  nutrients. 


322  GENERAL   ACTION    OF    ACIDS 

Acids  in  the  mouth  increase  the  saliva  from  the  parotid 
and  submaxillary  glands,  have  no  effect  on  the  sympathetic 
saliva,  and  effectually  moisten  the  fauces  and  allay  thirst 
(p.  93).  As  they  are  in  part  neutralised  by  the  alkaline  saliva, 
the  resulting  salts  exert  some  astringent  and  antiseptic  effects. 
If  not  neutralised  before  they  reach  the  intestines,  they 
increase  their  alkaline  secretions,  and  also  that  of  the  alkaline 
bile.  Dr.  Sidney  Ringer  (Handbook  of  Thercq^eutics)  believes 
that  acids  increase  alkaline  secretions,  while,  conversely, 
alkalies  increase  acid  secretions.  He,  moreover,  states  that 
acids  hinder  acid  secretion.  Whether  they  do  so  merely 
by  neutralising  the  alkalies  which  stimulate  acid  secretion, 
or  by  some  further  action,  is  not  ascertained. 

Acids  assist  digestion  in  several  ways. 

(1.)  They  furnish  the  gastric  juice  with  its  acid  con- 
stituent, which,  unlike  the  pepsin,  is  not  capable  of 
reproduction,  and  without  which  the  digestive  power  of  the 
gastric  solvent  is  impaired.  Hydrochloric  acid,  being  the 
chief  natural  gastric  acid,  is  generally  prescribed  when  the 
acidity  of  the  gastric  fluid  is  believed  to  be  deficient,  as  it 
sometimes  is  in  yoimg  animals  living  chiefly  on  milk,  in 
febrile,  enfeebled,  or  old  subjects,  or  in  those  suffering  from 
gastric  catarrh.  To  aid  digestion,  acids  are  given  shortly 
after  food.  Where  there  is  Avant  of  appetite  and  irregular 
action  of  the  bowels,  acids  are  given  conjoined  with  bitters. 

(2.)  Acids  check  gastric  secretion  when  excessive,  as  it 
appears  to  be  in  cases  of  indigestion,  where  the  fluids  in  the 
mouth  are  sour,  not  only  after,  but  before  feeding,  and  where 
animals  instinctively  lick  the  walls,  or  eat  alkaline  earthy 
matters.  In  such  cases  the  alkaline  treatment  frequently 
adopted  affords  temporary  relief;  but  a  laxative,  followed 
by  acids,  generally  removes  the  conditions  on  Avhich  the 
dyspepsia  depends.  To  such  patients  acids  are  given  before 
feeding. 

(3.)  Acids  acting  antiseptically  check  fermentation,  and 
thus  prevent  formation  of  gases  and  irritating  organic  acids. 
In  this  way  they  are  serviceable  not  only  in  indigestion,  but 
in  certain  cases  of  diarrhoea. 

Before  reaching  the  circulation,  acids  must  pass  through 


MINERAL   ACIDS  323 

the  liver,  where  they  appear  to  set  free  bihary  acids  (Ringer), 
stimulate  expulsion  of  bile  from  the  liver  and  gall-bladder, 
alter  processes  of  tissue  change,  and  check  formation  of  urea 
(Brunton).  As  hepatic  tonics  and  stinuilants,  nitric  and 
nitro-hydrochloric  acids  are  preferred. 

When  they  enter  the  blood,  their  acidity  must  be  con- 
siderably neutralised.  They,  nevertheless,  still  act  specially 
as  acids,  for  their  alterative  and  tonic  effects  are  not  the 
same  as  those  of  the  salts  they  form  when  fully  neutralised. 
They  are  excreted  from  the  body  in  part  through  the  in- 
testinal glandular  apparatus,  but  chiefly  by  the  kidneys,  in 
combination  with  ammonia  and  other  bases.  Full  or  repeated 
doses  diminish,  how^ever,  the  alkalinity,  or  increase  the  nor- 
mal acidity  of  the  urine.  Acetic,  citric,  and  tartaric  acids, 
being  readily  oxidised  into  carbonates,  exert  a  primary  acid, 
but  a  secondary  alkaline  effect,  notably  on  the  urine. 

On  account  of  their  diminishing  secretion  of  gastric  juice, 
acids  should  not  be  prescribed  for  more  than  a  week  or  ten 
days  at  a  time.  They  must  be  given  freely  diluted,  and  are 
often  conjoined  with  bitters,ironsalts,and  alcoholic  stimulants. 

The  several  acids,  although  possessing  properties  in 
common,  have  distinguishing  characteristics.  Hydrochloric 
being  volatile,  and  possessing,  whether  in  the  gaseous  or 
fluid  state,  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  is  most  destructive  to 
vegetation,  browning  and  shrivelling  plant  tissues.  Nitro- 
hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  phosphoric,  and  hydrochloric  acids 
are  the  most  powerfully  corrosive.  Nitric  acid  does  not  so 
readily  re-dissolve  the  precipitated  albumin,  and  hence  is 
scarcely  so  penetrating  as  other  mineral  acids.  Sulphuric 
acid,  when  applied  to  the  skin  or  swallowed,  causes  blacken- 
ing or  browning  of  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  in  contact ; 
nitric  acid  leaves  a  yellow  stain ;  hydrochloric,  a  white  film 
of  precipitated  albumin.  The  special  uses  of  the  three 
important  mineral  acids  are  thus  indicated  by  Dr.  Bence 
Jones — ' Hydrochloric  promotes  digestion;  nitric,  secretion ; 
sulphuric,  astringency.'  Nitric  and  nitro-hydrochloric  acids 
are  chiefly  useful  as  hepatic  tonics  and  stimulants.  Tartaric 
and  citric  acids  and  vinegar  are  much  less  powerful  than 
the  mineral  acids. 


324  SULPHURIC   ACID 

Sulphurous,  boric,  benzoic,  and  salicylic  acids,  used  for 
their  antiseptic  rather  than  for  their  special  acid  properties, 
with  their  salts,  will  be  dealt  with  later.  Carbolic  acid  is 
also  an  antiseptic,  and  an  alcohol  rather  than  an  acid. 
Arsenious  acid  is  not  a  true  acid,  but  an  anhydride.  Tannic 
and  gallic  acids,  although  they  have  acid  reactions,  are 
glucosides.  The  striking  actions  of  hydrocyanic  acid  distin- 
guish it  from  all  other  acids.  These  acids  will  accordingly 
receive  separate  notice  under  their  English  names. 

SULPHURIC  ACID 

AciDUM  SuLPHURicuM.  Oil  of  vitriol.  An  acid  produced 
by  the  combustion  of  sulphur  or  pyrites,  and  the  oxida- 
tion and  hydration  of  the  resulting  sul})hurous  anhy- 
dride by  means  of  nitrous  and  aqueous  vapours.  It 
should  contain  about  98  per  cent.,  by  weight,  of  hydrogen 
sulphate.     H^SO,.     (B.P.) 

Properties. — The  strong  acid  of  commerce  is  oily-looking, 
colourless,  odourless,  with  an  intensely  acid  and  acrid  taste. 
It  freezes  about  30°  Fahr.,  boils  at  G40°  Fahr.,  absorbs  mois- 
ture from  the  air,  and  hence,  if  kept  in  unstoppered  bottles, 
speedily  becomes  diluted.  Specific  gravity  1-843.  It  has 
great  affinity  for  water,  mixes  with  it  in  all  proportions 
with  evolution  of  much  heat.  Thus,  combining  with  water 
and  albumin,  it  decomposes  and  chars  organic  substances 
and  soft  animal  tissues.  When  heated  with  charcoal,  sul- 
phur, or  metals,  it  rapidly  parts  with  oxygen,  and  is 
converted  into  sulphurous  acid. 

The  acidum  sulphuricum  dilutum,  or  medicinal  acid, 
should  contain  13-65  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  sulphate.  The 
acidum  sulphnricum  aromaticnm  contains  tincture  of 
ginger  10  Fl.  ounces;  spirit  of  cinnamon  half  an  ounce; 
alcohol  (90  percent.),  29^  Fl.  ounces;  and  sulphuric  acid 
3  Fl.  ounces. 

Its  impurities — nitric  acid,  lead,  arsenic — seldom  interfere 
with  its  medicinal  uses. 

Incompatibles,  alkalies,  their  carbonates,  lead  and  calcium 
salts. 


TOXIC   AND   MEDICINAL   ACTIONS  325 

Actions  and  Uses. — Sulphuric  acid  is  a  corrosive,  irritant 
poison ;  is  used  medicinally  as  a  refrigerant,  antiseptic,  tonic, 
and  astringent ;  and  externally  as  a  caustic,  stimulant,  and 
astringent. 

Toxic  Effects. — Its  local  actions  depend  upon  its  affinity 
for  water  and  bases,  and  its  coagulating  albumin.  Swallowed 
in  concentrated  form,  it  almost  immediately  produces 
retching,  with  emesis  in  animals  that  vomit.  The  vomited 
matters  stain  and  corrode,  are  acid,  often  dark,  viscid,  and 
bloody,  and  contain  shreds  of  mucous  membrane.  The 
lips,  mouth,  and  fauces  are  red,  inflamed,  and  swollen. 
From  irritation  and  swelling  of  the  throat  breathing  is 
frequently  difficult,  and  when  a  strong  acid  has  been 
swallowed  by  human  patients,  or  given  to  rabbits  experi- 
mentally, death  from  suffocation  has  resulted  in  an  hour, 
or  even  less  time  (Taylor  On  Poisons).  In  other  cases  there 
is  great  abdominal  pain,  rapidly  increasing  prostration,  and 
death  usually  in  twelve  to  twenty  hours.  The  mouth, 
fauces,  gullet,  and  stomach  exhibit  brown  and  black  stains, 
and  patches  of  corrosion,  and  there  is  sometimes  perfora- 
tion of  the  stomach.  When  the  acid  has  been  diluted,  and 
death  does  not  occur  for  several  hours,  the  digestive 
mucous  membrane  is  softened,  swollen,  and  intiamed,  but 
not  so  blackened  or  charred  as  when  the  acid  has  been 
concentrated,  and  death  more  rapid.  Injection  into  the 
veins  proves  fatal  by  coagulation  of  blood  and  thrombosis 
(Oriila). 

Sulphuric  and  other  acids  are  sometimes  given  by  grooms 
and  carters,  with  the  idea  of  improving  the  condition  of 
horses.  Acute  poisoning  occasionally  occurs  from  overdoses, 
chronic  irritation  of  the  bowels  not  infrequently  results  ; 
and  horses  which  for  a  season  have  thus  been  senselessly 
doctored,  usually  continue  for  months  and  even  for  years 
thriftless,  and  difficult  to  keep  in  health. 

The  antidotes  are  alkaline  bicarbonates,  soap,  chalk. 
or  magnesia,  given  diluted  in  milk  or  water,  in  small 
quantity  at  short  intervals.  Demulcents  as  milk,  oil, 
linseed  tea,  are  subsequently  administered.  Where  breath- 
ing is  difficult,  tracheotomy  should  be  performed. 


326  tJSES   OP   SULPHURIC   ACID 

Medicinal  Uses. — Sulphuric  acid  is  prescribed  as  a  tonic, 
astringent,  and  hsemostatic.  It  is  given  in  chronic  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery,  usually  with  laudanum  in  starch  gruel  or 
mucilage.  In  influenza  in  horses,  with  a  tendency  to  adema 
or  purpura,  thirty  drops  of  the  medicinal  acid  are  sometimes 
given  in  gruel  or  ale  several  times  a  day,  with  an  ounce  each 
of  ether  and  powdered  cinchona  bark.  In  purpura  Professor 
Robertson  prescribed  Tl^xx.  to  TT^xxx.,  with  grs.  xxx.  iron  sul- 
phate, in  cold  water  thrice  daily.  In  relaxed  and  ulcerated 
sore-throat,  a  diluted  solution,  slowly  given,  exerts  the  two- 
fold influence  of  a  local  astringent  and  general  tonic. 
Sulphuric  acid  was  prescribed  in  rinderpest  and  contagious 
pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle,  but  was  not  more  successful 
than  iron  sulphate  or  other  tonics.  It  checks  bleeding 
from  the  lungs  and  stomach,  arrests  excessive  perspiration, 
and,  correcting  gastric  derangement,  abates  the  itching  of 
nettle-rash  and  lichen.  It  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by 
lead,  carbolic  acid,  and  alkalies. 

Externally  it  is  used  for  cauterising  irregular,  sinuous, 
and  poisoned  wounds,  and  as  a  styptic  and  astringent. 
Three  parts  strong  acid,  thoroughly  mixed  with  one  of 
asbestos,  and  rubbed  to  fine  powder,  have  been  used  in 
France  for  removing  cancerous  and  other  growths.  For 
destruction  of  cancer  Professor  Syme  made  sulphuric  acid 
into  a  thin  pulp  with  sawdust,  protecting  the  neighbouring 
tissues  by  a  wall  of  guttapercha.  It  is  used  in  like  manner 
to  destroy  warts,  which,  from  their  shape  or  situation,  cannot 
readily  be  removed  by  knife  or  ligature.  It  hastens  disin- 
tegration of  necrosed  bone.  Mixed  with  linseed  oil,  it  is 
sometimes  repeatedly  applied  to  shrink  the  skin  and  reduce 
umbilical  hernia ;  but  ligatures,  clamps,  or  needles  are  safer 
and  more  effectual.  It  is  occasionally  added  to  blistering 
ointments,  but,  unless  in  small  amount,  is  apt  to  cause 
blemishing.  A  weak  solution  is  useful  in  the  treatment  of 
chronic  pruritus  of  the  tail.  A  few  drops,  given  witli  Epsom 
salt  and  other  saline  purgatives,  diminish  their  disagreeable 
taste  and  rather  increase  their  activity. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  medicinal  acid  horses  take  fgj.  to 
f5ij.;  cattle,  fgij.  to  f3iv. ;  sheep,  fSss.  to  f^j.;  pigs,   \\'.  to 


SULPHUROUS   ACID  327 

IT^xx. ;  dogs,  T\\ij.  to  ll|^vi.,  repeated  several  times  a  day,  given 
freely  diluted,  and  often  conjoined  with  aromatics  and 
bitters.  As  an  external  astringent,  ten  to  twenty  drops  of 
medicinal  acid  are  mixed  with  an  ounce  of  water. 


SULPHUROUS  ACID 

AciDUM  SuLPHUROSUM.  An  aqueous  solution  containing  6-4 
per  cent,  hydrogen  sulphite,  HgSOg,  corresponding  to 
5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  sulphurous  anhydride,  SOg. 
(B.P.)  Sulphurous  anhydride  may  be  prepared  by 
burning  sulphur  in  air  or  oxygen,  or  by  boiling  sul- 
phuric acid  with  carbon,  mercury,  or  copper  (B.P.). 

The  aqueous  solution  is  colourless,  has  a  pungent  sul- 
phurous odour,  reddens  litmus,  bleaches  colouring  matter, 
leaves  no  residue  when  heated,  and  has  the  specific  gravity 
1-025.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  odour;  when  in  combina- 
tion it  is  liberated  by  hydrochloric  acid.  Both  the  gaseous 
and  liquid  forms  are  us'ed  as  bleaching  agents,  especially 
for  woollen  and  silk  goods.  Unlike  chlorine,  they  do  not 
destroy  colouring  matters,  but  form  with  them  colourless 
compounds.  They  have  a  marked  affinity  for  oxygen, 
undergoing  conversion  into  sulphuric  acid. 

Actions. — Sulphurous  acid  is  antiseptic,  disinfectant,  and 
deodorant,  and  is  used  as  a  parasiticide.  Concentrated 
doses,  whether  in  the  gaseous  or  liquid  state,  are  irritant. 

General  Actions. — Its  value  in  medicine  depends  on  its 
affinity  for  oxygen,  and  its  arresting  the  growth  of  micro- 
organisms. A  solution  of  one  part  in  8000  of  water 
destroys  diastase  and  pytalin ;  but  although  smaller  quan- 
tities arrest  the  action  of  emulsin  and  myrosin,  one  part  in 
1317  is  required  to  destroy  pepsin.  Developed  bacteria  are 
killed  by  one  part  in  2000  of  water ;  but  to  prevent  repro- 
duction of  the  spores  one  part  in  325  is  needful.  Sir  Robert 
Christison  found  that  one-fifth  of  a  cubic  inch,  diluted  with 
10,000  volumes  of  air,  destroyed  the  leaves  of  plants  in 
forty-eight  hours.  It  prevents  putrefaction  of  the  gelatin 
used  in  paper-making,   and    destroys   the    effluvia  of    the 


328  SULPHCTROUS   ACID 

cochineal  dye  manufacture.  Its  antiseptic  properties  are 
shared  by  the  sulphites  and  thiosulphates. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Dr.  Dewar,  Kirkcaldy,  greatly  extended 
its  application  in  human  medicine  and  surgery.  With 
solution,  fumigation,  and  spray,  he  successfully  treated  nasal 
catarrh,  sore-throat,  bronchitis,  typhoid  fever,  as  well  as 
wounds.  In  rheumatism  he  directed  the  bed-clothes  to  be 
exposed  to  the  vapours  of  burning  sulphur,  and  laid  over 
the  patient,  when  refreshing  perspiration  was  evoked.  In 
analogous  cases  amongst  the  lower  animals,  sulphurous  acid 
has  also  proved  useful.  Professor  Robertson  employed  it 
to  check  the  muco-purulent  discharge  of  equine  influenza. 
Professor  Williams  recommends  its  inhalation  in  nasal 
gleet.  It  is  serviceable  in  catarrh,  pharyngitis  and  laryn- 
gitis in  horses  when  the  membrane  is  irritable  and  relaxed, 
and  the  discharges  are  profuse  and  noisome.  It  has  been 
prescribed  in  hoven  in  cattle  and  tympanites  in  horses ;  but 
two-ounce  doses  of  the  solution  do  not  yield  the  prompt 
relief  which  usually  follows  ammonia  or  ether.  In  young 
calves,  flatulent  from  hasty  or  careless  feeding,  ounce  doses 
usually,  however,  arrest  undue  fermentation.  For  dogs, 
TT[xxx.  to  Tl[lx.,  in  water,  check  gastric  irritation  and 
vomiting.  In  husk  or  hoosc  of  calves  and  lambs  the  para- 
sites are  usually  destroyed  by  two  fumigations,  at  intervals 
of  a  few  days.  The  affected  subjects  are  placed  in  a  loose 
box ;  sulphur  is  burned  six  feet  distant  from  them,  to  dilute 
the  gas  before  it  is  breathed ;  unless  bronchial  irritation  is 
excessive,  they  may  remain  in  the  medicated  atmosphere 
ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  solution,  used  alone  or  with 
'  Sanitas '  fluid  or  glycerin,  is  a  good  antiseptic  dressing  for 
wounds.  It  is  useful  in  the  early  irritable  stage  of  eczema, 
especially  in  dogs.  In  mange  and  scab  the  solution  is  used 
as  a  parasiticide. 

Officers  of  health,  both  in  Britain  and  America,  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  efficacy  of  sulphurous  acid  as  a  disinfectant. 
Outbreaks  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  are  believed  to  have 
been  arrested  by  it.  The  gas  is  readily  evolved  in  the  stable 
or  premises  to  be  disinfected  by  scattering  flowers  of  sulphur 
over  a  few  embers  in  a  shovel,  iron  basin  or  brazier.      It 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  329 

burns  best  when  previously  mixed  with  about  one-fourth 
part  of  finely-divided  charcoal,  or  when  each  charge  of  one 
and  a  half  pounds  of  sulphur  is  treated  with  an  ounce  of 
alcohol,  which  in  burning  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  steam, 
and  thus  increases  the  penetrating  and  disinfectant  power  of 
the  gas.  Sulphurous  acid  in  concentrated  form  causes  irrita- 
tion and  coughing  when  breathed  either  by  men  or  animals, 
and  consequently  for  thorough  disinfection  of  infected  pre- 
mises animals  must  be  removed,  doors  and  windows  closed, 
and  one  and  a  half  pounds  sulphur  burned  for  each  thousand 
feet  of  cubic  space.  Articles  of  saddlery  and  clothing  should 
be  cleansed  by  steam-heat,  or  washed  with  corrosive  sub- 
Hmate  solution.  Such  articles,  freely  exposed  to  sulphurous 
gas,  are  bleached,  and  eventually  damaged,  from  condensa- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid.  During  the  prevalence  of  cattle 
plague,  pleuro- pneumonia,  or  foot-and-mouth  disease,  of 
influenza  or  glanders  in  horses,  or  of  distemper  amongst 
dogs,  healthy  animals,  in  the  same  or  adjacent  premises, 
should  daily  breathe  for  half-an-hour  the  diluted  acid,  and 
be  sponged  with  a  weak  solution,  which  will  be  rendered 
still  more  destructive  to  disease  germs  if  mixed  with  a  little 
carbolic  acid. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  B.P.  solution  horses  and  cattle  take 
f§i.  to  fgij. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f5ss.  to  j^j. ;  dogs,  ■lT[xx.  to  T^lx., 
given  every  three  or  four  hours,  diluted  with  water  or  other 
cold  bland  fluid.  It  may  be  continued  until  the  system  is 
saturated  and  the  skin  gives  off  its  odour.  It  is  conjoined 
as  required  with  aromatics,  alcohol,  ether,  or  opium.  Dr. 
Dewar  believed  it  to  be  a  more  effectual  antiseptic  than  either 
the  sulphites  or  thiosulphates.  But  it  must  be  freshly 
prepared  and  kept  in  well-stoppered  bottles ;  when  exposed 
to  the  air  it  oxidises  and  becomes  irritant  from  formation  of 
sulphuric  acid.  For  surgical  purposes  it  is  diluted  usually 
with  three  or  four  parts  of  water ;  with  this  the  lint  or  other 
dressings  are  kept  saturated;  admixture  with  gl3'^cerin 
renders  it  more  soothing.  Baths  are  readily  made  by  con- 
ducting the  vapour  of  burning  sulphur  into  water.  In  the 
treatment  of  mange  and  other  skin  complaints,  baths  or 
strong  solutions  are  more  effectual  than  fumigation.     For 


330  HYDROCHLORIC   ACID 

disinfectant  purposes  it  may  be  used  with  carbolic  acid,  but 
not  with  chlorine  or  bleaching  powder,  which  neutralises  it. 


HYDROCHLORIC  ACID 
AciDUM  Hydrochloricum.     Muriatic  Acid.     Spirit  of  Salt. 

A  liquid  containing  31"79  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  chloride, 
HCl,  and  68-21  per  cent,  of  water  (B.P.). 

Hydrochloric  acid  is  obtained  by  dissolving  in  water  the 
gas  produced  by  the  interaction  of  sulphuric  acid  and  sodium 
chloride.  It  is  colourless,  intensely  sour  and  acrid,  emits 
white,  pungent,  fumes  of  the  gas,  and  has  the  specific 
gravity  1-160.  The  B.P.  acidum  hydrochloricum  dilutum  is 
made  by  mixing  six  fluid  ounces  of  the  stronger  acid  with 
water  until  the  mixture  at  60°  Fahr.  measures  twenty  fluid 
ounces.  It  has  the  specific  gravity  1052,  and  contains  1058 
per  cent,  of  hydrogen  chloride.  The  test  for  hydrochloric 
acid  is  silver  nitrate,  with  which  it  produces  a  curdy  white 
precipitate,  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  soluble  in  excess  of 
ammonia.  Its  chief  impurities  arc  sulphuric  and  sulphurous 
acids,  nitrous  compounds,  chlorine,  iron,  and  occasionally 
traces  of  arsenic. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Concentrated  doses  are  corrosive  and 
irritant ;  medicinal  doses  are  astringent,  antiseptic,  and  tonic. 
Hydrochloric  acid  is  excreted  mainly  in  the  urine,  increasing 
its  quantity  and  diminishing  its  alkalinity.  Topically  it  is 
used  as  a  caustic,  stimulant,  astringent,  and  antiseptic. 

Toxic  Effects. — Concentrated  solutions  have  a  strong 
affinity  for  the  water,  bases  and  albuminoids  of  the  tissues. 
They  leave  upon  them  a  white  film.  When  swallowed  they 
cause  gastro-enteritis.  Independently  of  irritant  or  corrosive 
effects,  they  appear  to  destroy  life  by  neutralising  the  alkali 
of  the  blood.  Rabbits  and  herbivora  are  stated  to  suffer  in 
this  way  more  readily  than  dogs  or  other  carnivora.  Seven 
or  eight  grammes  per  kilogramme  of  body-weight  may  be 
given  to  rabbits  in  twenty-four  hours  without  serious  results, 
but  nine  grammes  prove  fatal  in  a  few  hours,  causing  frequent 
laboured  breathing,  quick  pulse,  imperfect  power  of  moving, 


MEDICINAL   USES  331 

and  death,  depending  upon  fatal  diminution  of  the  alkali  in 
the  blood,  determining  tirst  stimulation,  and  soon  paresis  of 
the  respiratory  centre.  That  these  toxic  effects  directly 
depend  upon  neutralising  of  the  alkali  in  the  blood  appears 
to  be  demonstrated  by  Mr.  F.  Walter's  experiments,  in  which 
animals  nearly  dying  from  acid  poisoning  promptly  revived 
when  sodium  carbonate  was  injected  into  the  veins.  The 
alkaline  antidote  proves  effectual  even  when  three  times  the 
ascertained  fatal  dose  of  acid  has  been  administered  (Phillip's 
Materia  Medico). 

Medicinal  Uses.— Hydrochloric  acid,  made  into  an  electuary 
with  glycerin,  treacle,  or  honey,  or  diluted  with  water,  while 
slowly  swallowed,  exerts  stimulant,  astringent,  or  antiseptic 
effects  on  irritable,  relaxed,  or  ulcerated  throats.     Stimu- 
lating the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth,  it  reflexly  evokes 
secretion  of  saliva,   moistening   the   parched   mouth   and 
abating  thirst.     Like  other  acids,  it  specially  stimulates  the 
intestinal,  and  other  alkaline  secretions.     These  effects  are 
increased  by  combining  the  acid  with  gentian  or  other  bitter. 
Hydrochloric  acid  is  the  special  acid  of  the  gastric  juice ;  in 
herbivora  it  amounts  to  -15,  in  dogs  to  -3  per  cent.     When 
the  natural  acid  constituent  of  the  fluid  is  deficient,  digestion 
is  performed  tardily  and  imperfectly,  the  food  .ferments  and 
acrid  acids  are  evolved.     For  obviating  or  removing  such 
conditions,  hydrochloric  acid  is  specially  suitable;   it  aids 
digestion,  especially  of  albuminoids,  controls  acid  fermenta- 
tion common  in  young  animals,  particularly  when  feeding  on 
milk,  and  hence  often  checks  diarrhoea.     In  young  calves  or 
foals,  digesting  their  food  indifferently,  and  scouring,  a  few 
drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  may  be  given  with  the  milk ;  and 
acids  are  usually  preferable  to  alkalies,  being  given  either 
immediately  before  or  about  an  hour  after  feeding.     Acids 
conjoined  with  bitters  are  also  useful  for  convalescents  from 
exhausting  disease,  for  show  beasts  that  have  been  systemati- 
cally over-fed,  and  for  young  and  weakly,  as  well  as  for  old, 
enfeebled  subjects.   The  acid  treatment  is  equally  appropriate 
in  the  totally  different  gastric  condition  of  undue  acidity 
depending  upon  excessive  secretion;  but  in  such  case  the 
acid  should  be  administered  half  an  hour  before  feeding. 


332  NITRIC    ACID 

Given  alone  or  with  ferric  chloride,  it  promotes  a  healthier 
state  of  the  bowels  in  animals  affected  by  intestinal  worms, 
and  sometimes  expels  ascarides.  Like  other  mineral  acids,  it 
exerts  soine  unexplained  alterative  action  as  it  passes  through 
the  liver,  and  during  excretion  acidifies  the  urine. 

Externally  it  is  used  to  destroy  warts,  and,  as  a  caustic 
and  antiseptic  for  wounds,  for  foot-rot  in  sheep,  and  occa- 
sionally as  a  styptic.  A  tepid  solution,  diluted  until  only 
faintly  acid  to  the  tongue,  is  sometimes  used,  instead  of 
vinegar  and  water,  for  rapidly  sponging  the  skin  of  febrile 
patients. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  diluted  or  medicinal  acid,  horses  take  f^ss. 
to  fgij. ;  cattle,  f5ij-  to  f5iv. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  TTLxv.  to  HIxx. ; 
dogs,  Tl^iij.  to  n[x.,  usually  prescribed  with  forty  or  fifty 
parts  of  water ;  often  given  along  with  bitters  and  iron  salts. 


NITRIC  ACID 

AciDUM  NiTRicuM.  Aquafortis.  A  liquid  containing  70 
per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  nitrate,  HNO3,  and  30 
per  cent,  of  water.    (B.P.) 

Nitric  acid  is  prepared  by  the  interaction  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  potassium  or  sodium  nitrate.  Specific  gravity 
1-42.  The  B.P.  Acidum  Nitricum  Dilutum  contains  17-44 
per  cent,  of  hydrogen  nitrate.  HNO3.  Specific  gravity 
1101. 

Properties. — Nitric  acid,  in  tolerably  concentrated  solu- 
tion, is  colourless ;  emits  pungent,  corrosive,  suffocating 
fumes ;  has  an  intensely  sour  taste ;  oxidises,  corrodes,  and 
dissolves  many  organic  substances;  has  great  affinity  for 
water ;  in  imperfectly  stoppered  bottles  it  quickly  increases 
in  quantity  and  diminishes  in  strength ;  diluted  with  water 
it  evolves  much  heat. 

Its  tests  are  the  production  of  an  orange-red  colour  with 
a  solution  or  crystal  of  morphine  or  brucine;  copper, 
mercury,  and  some  other  metals  deoxidise  strong  solutions, 
with  evolution  of  ruddy  nitric  peroxide  fumes  (NO,,);  it 
gives  a  yellow  stain  of  picric  acid  to  wool  and  to  the  skin — 


IRRITANT,  CORROSIVE,  AND    HEPATIC    STIMULANT      333 

a  discoloration  deepened  by  alkalies,  and  removed  from  the 
skin  only  by  its  desquamation.  With  bases,  nitric  acid 
forms  an  extensive  series  of  soluble  salts,  the  nitrates,  which 
deflagrate  when  heated,  and  give  an  oUve-brown  or  dark 
purple  colour  when  a  few  crystals  of  ferrous  sulphate  are 
dropped  into  a  cold  solution  in  a  test-tube,  gently  shaken, 
and  eight  or  ten  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  are  added. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Nitric  acid  is  irritant  and  corrosive, 
and  especially  destructive  when  in  concentrated  solution 
and  containing  the  volatile  nitrous  acid.  It  leaves  yellow  or 
brown  stains  on  the  skin  and  throat,  but  in  the  stomach 
this  discoloration  is  usually  obscured  by  inflammation  or 
extravasation  of  blood.  Besides  acting  like  the  other  mineral 
acids,  it  exerts  oxidising  effects,  notably  when  used  locally, 
and  probably  also  when  given  internally.  It  is  specially 
used  as  a  hepatic  stimulant  and  tonic,  frequently  indicated 
in  horses  recovering  from  influenza,  jaundice,  and  other 
debilitating  disorders,  and,  alternated  with  arsenic,  in 
eczema  and  chronic  skin  diseases. 

Externally  the  medicinal  acid  is  applied  for  extirpating 
warts,  fungous  and  malignant  growths  which  cannot  be 
removed  by  the  knife;  for  dissolving  the  hardened  scurf, 
and  promoting  a  healthier  condition  of  skin  in  mallenders 
and  chronic  eczema ;  and  as  a  caustic  in  poisoned  wounds, 
necrosis,  canker,  and  foot-rot.  As  an  escharotic  it  is  generally 
applied  on  a  glass  rod  or  a  splinter  of  soft  wood ;  surround- 
ing tissues  are  protected  by  lard  or  oil,  and  undue  action 
arrested  by  subsequent  washing  with  an  alkaline  solution. 
Freely  diluted  in  hot  water,  it  abates  the  itching  of  nettle- 
rash.  Dissolved  in  two  to  three  hundred  parts  of  water, 
it  is  used  for  sponging  the  skin,  and  for  relieving  the  tender- 
ness and  tension  of  piles  in  dogs.  Nitric  acid  preserves 
putrescible  substances,  and  prevents  evolution  of  hydrogen 
sulphide  and  other  noisome  gases  more  effectually  than 
either  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid  ;  but  as  a  disinfectant, 
it  cannot  be  recommended,  owing  to  its  action  on  organic 
and  metallic  substances,  and  the  irritant  effects  of  its 
fumes. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  diluted  medicinal  acid,  horses  or  cattle 


334  PHOSPHORIC    ACID 

take  f5i.  to  f5ij. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  TI[x.  to  Tltxx. ;  dogs,  Tliij.  to 
■n[x.  It  must  be  largely  diluted  with  water  or  other  bland 
fluid,  and  is  often  conjoined  with  bitters.  For  external 
application,  a  drachm  of  strong  acid  in  a  pint  of  water 
suffices  for  all  except  escharotic  purposes.  An  ointment  is 
occasionally  used,  made  by  melting  together  in  a  glass 
vessel  a  pound  of  olive  oil,  four  ounces  of  lard,  and  when 
the  mixture  is  nearly  concrete,  adding  six  drachms  of  nitric 
acid,  and  stirring  briskly  with  a  glass  rod  till  the  whole 
solidifies.  A  paste  made  with  sulphur  and  lard  is  used  for 
extirpating  warts,  destroying  acari,  and  stimulating  patches 
of  scurfy  skin. 


DILUTED  NITRO-HYDROCHLORIO  ACID 

AciDUM  Nitro-Hydrochloricum  Dilutum.  Nitro-Muriatic 
Acid.  Aqua  regia.  An  aqueous  solution  of  free 
chlorine,  hydrochloric,  nitric  and  nitrous  acids. 

The  diluted  nitro -hydrochloric  acid  of  the  B.P,  is  pre- 
pared by  adding  to  twenty-five  fluid  ounces  of  distilled 
water  in  a  glass- stoppered  bottle  three  fluid  ounces  of  nitric 
acid  and  four  of  hydrochloric,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to 
stand  for  fourteen  days  before  it  is  used.  It  contains  free 
chlorine,  and  has  the  specific  gravity  107. 

Action,  Uses,  and  Doses. — The  strong  acid  is  very  corrosive 
and  irritant,  but  it  is  not  used  as  a  caustic.  Medicinal  doses 
exert  special  tonic  and  stimulant  actions  on  the  skin,  liver, 
and  intestinal  glands,  and  are  used  in  hepatic  torpidity, 
chronic  hepatitis,  catarrhal  jaundice,  rickets,  and  occasionally 
in  equine  influenza.  It  is  prescribed  in  the  same  doses  as 
nitric  acid,  and  with  the  same  precautions  as  to  dilution  and 
avoidance  of  too  frequent  or  prolonged  use. 


CONCENTRATED  PHOSPHORIC  ACID 

Acidum  phosphoricum  concentratum,  a  liquid  containing 
66-3  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  orthophosphate  H3PO4,  with  38-7 
per  cent,  of  water.    Prepared  by  treating,  with  water  and  nitric 


HYDROBROMIC    ACID  335 

acid,  the  residue  left  after  burning  phosphorus  in  air  (B.P.). 
Specific  gravity  1-5.  It  is  a  colourless,  sour,  syrupy  liquid, 
with  an  acid  reaction.  In  diluted  solution  it  gives,  with 
ammonia-silver  nitrate,  a  canary-coloured  precipitate,  soluble 
in  ammonia  and  dilute  nitric  acid.  The  acidum  phos- 
phoricum  dilutum  contains  13-8  parts  of  hydrogen  ortho- 
phosphate  and  86 -2  parts  of  water.  It  is  a  colourless  liquid 
of  specific  gravity  1"08. 

Compared  with  the  other  mineral  acids  it  is  less  corrosive, 
but  it  may  be  used  for  many  of  the  purposes  for  which  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids  are  employed.  Internally,  phos- 
phoric acid  is  believed  to  be  less  apt  to  derange  digestion 
when  prescribed  for  a  considerable  time.  It  has  some 
reputation  for  arresting  the  progress  of  tuberculosis  and  the 
growth  of  bony  tumours.  In  human  medicine  it  is  given  in 
diabetes;  and  in  canine  practice  it  is  useful  in  the  conva- 
lescent stage  of  distemper. 

CHROMIC  ACID 

Chromic  Anhydride  (CrOg). 

Acidum  chromicum  produced  by  the  interaction  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  potassium  bichromate,  occurs  in  crimson, 
deliquescent,  needle-shaped  crystals,  and  is  very  soluble 
in  water  and  in  ether.  The  liquor  acidi  chromici  is  made 
with  one  part  of  acid  and  three  of  water.  It  readily  parts 
with  oxygen,  oxidises  organic  matter,  coagulates  albumin, 
destroys  low  organisms,  and  decomposes  ammonia  and  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  and  though  not  prescribed  internally, 
it  is  used  as  a  caustic,  antiseptic,  deodoriser,  and  disinfec- 
tant, and  to  harden  the  replacing  horn  after  operations  on 
the  horse's  foot. 

HYDROBROMIC  ACID 
Acidum  Hydrobromicum  Dilutum. 

Diluted  hydrobromic  acid  is  an  aqueous  solution  contain- 
ing 10  per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  bromide  (HBr). 
Prepared   by   the   distillation   of   potassium    bromide   with 


336  CARBONIC   ACID 

concentrated  phosphoric  acid.  A  colourless,  odourless  acid 
liquid.  Specific  gravity  1077.  It  is  occasionally  employed 
in  human  medicine  as  a  nerve  sedative,  and  it  has  been 
recommended  as  an  anodyne  for  nervous  diseases  of  dogs  in 
doses  of  TT[xx.  to  "FTj^lx.     {Veterinariany  1888.) 


CARBONIC  ACID 

AciDUM  Carbonicum.     Carbon  Dioxide.      Carbonic   Anhy- 
dride.    Choke  Damp.     After  Damp.     (CO.^). 

When  air,  containing  more  than  -^  parts  by  volume  of 
carbonic  acid,  is  inhaled,  by  either  man  or  the  domestic 
animals,  discomfort  and  languor  are  produced.  An  atmo- 
sphere containing  yV  promptly  prevents  removal  of  the  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  blood,  interferes  with  oxidation  of  the 
tissues,  and  hence  impairs  their  functions ;  I-  shortly  causes 
unconsciousness  and  anaesthesia ;  i  does  so  more  rapidly, 
renders  the  blood  markedly  venous,  but  if  respiration  of  the 
mixture  is  continued  only  for  a  few  minutes,  recovery  gradu- 
ally occurs.  Equal  parts  of  carbonic  acid  and  air  quickly 
produce  death  by  asphyxia,  exhibiting  the  three  stages 
characteristic  of  such  poisoning,  namely — (1)  dyspnoea,  (2) 
convulsions,  and  (3)  paralysis.  Examination  after  death 
discovers  general  venous  congestion,  the  blood  dark-coloured, 
the  risfht  side  of  the  heart  much  distended  with  blood,  the 
brain  congested,  and  sometimes  exhibiting  exudation  and 
extravasation.  In  treating  such  cases,  endeavour  is  made  to 
oxygenate  the  stagnating  venous  blood  by  bringing  the 
animal  into  a  pure  atmosphere,  stimulating  respiratory  effort 
by  dashing  cold  water  over  the  head  and  neck,  employing 
artificial  respiration,  and,  if  the  action  of  the  heart  is 
failing,  relieving  its  engorgement  by  drawing  blood  from 
the  jugular  vein.  Carbonic  acid  in  solution  applied  to 
the  skin  or  stomach  produces  stinudation.  Effervescent 
drinks  increase  gastric  and  intestinal  secretion,  hasten 
metabolism,  and  are  excreted  from  the  kidneys  more  rapidly 
than  corresponding  quantities  of  non-aerated  water. 


ACETIC    ACID  337 


ACETIC  ACID 


Glacial  acetic  acid  is  prepared  by  heating  sodium  acetate 
with  sulphuric  acid.  One  hundred  parts  by  weight 
should  contain  ninety-nine  parts  of  hydrogen  acetate, 
CHg'COOH.  Specitic  gravity  1  058.  The  glacial  acid  is  mobile, 
oily,  and  colourless,  with  a  pungent  acetous  odour  and  taste, 
and  a  corrosive  action  upon  organised  tissues.  It  boils  at 
243"  Fahr.,  distils  unchanged,  is  combustible,  miscible  in  all 
proportions  with  water  and  alcohol,  cr3'stallises  into  radiating 
pearly  plates  when  cooled,  and  remains  crystalline  until  the 
temperature  rises  above  60°  Fahr. 

Acetic  acid  (acetum  aceticum)  is  a  product  of  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  wood,  or  of  the  oxidation  of  ethylic  alcohol. 
One  hundred  parts  by  weight  should  contain  thirty-three  parts 
of  hydrogen  acetate,  and  sixty-seven  of  water.  Specific  gravity 
104-1.  It  is  colourless,  strongly  acid,  with  a  pungent  odour. 
Acetic  acid  is  about  one-third  the  strength  of  the  glacial  acid 
(B.P.).  An  imperfectly  purified  acid  containing  some  residual 
tarry  matters  is  sold  as  pyroligneous  acid.  The  acidum 
aceticum  dilutum  is  acetic  acid  diluted  with  distilled  water 
until  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1-006.  It  should  contain 
4'27  per  cent,  hydrogen  acetate. 

Acetic  acid,  even  when  considerably  diluted,  reddens 
litmus,  dissolves  volatile  oils,  resins,  camphor,  and  most 
alkaloids,  and  unites  with  bases  to  form  the  crystallisable 
and  soluble  acetates,  which  are  distinguished  by  the  acetous 
odour  they  emit  when  heated  with  sulphuric  acid;  the 
pleasant  odour  of  acetic  ether  they  evolve  when  heated  with 
alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid ;  and  the  red-brown  colour  they 
produce  in  neutral  solution  when  treated  with  ferric  chloride 
— a  colour  which  changes  on  boiling  to  a  brown  precipitate 
of  basic  acetate  of  iron. 

Vinegar  (acetum)  is  diluted  acetic  acid,  sometimes  con- 
taining traces  of  colouring  matter,  mucilage,  alcohol,  ethers, 
sulphuric  acid,  and  calcium  sulphate.  Besides  being  got 
from  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  it  is  also  obtained 
from  the  oxidation  of  impure  alcohols,  by  exposing  them  to 
the  air  at  a  temperature  of  about  SO'  Fahr.,  and  in  contact 

Y 


338  CORROSIVE,    IRRITANT,    AND    VESICANT 

with  a  ferment.  In  this  way  vinegars  are  manufactured  in 
this  country  from  malt,  grain,  cider,  or  solutions  of  sugar  or 
spirit ;  in  France,  by  exposing  the  poorer  wines  in  half-filled 
casks ;  and  in  Germany,  by  what  is  termed  the  quick  vinegar 
process,  from  weak  spirits  mixed  with  about  1-lOOOth  part 
of  yeast,  or  beetroot  juice,  and  allowed  slowl}'  to  trickle  at  a 
temperature  of  from  75°  to  80"  Fahr.  over  a  large  surface  of 
wood  shavings  previously  soaked  in  vinegar.  There  is  shortly 
formed  on  the  surface  of  the  shavings  a  gelatinous  mould — 
the  mycoderma  aceti — which  favours  attraction  of  oxygen 
from  the  air,  supplies  it  to  the  alcohol,  and  hastens  its 
conversion  into  acetic  acid. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Acetic  acid  is  corrosive,  irritant,  and 
vesicant.  It  is  seldom  used  internally.  Diluted,  usually  in 
the  form  of  vinegar,  it  is  employed  externally  as. a  stimulant 
and  refrigerant,  and  in  pharmacy  as  a  solvent. 

Toxic  Effects. — An  ounce  of  acetic  acid  destroyed  a 
medium-sized  dog  in  an  hour,  with  symptoms  of  uneasiness, 
abdominal  pain,  vomiting,  and  collapse;  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce  was  fatal  in  five  to  nine  hours;  four  or  five  ounces 
of  vinegar  in  ten  to  fifteen  hours  (Christison  On  Poisons). 
Horses  take  six  to  twelve  oimces  of  vinegar,  and  cattle  three 
or  four  pounds,  without  apparent  injury  (Hertwig).  A  goat 
weighing  44  lbs.  got  five  ounces,  and  died  in  twenty-six  hours, 
the  lesions  consisting  of  hyperaimia  and  redema  of  the  lungs, 
and  inflammation  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  digestive  tract, 
the  kidneys,  and  liver  (Frohner). 

Antidotes. — Magnesia,  soap  and  water,  lime  water,  chalk 
and  water. 

External  Uses. — Rubbed  into  the  skin,  acetic  acid  speedily 
causes  redness,  and  eruption  of  large  blisters  resembling 
those  produced  by  boiling  water ;  but  as  a  vesicant,  mustard 
or  cantharides  is  preferable.  As  an  astringent  or  caustic 
it  is  rarely  used.  Dissolving  albumin,  fibrin,  and  gelatin, 
it  removes  warts  as  well  as  corns  in  the  human  subject, 
softens  scurf,  destroys  cr3q3toganiic  parasites  and  acari,  and 
hence  is  sometimes  found  in  prescriptions  for  mallendcrs, 
ringworm,  scab,  and  mange.  Along  with  either  hot  or  cold 
water,  vinegar  is  used  for  contusions  and  strains,  and  for 


TARTARIC    AND    LACTIC    ACIDS  339 

sponginw  the  skin  and  checking  excessive  perspiration  in 
febrile  disorders.  For  fumigating  stables  or  cow-houses,  it 
is  not  nearly  so  effectual  as  carbolic  acid,  sulphurous  acid, 
or  chlorine.  It  dissolves  the  active  principles  of  various 
medicines,  and  enters  into  the  composition  ol  aceta,  or 
vinegars  of  cantharides,  ipecacuanha,  and  squill.  Oxymel  is 
made  by  heating  together  forty  ounces  of  sugar  or  honey, 
and  live  each  of  acetic  acid  and  distilled  water.  The  anti- 
septic properties  of  vinegar  recommend  it  for  preserving 
various  vegetables.  Once  in  high  repute  as  an  antidote  for 
many  poisons,  vinegar  is  now  employed  only  in  poisoning 
by  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  carbonates. 

TARTARIC  ACID,  H^C^H^g. 

Acidum  tartaricum  is  prepared  from  acid  potassium  tar- 
trate. The  crystals  are  colourless,  monoclinic  prisms,  longer 
than  those  of  citric  acid,  with  an  acid  taste,  soluble  in  less 
than  their  own  weight  of  water,  and  less  than  three  times 
their  weight  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  Either  watery  or 
spirituous  solution  not  too  diluted,  when  stirred  with  potas- 
sium acetate,  yields  a  white  crystalline  precipitate. 

Tartaric  acid  is  devoid  of  irritant  and  poisonous  properties. 
Christison  gave  drachm  doses  to  cats  without  causing  them 
apparent  inconvenience.  Like  other  organic  acids,  it  is 
burnt  within  the  body,  and  the  resulting  carbonates  exert 
their  usual  alkaline  effects.  It  closely  resembles  citric  acid, 
and,  like  it,  is  used  as  a  cooling  antipyretic. 

LACTIC  ACID.  HC3CHOHCOOH. 

Acidum  lacticum  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  lactose, 
is  a  colourless,  syrupy  liquid,  which  the  B.P.  states  contains 
75  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  lactate,  with  25  per  cent,  of  water. 
Specific  gravity  1-21.  It  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with 
water,  alcohol  and  ether. 

It  is  present  in  the  gastric  juice,  while  sarcolactic  acid, 
which  is  isomeric  with  it,  is  found  in  the  juice  of  flesh  and  in 
the  bile.   It  has  a  special  power  of  dissolving  false  membranes, 


340  OXALIC    ACID 

and  ill  liuinan  patients  has  accordingly  been  used  as  spray 
or  vapour  in  the  treatment  of  croup  and  diphtheria.  Diluted 
and  sweetened,  it  is  occasionally  substituted  for  hydrochloric 
acid  in  dyspepsia. 

OXALIC  ACID,  H^CgO^,  2H2O. 

Acidum  oxalicum  occurs  in  rhubarb,  sorrel,  and  other 
plants,  is  prepared  on  the  small  scale  by  oxidising  sugar  with 
nitric  acid,  and  for  commercial  purposes  by  the  oxidation  of 
sawdust  with  potash.  It  forms  monoclinic  prisms  resembling 
those  of  Epsom  salt,  for  which  it  is  sometimes  mistaken ;  is 
soluble  in  nine  parts  of  water,  and  in  alcohol,  and  is  entirely 
dissipated  by  heat. 

It  is  an  irritant,  corrosive,  and  cardiac  paralysant,  and 
poisonous  doses  cause  fatal  collapse.  Two  drachms  killed 
rabbits  in  fifteen  minutes ;  half  a  drachm  in  thirty  minutes. 

Antidotes. — Chalk  or  lime  in  water,  demulcents  and 
stimulants. 

CITRIC  ACID,  C3H,OH(COOH)3-H20. 

Acidum  citricum,  or  hydrogen  citrate,  obtained  from  the 
juice  of  the  fruit  of  various  species  of  citrus,  occurs  in  large, 
colourless,  trimctric  prisms.  Soluble  in  water,  glycerin, 
alcohol,  and  ether.  A  solution  of  citric  acid,  thirty-five 
grains  in  an  ounce  of  water,  forms  a  convenient  substitute 
for  lemon-juice,  which  has  been  used  as  a  refrigerant  in 
canine  distemper.  Citric  acid  is  employed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  granular  effervescing  citrates. 

OLEIC  ACID,  CH3(CH2)7CH:  CH(CH,)7C00H. 

Acidum  oleicum,  or  hydrogen  oleate,  is  obtained  by  the 
saponifying  action  of  alkalies  and  subsequent  action  of  acids, 
or  by  the  action  of  superheated  steam  upon  the  olein  of  fats. 
Usually  not  quite  pure  (B.P.).  It  is  a  straw-coloured  liquid, 
occasionally  with  a  faintly  rancid  smell,  and  a  slight  acid 
reaction.  Becomes  brown  and  more  acid  on  exposure  to  the 
air.     Insoluble  in  water ;  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  (90  per 


BORACIC   ACID  341 

cent.),  chlorofortn,  or  ether.  Specific  gravity,  0*890  to  0"910. 
Oleic  acid  is  used  in  pharmacy  for  dissolving  various  metallic 
oxides  and  the  alkaloids  morphine,  aconitine,  atropine,  vera- 
trine,  and  cocaine.  It  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  mercuric 
oleate  and  of  various  ointments  (Squire's  Companion  to  the 
B.P.,  1899). 

BORIC  ACID 
AciDUM  BoRicuM.    Hydrogen  Borate.    Boracic  Acid.    H3BO3 

Boric  acid  is  obtained  from  borax  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid.  In  volcanic  regions  in  Italy  and  in  the  Lipari  Islands, 
through  natural  fissures  or  holes  bored  in  the  earth,  there 
issue  vapours  and  jets  of  steam,  which  are  passed  through 
water,  and  the  solution,  subsequently  evaporated,  yields 
colourless,  pearly,  lamellar  crystals  of  boric  acid.  They  are 
feebly  acid,  and  bitter,  with  a  sweetish  after-taste,  and  dis- 
solve in  thirty  parts  of  cold  water,  in  three  of  boiling  water, 
in  thirty  of  rectified  spirit,  and  four  of  glycerin,  and  com- 
municate a  green  colour  to  an  alcohol  flame.  The  addition 
of  borax  increases  the  solubility  of  boracic  acid.  Aiding  the 
fusion  of  other  bodies,  it  is  much  used  as  a  blow-pipe  test : 
mixed  with  seven  parts  of  acid  potassium  tartrate,  it  con- 
stitutes the  soluble  cream  of  tartar  of  the  shops.  When 
heated,  the  three  molecules  of  water  of  crystallisation  are 
driven  off,  and  anhydrous  vitreous  boric  acid  remains  (B.^Og). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Boric  acid  is  a  non-volatile,  unirritat- 
ing  antiseptic,  which  has  more  effect  on  organised  than  on 
chemical  ferments.  It  is  occasionally  prescribed  in  fermenta- 
tive diarrhoea  in  foals,  calves,  and  dogs,  usually  conjoined 
with  diluted  spirit  or  ether.  It  is  excreted  in  the  urine,  and 
hence  exerts  its  antiseptic  effects  in  cystic  catarrh. 

As  an  antiseptic  it  is  less  powerful  than  carbolic  acid. 
Koch  found  that  one  part  in  1250  of  water  hindered,  and 
one  part  in  800  prevented,  development  of  anthrax  bacillus. 
The  carcase  of  a  horse,  which  had  lain  four  months  in  a 
Californian  soil  rich  in  borax,  was  completely  preserved  and 
free  from  odour  (Robottom).  Being  non-poisonous,  it  is  used 
for  the  preservation  of  milk,  fish,  and  other  articles  of  food. 


342  BORIC  ACID 

Being  non-volatile,  its  effects  arc  confined  to  the  parts  with 
which  it  comes  into  actual  contact.  Even  in  concentrated 
form,  it  is  not  so  irritant  and  caustic  as  carbolic  acid,  and 
hence  is  adapted  for  wounds  which  for  some  time  have  been 
treated  with  carbolic  acid,  and  in  which  ufranulation  has 
become  tardy.  A  foul  wound  or  ulcer  of  moderate  size,  after 
thorough  washing  with  corrosive  sublimate  or  zinc  chloride, 
or  repeated  dressing  with  carbolic  acid,  may  usually  be  kept 
aseptic  by  boric  acid.  A  warm  3  per  cent,  solution  has  been 
used  to  irrigate  the  chest  in  septic  pleurisy.  In  the  form  of 
lotion  or  ointment,  it  proves  a  soothing  dressing  for  burns 
and  blistered  surfaces  :  as  a  spray,  it  relieves  aphthous,  irri- 
table, ulcerated  throat,  and,  like  borax,  checks  excessive  sali- 
vary or  pharyngeal  secretion.  Alternated  with  weak  alkaline 
lotions  or  zinc  oxide  dressings,  boric  acid,  conveniently  mixed 
with  six  or  eight  parts  of  starch  or  of  fullers'  earth,  abates 
the  erythema  and  itching  of  the  weeping  stages  of  eczema 
rubrum  in  dogs,  and  is  equally  useful  in  similar  eczematous 
conditions  in  horses.  Catarrhal  or  purulent  conjunctivitis  is 
benefited  by  spraying  the  irritable  surface  three  or  four  times 
daily  with  solution  of  three  to  six  grains  to  the  ounce  of 
water,  alternated  with  atropine  lotions. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  5ii-  to  3v. ;  foals  and 
calves,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  dogs,  to  Avhich  it  is  usefully  given 
in  distemper,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx. 

A  saturated  solution  is  made  with  one  part  of  acid  to 
thirty  of  water,  and  for  surgical  purposes  is  used  diluted  as 
required.  A  few  grains  of  salicylic  acid  are  sometimes  added. 
An  ointment  is  prepared  by  melting  nine  parts  white  paraffin 
ointment,  and  adding  one  part  boric  acid  in  fine  powder. 
Boric  lint  is  made  by  soaking  lint,  cotton  wool,  or  oakum  in 
a  saturated  boiling  watery  solution,  from  which  the  acid 
crystallises,  adhering  to  the  fibrous  material.  Like  carbolic 
lint,  eight  or  ten  folds  are  applied,  either  wet  or  dry,  over  the 
wound ;  being  unirritating,  no  protection  is  needed ;  in  order 
to  prevent  evaporation  and  access  of  ubiquitous  micro-organ- 
isms, a  piece  of  mackintosh  is  laid  on  with  the  oiled  surface 
inwards ;  unless  the  discharges  are  excessive,  an  ample  and 
properly  applied  dressing  does  not  require  to  be  disturbed 


CARBON    AND    CARBON    COMPOUNDS  343 

for  several  days.  A  few  folds  of  lint  applied  wet  to  a  wound 
or  ulcer,  and  covered  with  oiled  silk  or  mackintosh,  acts  as 
an  antiseptic  poultice,  and  its  effects  may  be  kept  up  by 
pourini^  the  lotion  from  time  to  tune  between  the  folds  of 
lint.  Boric  gauze  is  charged  with  20  per  cent,  of  boric  acid. 
Boro  -  glyceride  is  made  by  heating  ninety-two  parts 
glycerin  with  sixty-two  boric  acid.  Solutions  of  one  to 
twenty  of  hot  water  are  used  as  antiseptic  gargles, 
lotions  for  purulent  ophthalmia,  urethritis,  and  dressings 
for  wounds. 


CHARCOAL-CARBON 

Two  varieties  of  charcoal,  or  carbon,  are  used  in  medicine 
and  pharmacy— wood  charcoal,  or  carbo  ligni,  and  animal 
charcoal,  or  carbo  animahs.  The  former  is  prepared  by 
piling  billets  of  hard  wood  into  heaps,  covering  them  with 
turf  and  sand,  and  leaving  a  few  apertures  for  admission  of 
air.  The  pile  is  ignited  :  after  the  flame  has  risen  through 
the  whole  mass,  the  openings  are  closed,  and  combustion 
proceeds  slowly,  without  access  of  air.  The  high  temperature 
dissipates  moisture,  breaks  up  the  complex  vegetable  matters 
into  simpler  forms,  producing  empyreumatic  gases  and  tarry 
fluids,  and  leaving  a  charred  residue  of  about  one-fifth  the 
weight  of  the  original  wood,  and  consisting  of  chemically 
pure  carbon  and  ash,  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  traces  of 
nitrogen  retained  in  the  porous  mass.  Oils  or  resins,  Avhen 
burned  in  a  deficiency  of  air,  produce  lamp  black — a  finely- 
divided,  amorphous  carbon. 

Animal  charcoal,  also  known  as  bone  or  ivory  black,  is 
chiefly  prepared  from  bones,  which  are  boiled  to  separate 
fatty  matters,  and  heated  in  close  vessels  until  the  ammonia- 
cal  gases  cease  to  be  disengaged;  The  fixed  residue  contains 
about  10  per  cent,  of  carbon,  88  per  cent,  of  calcium  phos- 
phate and  carbonate,  and  2  per  cent,  of  iron  carbide  and 
silicide — mineral  matters  which  separate  the  carbon  particles 
and  enhance  their  absorbent  properties. 

Both   vecretable  and  animal  charcoal  are  remarkable  for 


"to' 


344  CHARCOAL 

their  porosity,  are  brown-black,  insoluble  and  inodorous, 
readily  absorb  moisture,  gases,  and  most  vegetable  colouring 
matters.  Animal  charcoal  is  distinguished  by  its  greater 
density,  its  incombustibility,  its  bitter  taste,  its  large  propor- 
tion of  phosphates,  and  also  by  its  greater  absorbing  power. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Charcoal  is  a  desiccant,  antiseptic, 
disinfectant,  and  deodorant,  and  is  used  as  a  decoloriser 
in  pharmacy,  sugar-refining,  and  other  arts.  One  volume  of 
good  boxwood  charcoal  absorbs  into  its  pores  100  volumes 
of  ammonia  gas,  50  of  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  10  of  oxygen. 
The  oxygen  thus  retained  decomposes  and  deodorises  noxious 
gases  which  come  into  contact  with  the  charcoal.  Air  laden 
with  sewer  gases  is  purified  by  passing  it  over  charcoal.  Brown 
sugar  in  solution  filtered  through  animal  charcoal  is  deprived 
of  colouring  matter;  crude  spirit  is  robbed  of  its  fusel  oil; 
foul  water  is  cleansed  of  organic  impurities.  Urine  heated 
with  it  parts  with  colouring  matters,  urea,  and  uric  acid,  but 
not  with  any  sugar  it  may  contain.  Vegetable  acids,  alka- 
loids, and  their  salts  are  sometimes  purified  by  charcoal ;  but 
for  these  pharmaceutic  purposes  it  has  the  disadvantage  of 
retaining,  not  only  colouring  particles,  but  portions  of  the 
drugs — a  property,  however,  which  renders  it  serviceable  as 
an  antidote  in  poisoning  with  opium,  aconite,  strychnine,  and 
even  prussic  acid.  The  charcoal  mechanically  envelops  and 
holds  the  poisonous  particles ;  half  an  ounce,  swallowed  im- 
mediately after  a  grain  of  morphine  or  strychnine,  is  stated 
to  prevent  absorption. 

Sprinkled  over  meat  or  game,  or  placed  in  barrels  of  water 
intended  for  long  keeping,  it  attracts  and  retains  septic 
matters,  and  hence  retards  putrefaction.  Unlike  chlorides 
of  mercury  and  zinc,  or  other  powerful  antiseptics,  it  does  not, 
however,  attack  or  destroy  organised  germs.  Whilst  passing 
through  the  alimentary  canal,  it  checks  fermentative  changes, 
lessens  acridity  and  foetor  of  the  faeces ;  probably  also  re- 
moves mucus,  and  exerts  some  degree  of  health}^  stimula- 
tion. As  an  absorbent  and  deodoriser,  it  is  occasionally  used 
as  a  poultice,  and  sprinkled  over  suppurating  or  foul  wounds. 
Equal  parts  of  charcoal,  gum  arable,  and  colophony  constitute 
a  useful  haemostatic. 


Ethyl- 

..        C2H5.OH, 

Propyl- 

1,                    CgHy.OH, 

Butyl- 

„       C,H,.OH, 

Amyl- 

»       CgHj^.OH, 

ALCOHOL  345 

Doses,  etc. — For  the  horse,  5iv.  to  §i. ;  for  cattle,  §i. ;  for 
sheep  and  pigs,  51.  to  5iy- ;  and  for  dogs,  gr.  x.  to  grs.  Ix.  It 
is  usually  given  suspended  in  gruel  or  other  mucilaginous 
fluid.  To  preserve  its  activity  charcoal  must  be  kept  dry 
and  clean.  Raised  to  a  low  red-heat  shortly  before  it  is 
used,  gases  and  organic  matters  are  burned  out  of  its  pores, 
and  its  efficacy  is  much  increased.  The  charcoal  fouled  in 
sugar-refining  and  other  processes  is  thus  cleansed  for  re- 
peated use. 

ALCOHOL 

The  more  important  mono-hydric  alcohols  used  in  medi- 
cine and  pharmacy  are  : — 

Methyl-alcohol,  CH3.OH,  from  distillation  of  wood. 

fermentation  of  grape  sugar, 
grapes. 
„  beet, 

„  potatoes. 

These  alcohols  are  hydrates  of  the  radicles  of  the  methane 
or  marsh  gas  series  (CH^).  In  their  production  the  radicle 
has  one  of  its  atoms  of  hydrogen  (H)  displaced  by  an  atom 
of  the  radicle  hydroxyl  (OH).  Thus,  methane  (CH^),  losing 
one  atom  of  H,  and  assuming  one  of  OH,  becomes  CH3.OH, 
or  methyl-alcohol,  popularly  known  as  wood  spirit.  Ethane 
(CgHg),  losing  one  atom  of  H,  and  taking  up  one  of  OH, 
becomes  C.2H5.OH,  ethyl- alcohol,  or  spirit  of  wine.  Each  of 
these  alcohols,  when  oxidised  by  removal  of  Hg,  in  the  form 
of  a  molecule  of  water  (H^O),  yields  an  aldehyd  ;  while  by 
substitution  of  OH  for  H,  the  aldehydes  are  converted  into 
acids.  Thus,  ethyl-alcohol  (CHg.CH^.OH)  is  converted  into 
aldehyd  (CH3COH),  and  thence  into  acetic  acid  (CH3CO.OH). 
In  each  of  the  alcohols,  moreover,  the  H  in  the  OH  can  be 
replaced  by  an  alcohol  radicle,  when  an  ether  is  formed; 
thus,  ethyl-alcohol  (C^Hg.OH)  yields  common  ether  (CgHg. 
O.C2H5).  ■ 

Absolute  alcohol. — Ethyl  hydroxide  (C2H5O.H),  with  not 
more  than  one  per  cent,  by  weight,  of  water;  obtained  by 
the  removal  of  water  from  less  strong  ethylic  alcohol  and 


346  ALCOHOL 

subsequent  distillation.  Specific  gravity  from  0"794  to 
0"7969.  Very  volatile  and  hygroscopic  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures (B.P.).  Absolute  alcohol  is  a  mobile,  colourless  fluid, 
with  a  spirituous  odour,  and  an  intensely  fiery  taste.  It  has 
great  affinity  for  water,  takes  it  from  any  substance  with 
which  it  is  in  contact,  and  thus  exerts  its  notable  power  of 
preserving  both  vegetable  and  animal  matters.  Ethyl 
bromide  and  ethyl  chloride  are  occasionally  used  to  produce 
local  anesthesia. 

Rectified  spirit  (spiritus  rectificatus),  or  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.).  A  liquid  containing  ninety  parts  by  volume  of  ethyl 
hydroxide,  and  ten  parts  by  volume  of  water ;  obtained  by 
the  distillation  of  fermented  saccharine  liquids.  Specific 
gravity  08340.  By  weight  it  contains  14"35  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  85-65  per  cent,  of  ethylic  alcohol.  It  burns  with 
a  blue,  smokeless  flame.  Leaves  no  residue  when  evaporated, 
and  remains  clear  when  mixed  with  water  (B.P.).  It  dissolves 
iodine,  camphor,  balsams,  castor  oil,  most  alkaloids,  and 
deliquescent  salts,  but  not  the  carbonates.  It  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  all  the  spirits,  and  a  large  number  of  the 
tinctures  of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  1898. 

Diluted  alcohol. — The  four  official  li(|uids  obtained  by 
diluting  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  or  rectified  spirit  with 
distilled  water,  contain  respectively  70,  60,  45,  and  20  per 
cent,  by  volume  of  ethyl  hydroxide  (B.P.).  They  may  be 
prepared  as  follows : — 

(1)  Alcohol  (70  per  cent.).— With  100  fluid  ounces  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  mix  31  05  fluid  ounces  of  distilled 
water.     Specific  gravity  08900. 

(2)  Alcohol  (60  per  cent.). — With  100  fluid  ounces  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  mix  53§  (53-65)  fluid  ounces  of 
distilled  water.     Specific  gravity  09 135. 

(3)  Alcohol  (45  per  cent.).— With  100  fluid  ounces  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.)  mix  105;^-  (105-34)  fluid  ounces  distilled  water. 
Specific  gravity  0-943(). 

(4)  Alcohol  (20  per  cent.). — With  100  fluid  ounces  of 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  mix  355f  (3558)  fluid  ounces  of 
distilled  water.     Specific  gravity  09760. 

Proof  spirit  (spiritus  tenuior)  contains  6709  per  cent,  by 


WHISKY,    BRANDY,    WINES,    RUM,    GIN  347 

volume  of  ethylic  alcohol  Specific  gravity  0-920.  In  the 
B.P.  1898,  proof  spirit  has  been  replaced  by  alcohol  (60  per 
cent.). 

Methylic  alcohol  (CH3OH). — This  spirit  is  obtained  by 
the  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  It  is  also  prepared  from 
beet  sugar  refuse.  Methylic  alcohol  when  pure  has  many  of 
the  properties,  and  is  applied  to  many  of  the  purposes  of 
ethylic  alcohol.  It  burns  with  a  pale  tlame,  is  not  rendered 
turbid  by  Avater,  boils  at  140  Fahr.,  and  has  an  empyreumatic 
odour  depending  upon  the  presence  of  acetone  (di-meth3'l- 
ketone)  and  oily  matters.  Specific  gravity  '799  to  -803. 
From  ethylic  alcohol  it  is  distinguished  by  heating  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  potassium  bichromate,  when  it  yields 
formic  acid ;  ethylic  alcohol,  similarly  treated,  yields  acetic 
acid. 

Methyl  chloride,  a  gaseous  compound,  prepared  from 
methylic  alcohol  and  hydrochloric  acid,  is  employed  as  a 
local  anaesthetic. 

Methylated  spirit  (spiritus  methylatus)  is  a  mixture  of 
nine  parts  alcohol  (90  per  cent.)  with  one  part  wood  naphtha 
or  methylic  alcohol.  The  methylated  spirit  on  sale  in  oil 
and  other  shops  contains  petroleum  oil,  which  is  added  to 
render  the  mixture  distasteful  to  drinkers. 

Whisky  (sp.  frumenti)  is  obtained  from  fermented  grain 
by  distillation.  It  contains  from  50  to  58  per  cent,  by 
volume  of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Brandy  (sp.  vini  gallici),  a  liquid  distilled  from  wine, 
should  contain  43-0-  per  cent.,  by  volume,  of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Champagne,  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  contains 
from  10  to  13  per  cent.,  by  volume,  of  ethylic  alcohol, 
and  owes  its  peculiar  bouquet  to  traces  of  fragrant  ethers. 
Port  contains  20  to  30  per  cent. ;  sherry,  16  to  22  per 
cent.;  and  claret,  hock,  and  burgundy,  8  to  12  per  cent, 
of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Rum,  a  spirit  of  about  the  same  strength  as  brandy,  is 
obtained  by  distillation  of  a  fermented  solution  of  molasses. 
Hollands,  Geneva,  and  gin  are  prepared  from  fermented 
malt,  with  a  small  quantity  of  juniper  berries.  They  contain 
from  51  to  59  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 


348  ALCOHOL 

Ales  and  porter  are  made  by  infusing  malt  in  water, 
allowing  it  to  stand  until  the  starch  is  in  great  part  converted 
into  dextrin  and  sugar,  boiling  the  solution  with  hops,  and 
adding  yeast  to  cause  fermentation,  which,  however,  must  be 
carefully  controlled.  The  dark  colour  of  porter  depends  on 
a  part  of  the  malt  being  roasted.  Stout,  or  porter  and  ales 
contain  from  2  to  9  per  cent,  of  ethylic  alcohol. 

Amylic  alcohol. — A  liquid  consisting  principally  of  iso- 
primary  amylic  alcohol,  and  prepared  by  shaking  commercial 
fusel  oil  with  a  saturated  solution  of  common  salt,  separating 
the  oily  layer,  distilling,  and  collecting  the  portion  which 
distils  between  257°  and  289°  Fahr.  Fusel  oil  is  present  in 
all  crude  ethyl  alcohols,  is  obtained  from  the  distillation  of 
potatoes,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  offensive  flavour.  It  is 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  other 
alcohols,  ether,  and  essential  oils.  Amylic  alcohol  when 
oxidised,  yields  valerianic  acid.  It  is  used  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  amyl-nitrite. 

Actions  and  Uses.  —  Alcohol,  according  to  dose  and 
concentration,  is  a  local  irritant,  refrigerant,  mild  astringent, 
and  antiseptic.  It  is  diffusible,  and  readily  absorbed,  and  its 
in-contact  effects  are  produced  on  a  wide  range  of  organs. 
Large  doses  paralyse  the  nerve-centres,  and  kill  by  respiratory 
arrest.  Full  doses,  especially  when  given  repeatedly,  impair 
the  oxidising  power  of  the  blood,  and  hence  diminish 
metabolism.  Medicinal  doses  are  diffusible  stimulants,  and 
are  prescribed  as  carminatives,  antispasmodics,  and  cardiac 
excitants.  Diluted  ethylic-alcohol  is  a  readily  assimilable 
food,  and  hence  a  restorative  and  tonic;  it  is  antiseptic, 
diaphoretic,  and  antipyretic.  Causing  a  fuller  stream  of 
blood  to  circulate  through  the  glands,  it  increases  their 
secretions,  notably  that  of  the  kidneys,  by  which  the 
unassimilated  portions  of  the  drug  are  chiefly  excreted. 
Both  ethylic  and  methylic  alcohols  are  used  as  preservatives 
of  vegetable  substances,  and  pharinaceutically  as  solvents. 

General  Actions.  —  Alcohol  in  tolerably  concentrated 
solution  withdraws  water  from  albuminoid  solutions,  and 
precipitates  them.  Applied  to  a  mucous  surface,  it  precipi- 
tates a  thin  white  pellicle  of  albumin,  thus  exerting  irritant 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  349 

and  slight  astringent  effects.  Owing  to  its  evaporation, 
alcohol,  when  applied  to  the  skin,  causes  a  sensation  of  cold ; 
but  if  applied  with  friction,  or  if  evaporation  be  prevented 
by  a  covering  of  oiled  silk,  it  passes  into  the  skin,  inducing  a 
sensation  of  warmth.  When  swallowed,  a  similar  warming 
effect  is  produced  in  the  stomach.  Moderate  doses  dilate 
the  vessels,  redden  the  mucous  membrane,  and  increase  the 
secretion  of  gastric  juice.  If  not  too  concentrated,  alcohol  is 
readily  absorbed  through  any  of  the  ordinary  channels  of 
administration.  Orfila  poisoned  dogs  by  causing  them  to 
breathe  air  charged  with  it.  Being  highly  diffusible,  it 
quickly  enters  the  blood.  It  appears  to  form  with  the 
hasmoglobin  a  compound  of  diminished  capacity  to  take  up 
and  give  off  oxygen.  Full  or  large  doses,  accordingly, 
interfere  with  oxidation  of  blood  and  tissue.  Its  effects 
vary  considerably  with  the  dose  and  its  concentration.  It 
quickens  circulation,  increasing  the  strength  as  well  as  the 
frequency  of  the  pulse.  The  functions  of  nerve-centres 
generally  are  stimulated,  causing  sometimes  a  slight  tem- 
porary rise  of  external  temperature,  seldom  exceeding,  either 
in  man  or  animals,  half  a  degree.  Quickly,  however,  there 
follows  dilatation  of  cutaneous  vessels,  with  consequent 
lowering  of  temperature. 

Observations  on  various  classes  of  animals  demonstrate 
that  alcohol  in  full  doses  lowers  animal  temperature.  This 
mainly  results  from  (1)  lessened  oxidation;  (2)  increased 
circulation,  and  consequent  increased  evolution  of  heat ;  and 
(3)  vaso-motor  paresis.  As  with  most  of  the  other  effects  of 
alcohol,  the  lowered  temperature  is  not,  however,  of  long 
duration.  Magnan  has  shown  that  puppies  lose  3'  to  7° 
Fahr.  when  alcohol  is  added  to  their  food.  '  The  experi- 
ments of  Binz  and  Bouvier  on  septicsemic  fever  in  animals 
gave  singular  results.  In  rabbits,  for  instance,  after  injecting 
septic  fluid,  and  inducing  a  febrile  reaction  ranging  from 
102°  to  105°  Fahr.,  about  three  drachms  of  alcohol  diluted 
with  water  were  introduced  into  the  stomach  by  means  of  a 
tube ;  fifteen  minutes  afterwards  the  temperature  was  104*1°, 
in  forty-five  minutes  102'4'',  in  ninety  minutes  100'9°,  in  two 
hours  and  a  half  1006°  Fahr.     The  following  day  the  pyrexia 


350  ALCOHOL 

returned,  and  increased  till  the  death  of  the  animal.  Very 
large  doses  lower  the  temperature  as  much  as  85°  Cent.,  and 
if  narcosis  was  induced  before  fever  began,  quite  prevented 
its  development '  (Phillip's  Materia  Medica).  ])r.  B.  W. 
Richardson's  experiments  also  show  that  doses  sufficient  to 
cause  unconsciousness  dangerously  reduce  temperature  of 
birds  to  the  amount  of  5°,  of  dogs  3°,  of  rabbits  10",  and  of 
man  himself  2°  to  3°  Fahr.  (Cantor  Lectures). 

Digestion  and  nutrition,  although  injured  by  large,  are 
improved  by  small  doses.  Small  or  even  moderate  quanti- 
ties diminish  the  discharge  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  lungs, 
check  metabolism,  and  increase  secretion  of  urine.  Mere 
traces  are  removed  by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys,  but  by 
far  the  larger  proportion  undergoes  combustion  in  the 
body,  and,  like  other  hydrocarbons,  and  especially  when 
used  with  suitable  food,  alcohol  proves  a  source  of  heat  and 
vital  energy.  Schulinus'  experiments  on  these  points  are 
conclusive,  and  have  been  repeatedly  verified.  Animals 
receiving  measured  quantities  of  alcohol,  so  soon  as  full 
effects  were  produced,  were  killed  by  bleeding  and  insufflat- 
ins:  air  into  the  vessels.  Fractional  distillations  of  the  blood 
and  viscera  were  made  separately,  and  repeated  investigations 
have  demonstrated — (1)  that  alcohol  in  small  or  moderate 
quantity  does  not  localise  itself  in  any  particular  organ, 
such  as  the  brain  or  liver,  but  diffuses  itself  equally  in  the 
system;  (2)  that  only  the  blood  contains  proportionately 
more  than  other  tissues ;  (3)  of  the  alcohol  taken,  the  greater 
part  is  decomposed  within  the  organism,  and  the  amount 
eliminated  by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys,  is  insignificant 
(Phillips).  Professor  Binz'  experiments  show  that  not  quite 
three  per  cent,  of  moderate  doses  is  excreted  unchanged. 
Alcohol  is  a  true  food,  rapidly  assimilated,  and  yielding 
abundance  of  energy  at  little  cost  to  the  tissues,  and 
it  is  in  general  use  in  fevers,  although  it  is  by  no  means  an 
indispensable  remedy  (Dr.  Mitchell  Bruce). 

The  dietetic  value  of  alcohol  has  been  the  subject  of  nuich 
controversy.  Its  consumption  in  great  part  within  the  body 
explains  how  men  and  animals  kept  on  somewhat  deficient 
diet,  on  which  weight  would  be  lost,  nevertheless  maintain 


DIETETIC    VALUE  351 

their  weight,  when  receiving,  in  addition,  daily  small  doses 
of  alcohol.  But  for  ordinary  nutrition  it  is  a  food  which, 
although  quickly  assimilated,  is  rapidly  used  up,  and,  unless 
carefully  employed,  has  the  disadvantage  of  impairing 
oxidation  and  excretion.  For  permanent  repair  of  waste, 
and  maintenance  of  strength  during  severe  continued 
exertion,  it  cannot  compare  Avitli  suitable  food.  This  was 
strikmgly  illustrated  in  the  Ashantee  War,  when  soldiers, 
on  exhausting  marches,  Avho  received  rations  of  rum,  although 
temporarily  improved  in  vigour  soon  flagged  again;  while 
those  receiving  beef-tea  were  equally  refreshed  in  the  first 
instance,  and  did  not  experience  the  secondary  depression 
which  overtook  those  who  preferred  the  alcohol. 

Different  classes  of  animals  are  somewhat  differently 
affected  by  alcohol.  Man,  whose  intellectual  centres  are 
about  einlit  times  larsjer  than  his  motor  centres,  has  his 
intelligence  quickly  acted  on  by  doses  which  are  insufficient 
to  impair  his  motor  functions.  Amounts  corresponding  to 
0*4  to  the  1000  of  the  total  weight  of  the  body  disturb 
human  intelligence ;  while  240  per  1000  of  weight  are  needed 
to  impair  motor  functions.  In  dogs  the  cerebral  are  about 
five  times  the  weight  of  the  motor  centres.  Alcohol  has  no 
notable  effect  until  1"5  to  the  1000  of  body  weight  is  taken, 
and  the  prominent  results  then  occurring  are  disturbance 
not  of  intellicrence,  but  of  motor  function.  Horses  and 
cattle  receiving  full  doses  exhibit  excitement  and  perversion 
of  motor  function;  they  prance,  strike  with  the  feet,  are 
unsteady  in  their  gait,  and  drag  the  hind  limbs.  Muscular 
twitching  and  convulsions  occasional!}^  occur. 

Toxic  Actions. — Large  doses  paralyse  the  nerve-centres 
in  the  inverse  order  of  their  development,  the  cerebral  being 
first  affected,  the  respiratory  and  cardiac  last.  Their  effects 
are  generally  divided  into  four  stages  —  (1)  stimulant, 
(2)  narcotic,  (3)  anaesthetic,  and  (4)  paralytic.  With  ethyl- 
alcohol  these  stages  are  usually  distinctly  marked.  With 
methyl-alcohol  the  excitement  is  more  intense,  the  subsequent 
stages  follow  more  rapidly ;  but  if  the  doses  are  not  lethal 
the  effects  pass  off  more  quickly.  AVith  cenanthic  and 
caprylic,  Avhich   are  non-fermented  alcohols,  the  stages  are 


352  ALCOHOL 

less  regular,  and  are  marked  by  convulsions.  Ethyl  and 
methyl  alcohols  are  not  so  deadly  as  most  of  the  others. 
Their  toxic  dose  is  eight  grammes  to  the  kilogramme  of  the 
live  weight  of  the  animal.  The  toxic  dose  of  any  crude  spirit 
is  less  than  that  of  the  same  spirit  after  rectification,  and 
the  impure  spirit  produces  greater  excitement  and  heavier 
stupor. 

Large  concentrated  doses  produce  rapid  narcosis  with  a 
minimum  of  preliminary  excitement.  Hertwig  gave  an  old 
but  serviceably  sound  horse  eight  ounces  of  ethyl-alcohol  of 
specific  gravity  '825.  He  became  much  excited  and  uneasy, 
pranced,  staggered,  and  after  two  minutes  fell,  struck  out 
vehemently  with  his  feet,  rolled  his  eyes — the  pupils  at  first 
were  contracted,  but  afterwards  were  dilated.  He  rapidly 
became  insensible,  and  died  in  about  ten  minutes.  The 
heart  continued  to  beat  for  several  minutes  after  death. 
Four  to  six  ounces  produced  similar  motor  excitability, 
but  did  not  prove  fatal  {Arzneir)iittellehre). 

Dogs  about  twenty  pounds  weight,  retaining  four  or  five 
ounces  of  whisky,  given  quickly,  soon,  and  without  any 
appreciable  excitement,  become  comatose,  and  die  within  a 
few  minutes.  Dr.  Percy  injected  strong  alcohol  into  the 
empty  stomach  in  dogs,  and  they  almost  immediately  fell  over 
insensible ;  respiratory  and  cardiac  movements  ceased  within 
two  minutes;  the  blood  was  found  charged  with  alcohol. 
Similar  sudden  fatal  paralysis  occurs  in  men  swallowing 
quickly  full  draughts  of  whisky  (Christison  On  Poisons). 
Dogs  receiving  one  to  two  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  the 
oesophagus  being  afterwards  ligatured,  become  uneasy,  endea- 
vour to  vomit,  are  unable  to  control  their  movements, 
become  comatose,  and  die  in  a  quarter  to  half  an  hour.  One 
to  two  drachms  induced  in  dogs  reeling  and  stupor,  w'hich 
continued  for  about  half  an  hour.  Dr.  George  Harley  found 
that  half  an  ounce  of  alcohol,  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
water,  injected  into  the  portal  vein  of  dogs,  so  seriously 
interfered  Avith  the  glycogenic  function  of  the  liver  that  the 
urine  within  three  hours  became  diabetic. 

Cattle  and  sheep,  and  indeed  all  ruminants,  are  less 
susceptible  to  the  actions  of  alcohol  than  dogs  or  horses. 


POISONING  353 

Hertwig  mentions  that  when  brandy  is  given  to  sheep  and 
goats,  they  soon  become  fond  of  it,  taking  six  or  eight  ounces 
at  a  time  without  exhibiting  serious  symptoms. 

Chronic  poisoning'  by  alcohol,  with  impaired  nervous 
power  and  fatty  degeneration,  common  in  human  patients, 
is  unknown  in  the  lower  animals;  but  Professor  John 
Gamgee  describes  {Domestic  Animals  in  Health  and  Disease) 
a  form  of  encephalitis  in  cattle,  resulting  from  alcoholism, 
due  to  the  practice,  '  prevalent  in  some  parts  of  Scotland,  of 
giving  "  burnt  ale "  to  cows  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
distilleries.  The  ale  is  given  by  steeping  straw  in  it,  and  the 
animals  will  also  freely  drink  the  ale.  They  often  sleep 
soundly  after  such  a  beverage,  and  intoxication  is  not 
infrequent.  The  symptoms  are  as  follows: — The  head, 
slightly  elevated,  is  turned  singularly  to  the  side.  The 
pupils  are  widely  dilated,  and  the  eyes  have  a  remarkably 
wild  appearance.  On  approaching  the  animals  they  wink 
rapidly  and  tremble.  There  is  marked  heat  of  head,  horns, 
and  ears.  When  pressed  with  the  finger  in  the  axilla,  they 
fall  instantly,  and  when  pulled  by  the  head  they  incline  to 
turn  over.  The  pulse  is  about  seventy  or  eighty  per  minute. 
After  death  all  the  organs  are  found  healthy  except  the 
nervous  centres,  and  both  the  brain  and  its  membranes  are 
found  congested.  This  congestion  often  extends  into  the 
spinal  canal,  and  the  pia  mater  of  both  brain  and  cord  is  the 
seat  of  red  spots.  Clots  of  blood  have  been  found  in  the 
lateral  ventricles,  and  around  the  spinal  marrow  in  the 
cervical  region.  There  is  evidently  softening  of  the  brain 
substance,  as  a  direct  result  of  this  condition,'  At  distilleries, 
where  the  live  stock  are  freely  supplied  with  dregs  or  wash 
and  other  refuse  containing  spirit,  pigs,  as  well  as  cattle,  are 
frequently  intoxicated,  exhibit  symptoms  similar  to  those 
described,  and  are  sometimes  fatally  affected. 

The  antidotes  are  tea  and  coffee,  cold  douches,  and  other 
means  of  warding  off  the  deadly  stupor.  Strychnine  and 
alcohol  are  mutually  antagonistic,  and  alcohol,  used  hypo- 
dermically,  restores  rabbits  apparently  dead  from  the 
alkaloid. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Few  remedies  are  more  frequently  and 

z 


354  ALCOHOL 

extensively  used  than  the  various  alcoholic  liquids.  They 
stimulate  gastric  secretion,  and  improve  appetite  in  atonic 
indigestion ;  they  act  as  carminatives  in  flatulence ;  control 
the  spasms  of  intestinal  colic ;  and  check  persistent  diarrha?a 
especially  when  they  are  conjoined  with  sodium  benzoate 
or  vegetable  astringents.  They  equalise  irregular  circulation 
in  chills,  and  antagonise  cardiac  feebleness,  especially  of  a 
temporary  character,  such  as  results  from  debilitating  disease, 
poisoning  by  sedatives,  snake-bite,  or  shock.  Many  cases  of 
milk  fever  in  cows,  when  stupor  is  approaching,  or  even 
during  the  earlier  excitable  stages,  are  benefited  by  six  to 
ten  ounces  of  whisky,  given  at  intervals  of  one  to  two  hours. 
Where  such  draughts  cannot  be  swallowed,  they  are  some- 
times introduced  into  the  rumen  by  the  stomach  pump ;  but 
where  coma  has  set  in  the  stimulation  needful  to  maintain 
heart  and  respiratory  action  is  best  effected  by  subcutaneous 
injection  of  ether. 

In  epizootic  catarrh  amongst  hard-worked  horses,  when 
the  pulse  is  quick  and  weak,  the  breathing  hurried  and 
embarrassed,  and  the  temperature  above  102°  Fahr.,  no 
treatment  is  more  successful  than  a  few  ounces  of  Avhisky, 
diluted  with  gruel  or  water,  repeated  every  two  or  three 
hours;  a  saline  draught  administered  thrice  daily;  the  body 
well  clothed,  and  mustard,  if  need  be,  applied  to  the  throat. 
Many  cases  of  bronchitis  and  pneumonia,  after  a  few  days' 
illness,  and  especially  during  the  period  when  inflammatory 
products  are  being  removed,  are  benefited  by  moderate, 
frequently  repeated  doses  of  alcohol.  The  restorative  sustain- 
ing power  of  alcohol  in  the  second  stage  of  such  disorders  is 
well  attested  and  generally  conceded. 

The  antiseptic,  antithermal,  and  antipyretic  actions  of 
alcohol  are  well  exhibited  in  septicaemia.  This  is  illustrated 
by  an  experiment  of  Professor  Binz,  who  produced  septic 
fever  by  injection  of  pus  in  two  young  healthy  dogs  of  equal 
weight,  one  of  which,  treated  with  three  doses  of  two  drachms 
of  alcohol  introduced  into  the  stomach,  shortly  recovered, 
while  the  other  which  remained  without  treatment,  died  on 
the  second  day.  His  experiments  with  rabbits,  already 
quoted,  also   testify   to   the   notable   antipyretic   eft'ects   of 


ACTIONS    AND    FSES  855 

alcohol.  Xot  only  does  it  lower  high  temperature,  but  in 
such  cases  it  also  helps  to  maintain  the  failing  cardiac  action, 
and  to  surmount  the  critical  nervous  depression.  It  is  ser- 
viceable in  horses  fevered  and  enfeebled  with  protracted 
strangles,  or  debilitated  by  purpura  ;  in  all  animals  suffering 
from  parturition  metritis ;  and  in  dogs  exhausted  from  dis- 
temper; as  well  as  in  most  other  forms  of  systemic 
poisoning.  During  convalescence  from  enervating  dis- 
orders, as  well  as  in  chronic  cases  connected  with  mal- 
assunilation,  alcohol  is  beneticial  in  all  classes  of  patients  as 
a  gastric  tonic,  general  stimulant,  and  a  readily  assimilable 
food,  Ana?mic  subjects  are  frequently  treated  with  sound 
ale  or  spirit  and  Avater,  conjoined  with  iron  salts  and 
oleaginous  food. 

The  more  important  medicinal  effects  follow  within  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes  after  administration.  As  already  indicated, 
the  weak  pulse  should  become  stronger  and  lirmer,  the 
quick  pulse  slower,  breathing  should  be  more  natural,  the 
skin  more  moist,  and  temperature  lower — in  a  word,  there 
should  be  remission  of  the  more  prominent  morbid 
symptoms.  If  such  favourable  effects  are  not  produced, 
alcohol  is  not  a  suitable  remedy,  or  the  dose  has  been 
wrongly  estimated.  When  unsuitable,  or  given  too  fre- 
quently, or  in  quantity  too  large,  whether  in  health  or 
disease,  alcohol  hinders  oxidation,  retards  excretion,  impairs 
digestion,  and  causes  dryness  of  skin  and  mucous  surfaces. 

Alcohol  resembles  in  its  actions  and  uses  the  volatile  oils, 
ethers,  and  ammonia,  and  is  frequently  prescribed  with  one 
or  more  of  these  allied  remedies. 

External  Uses. — In  a  state  of  concentration,  alcohol,  rubbed 
into  the  skin,  acts  as  a  rubefacient.  Coagulating  albumin, 
it  is  occasionally  applied  to  arrest  bleeding-.  Beaten  up 
with  white  of  egg,  it  is  used  in  veterinary  as  well  as  in  human 
practice  to  harden  the  epidermis  and  prevent  excoriation  of 
parts  exposed  to  pressure.  Weak  solutions,  conjoined  with 
a  half  to  one  per  cent,  of  carbolic  or  salicylic  acid,  exert 
anodyne  effects,  relieving  itching  in  erythematous  and  other 
skin  diseases.  Nettle-rash  is  often  treated  with  dilute 
spirituous  solutions,  to  which   one  per  cent,  of  petroleum 


356  ALCOHOL 

benzene  may  be  added.  For  surgical  purposes  it  is  em- 
ployed as  a  refrigerant  and  antiseptic.  Dr.  Jonathan 
Hutchinson  keeps  amputations,  compound  fractures,  and 
other  wounds  moist  with  six  parts  absolute  alcohol,  half  a 
part  liquor  plumbi,  and  sixteen  parts  distilled  water.  As  a 
stimulant  and  refrigerant  for  bruises,  wounds,  and  strains, 
it  is  popularly  used  throughout  Scotland  in  the  familiar 
form  of  whisky  and  water.  A  cooling  lotion  is  made  with 
an  ounce  each  of  rectified  spirit,  vinegar,  and  ammonium 
chloride,  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water.  As  a  refrigerant,  ice, 
however,  is  generally  more  convenient  and  effectual.  A 
convenient  solvent  for  the  active  principles  of  many  drugs, 
alcohol  is  largely  used  for  making  tinctures  and  extracts. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  rectified  spirit,  horses  and  cattle,  f§i.  to 
§iv. ;  sheep,  f^. ;  pigs,  f5iv. ;  and  dogs,  f5jj.  or  more,  diluted 
with  six  or  eight  parts  of  water  or  other  bland  fluid.  Whisky, 
gin,  or  brandy,  in  larger  doses  may  be  substituted  for  rectified 
spirit ;  sherry,  port,  ale,  or  stout  may  be  given  during  con- 
valescence. The  suitable  doses  and  the  frequency  of  their 
repetition  are  mainly  determined  by  the  condition  of  the 
patient,  and  the  purpose  intended  to  be  served.  Alcohol  acts 
promptly,  but  its  effects  are  transient.  It  is  less  apt  to  excite 
or  disagree  when  given  with  the  food  or  drinking  water. 
Mixed  with  oatmeal  or  linseed  gruel,  there  is  little  risk  of 
misappropriation. 

To  intensify  one  or  another  of  the  effects  of  alcohol,  it  is 
often  conjoined  with  other  medicines — with  ether  or  ammonia, 
when  more  prompt  and  powerful  stimulation  is  desired; 
with  opium  or  chloral  hydrate,  when  anodyne  effects  are 
required,  or  spasms  are  to  be  combated ;  with  digitalis,  when 
the  full  effects  of  a  cardiac  tonic  and  stimulant  are  sought ; 
with  ammonium  acetate,  when  diaphoresis  is  to  be  en- 
couraged ;  with  red  cinchona  or  coto  bark,  creosote,  or 
sodium  benzoate,  when  antiseptic  and  astringent  effects  are 
to  be  produced  in  the  intestine. 


ETHER  357 


ETHER 


^Ether.  a  volatile  liquid,  prepared  from  ethylic  alcohol,  by 
interaction  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  containing  not  less 
than  92  per  cent,  by  volume  of  ethyl  oxide.  (C^Hg),^ 
Formerly  termed  sulphuric  ether.     (B.P.) 

Ether  is  prepared  by  heating  in  a  glass  flask,  connected 
with  a  Liebig's  condenser,  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
five  of  rectified  spirit,  which  is  added  gradually.  Every 
alcohol,  by  substitution  of  an  alcohol  radicle  for  the  H.  in 
the  hydroxyl  (OH),  forms  a  corresponding  ether.  Thus, 
methyl- alcohol  (CH3OH)  yields  CH3.O.CH3,  which,  being 
considerably  cheaper  than  ethyl-ether,  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted for  it. 

The  B.P.  ether  contains  about  eight  per  cent,  of  alcohol 
and  water;  is  a  colourless,  very  volatile,  inflammable  liquid, 
with  a  strong  and  characteristic  odour.  Specific  gravity, 
0-735.  It  should  boil  below  105°  Fahr. ;  yields  a  vapour 
two  and  a  half  times  heavier  than  air,  but  half  that  of 
chloroform ;  is  miscible  in  all  proportions  with  chloroform 
and  alcohol  (90  per  cent.);  and  is  soluble  in  ten  volumes 
of  water.  It  readily  dissolves  fats,  volatile  oils,  balsams, 
resins,  and,  next  after  chloroform,  is  the  best  solvent  for 
alkaloids. 

Purified  ether  is  ether  from  which  most  of  the  ethylic 
alcohol  and  water  have  been  removed  by  washing  with 
distilled  water,  and  subsequent  distillation  in  the  presence 
of  calcium  chloride  and  recently  calcined  lime.  Specific 
gravity  not  below  -720,  and  not  exceeding  -722. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Ether  is  an  active  member  of  the 
alcohol  series.  It  is  exceedingly  volatile.  Applied  ex- 
ternally it  is  irritant,  refrigerant,  and  a  local  ansesthetic.  It 
is  quickly  absorbed;  acts  specially  on  the  central  nervous 
system,  on  nerve-centres  and  nerves  generally;  primarily, 
and  in  small  doses,  stimulating ;  secondarily,  and  in  larger 
doses,  paralysing,  and  when  inhaled  producing  anesthesia. 
Poisonous  doses  almost  immediately  cause  inebriant  nar- 
cosis, and  kill  by  paralysis  of  respiration.  It  is  prescribed 
as  a  general  stimulant,  carminative,  and  antispasmodic,  and 


358  ETHER 

is  also  expectorant,  diaphoretic,  diuretic,  antiseptic,  and 
parasiticide.  N6xt  to  chloroform  it  is  the  most  generally 
used  anaesthetic. 

General  Actions. — Applied  to  the  skin,  ether  evaporates 
and  abstracts  heat.  If  evaporation  be  prevented,  redness, 
irritation,  and  even  desquamation  occur.  Continued  or 
repeated  application  produces  local  anaesthesia,  which,  if 
maintained  too  long,  the  frozen  part  may  be  killed,  and  a 
slough  formed.  Swallowed  in  medicinal  doses,  it  stimulates 
the  mucous  surfaces  of  the  mouth  and  alimentary  canal, 
increasing  secretions  and  movements,  and  hence  developing 
sialogogue,  carminative,  and  antispasmodic  actions.  But 
full  doses,  especially  if  undiluted,  are  so  rapidly  vaporised 
and  so  irritant  that  they  cause  gastro-intestinal  distension 
and  nausea,  occasionally  with  vomiting  in  carnivora,  and  in 
dogs  and  rabbits  have  produced  rupture  of  the  stomach. 
Ether  is  quickly  absorbed  from  the  intestines,  and  still  more 
rapidly  when  introduced  by  inhalation  into  the  lungs,  and 
promptly  acts  upon  the  central  nervous  system,  nerve 
centres,  and  nerve  endings.  Small  doses  stimulate ;  larger 
doses,  after  brief  stimulation,  paralyse  and  anaesthetise 
the  centres,  first  of  the  brain,  next  those  of  the  spinal 
cord,  and  eventually  those  of  the  medulla,  killing  by 
respiratory  arrest.  The  glycogenic  functions  of  the  liver 
are  stimulated,  rendering  the  animal  temporarily  diabetic. 
It  is  removed  by  all  the  secreting  channels,  stimulating 
them,  and  hence  exerting  expectorant,  diaphoretic,  and 
diuretic  actions. 

General  anaesthesia  can  be  induced  in  the  horse  by 
administration  of  ether  by  the  rectum,  but  is  produced 
with  less  difficulty  by  inhalation.  Cats  are  ana3sthetised 
more  quickly  than  dogs  or  horses,  which  arc  generally 
made  insensible  in  eight  or  ten  minutes.  A  donkey  is 
stated  to  have  been  fully  affected  in  four  minutes,  another 
in  five  minutes,  and  a  third  in  three  minutes  and  a  half, 
the  last  remaining  insensible  to  pain  for  about  half  an 
hour  {Veterinarian,  1847).  The  effects  may  be  safely  main- 
tained for  half  an  hour  or  longer. 

Compared  with  chloroform,  ether  has  the  disadvantage 


A    DIFFUSIBLE   STIMULANT  AND    ANESTHETIC        359 

of  having  a  more  disagreeable  taste.  As  it  has  to  be  given 
in  more  concentrated  state,  it  is  also  more  irritant.  Larger 
doses  have  to  be  used.  Its  vajDour  is  dangerously  in- 
flammable. On  account  of  its  extreme  volatility  it  cannot 
be  used  in  hot  climates.  It  is,  however,  less  liable  to  paralyse 
the  heart  or  vaso-motor  centre.  Ether  and  chloroform 
may  be  used  together,  or  the  antesthesia  produced  by 
chloroform  may  be  maintained  by  ether.  But  experiments 
show  that  respiration  and  heart  action  are  more  quickly 
arrested  when  ether  is  first  given,  and  anaesthesia  sub- 
sequently carried  on  by  chloroform,  than  when  chloroform 
alone  is  used.  Ether  is  preferable  when  heart  action  is 
feeble,  when  anaesthesia  has  to  be  kept  up  for  a  considerable 
period,  when  operations  likely  to  be  attended  with  collapse 
are  undertaken  in  pregnant  animals,  and  in  dogs,  which, 
according  to  some  authorities,  are  specially  liable  to  cardiac 
failure  during  chloroform  anaesthesia. 

Ether  resembles  most  of  the  bodies  of  the  alcohol  series. 
Like  alcohol,  it  has  a  twofold  stimulant  and  paralysant 
action;  but  it  acts  more  promptly,  its  effects  pass  away 
more  quickly,  and,  in  virtue  of  its  volatility,  it  is  markedly 
ansesthetic.  It  stimulates  more  powerfully  than  ethyl- 
acetate  or  spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  neither  of  which  is  used 
as  an  anaesthetic.  Its  stimulant  properties  ally  it  to  tur- 
pentine and  the  other  volatile  oils. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Ether,  diluted  with  a  little  spirit  and 
water,  is  a  prompt  and  effectual  carminative  in  indigestion 
in  all  animals.  It  checks  undue  gastric  fermentation, 
expels  flatus,  and  overcomes  irregular,  violent,  gastro- 
intestinal movements.  In  colic  in  horses  this  antispas- 
modic action  is  frequently  aided  by  conjoining  the  stimulant 
with  such  anodynes  as  opium,  Indian  hemp,  and  belladonna. 
Horses  with  gastric  distension  are  frequently  roused  and 
the  action  of  the  bowels  is  promoted  by  ether,  hypoder- 
mically  injected.  It  is  sometimes  given  for  the  expulsion 
of  intestinal  worms,  and  especially  of  ascarides,  which,  when 
in  the  rectum,  are  readily  dislodged  by  enemata  of  diluted 
ether.  Such  enemata  also  relieve  spasmodic  affections  of 
the  intestines. 


360  ETHER 

As  a  prompt  and  powerful  diffusible  stimulant  ether  is 
useful  in  collapse,  whether  caused  by  shock,  hseraorrhage,  or 
exhausting  disease.  Along  with  alcohol,  it  is  used  in  par- 
turient apoplexy  in  cows,  and  in  such  cases,  when  the 
patient  is  unable  to  swallow,  it  is  advantageously  given 
hypodermically.  Chills  and  shiverings,  which  usher  in 
many  attacks  of  disease,  are  sometimes  checked  by  a  dose 
or  two  of  ether.  It  equalises  irregular  circulation,  restores 
imperfect  action  of  the  skin  and  kidneys,  and  gives  tone  to 
the  enfeebled  heart.  Hard-worked  horses,  especially  in 
towns,  prostrated  by  catarrhal  fever,  are  thus  benefited, 
even  from  the  outset  of  the  attack,  by  ether,  given  with 
alcohol  and  salines.  In  convalescence  from  inflammatory 
and  exhausting  diseases  in  all  classes  of  patients,  conjoined 
frequently  with  aromatics  and  bitters,  it  improves  the 
appetite,  strengthens  the  feeble  pulse,  and  sometimes  allays 
cough. 

As  a  stimulant  it  may  be  safely  prescribed  repeatedly 
wherever  it  reduces  the  number  and  increases  the  strength 
of  the  pulse,  lowers  excessive  temperature,  and  promotes 
secretion.  It  should  be  avoided  where  there  is  much  vas- 
cular excitement  and  inflammatory  fever.  As  ether  taints 
the  carcase  and  spots  the  flesh  its  employment  as  a  medicine 
for  cattle  should  be  guarded. 

As  an  anaesthetic  it  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
chloroform,  and  is  administered  in  the  same  manner  and 
with  similar  precautions. 

Local  anaesthesia  is  usually  induced  by  applying  the 
ether  from  a  spray  producer.  For  this  purpose  the  ether 
must  be  tolerably  pure,  for  water,  if  present,  gets  frozen 
and  blocks  the  instrument.  About  an  ounce  usually  suffices 
for  the  painless  opening  of  abscesses  and  fistulas,  or  for 
tenotomy.  The  effects,  however,  are  more  superficial  and 
transient  than  those  of  cocaine,  and  are  more  apt  to  be 
followed  by  irritation  and  reaction,  which  retard  healing 
of  surgical  or  other  wounds.  A  minor  degree  of  local 
anaesthesia  sometimes  allays  neuralgic  pains  and  those  of 
toothache  and  earache. 

Doses,  etc.  —  The  B.F.  ethyl -ether,  containing  eight  per 


DOSES    AND    MEDICINAL   FORMS  361 

cent,  of  alcohol  and  water,  is  generally  used  for  medicinal 
purposes ;  but  good  methyl-ether,  on  account  of  its  cheap- 
ness, is  sometimes  substituted.  As  a  stimulant  horses  take 
f§i.  to  fgii. ;  cattle,  fgii.  to  f §iii. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  f^ii.  to 
f5iv. ;  dogs,  f3ss.  to  f5i.  It  is  administered  in  ten  parts  cold 
ivater  or  diluted  spirit,  is  sometimes  sweetened  with  sugar 
or  treacle,  or  flavoured  with  aromatics.  Combination  with 
opium,  Indian  hemp,  or  belladonna,  increases  its  anti- 
spasmodic and  anodyne  effects.  Where  immediate  results 
are  required,  as  in  violent  attacks  of  colic,  or  in  collapse, 
tAvo  to  four  drachms  are  injected  hypodermically,  or  deeply 
in  muscles. 

As  an  anaesthetic,  ether  made  from  ethyl-alcohol  is  gener- 
ally preferred.  The  larger  animals  take  f§iii.  to  f§viii. :  the 
smaller,  f3iv.  to  fgi. 

Spirit  of  Ether,  or  spiritus  getheris,  is  a  mixture  of  ten 
ounces  ether  and  twenty  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  and  is 
used  as  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic. 

Ethereal  Oil,  oleum  tethereum,  or  oil  of  wine,  produced 
towards  the  close  of  the  distillation  of  ether,  is  an  oily, 
yellow,  neutral  liquid,  containing  ether  mixed  with  various 
hydrocarbons,  has  a  bitter  taste  and  aromatic  odour,  is 
soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol,  and  possessed  of  anodyne  and 
hypnotic  properties. 

Spiritus  .^theris  Compositus,  or  Hoftman's  anodyne,  con- 
sists of  oil  of  wine,  ether,  and  alcohol  (90  per  cent). 

Acetic  Ether,  or  ethyl-acetate  (CoH-.CoHgO.,),  is  prepared 
by  distilling  rectified  spirit  with  sodium  acetate  and  sul- 
phuric acid.  It  is  a  colourless,  neutral  liquid,  with  a  fragrant 
odour.  Freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  or  chloroform. 
Specific  gravity  '900  to  -905.  Its  actions  nearly  resemble 
those  of  ether.  It  is  used  as  a  stimulant,  carminative,  and 
antispasmodic,  but  is  unsuitable  as  an  anaesthetic. 

Contractile  Collodion  is  prepared  by  mixing  one  part  of 
gun-cotton  with  thirty-six  of  ether  and  twelve  of  rectified 
spirit.  The  solution,  preserved  in  well-corked  bottles,  is 
clear,  colourless,  inflammable,  evolves  a  strong  ethereal 
odour,  and  on  exposure  to  the  air,  dries  rapidly,  leaving  a 
thin  transparent  film,  insoluble  in  water  or  spirit.      It  is 


362  SPIRIT    OF    NITROUS    ETHER 

hence  a  useful  substitute  for  sticking-plaster;  repeated 
applications  are  laid  on  with  a  fine  brush  at  intervals  of  a 
few  seconds,  and  produce  a  protective  coveriui(,  holding 
together  the  edges  of  slight  wounds.  Flexible  collodion 
adheres  still  more  firmly,  gives  support  without  splitting  or 
cracking ;  is  made  by  mixing  forty-eight  parts  of  collodion, 
two  parts  Canada  balsam,  and  one  part  castor  oil,  and  is 
kept  in  well-corked  bottles.  A  styptic,  antiseptic  protective 
is  made  by  thoroughly  mixing  with  one  hundred  parts  of 
collodion,  five  parts  each  of  tannic  and  benzoic  acids,  and 
ten  of  carbolic  acid.  As  a  stimulating,  antiseptic  protective 
for  abraded  skin  or  mucous  surfaces,  and  notably  for  sore 
teats  in  cows  and  ewes,  one  hundred  parts  of  collodion  are 
mixed  with  two  of  glycerin  and  one  of  carbolic  acid.  One 
part  of  iodoform  or  chinosol  mixed  with  ten  parts  of 
collodion,  has  been  strongly  recommended  as  a  protective 
adhesive  for  small  wounds.  Collodion  is  occasionally  used 
for  coating  boluses. 

SPIRIT  OF  NITROUS  ETHER 
Spiritus  vEtheuis  Nitrosi.  Sweet  Spirit  of  Nitre.  An 
alcoholic  solution  containing  ethyl  nitrite,  aldehyde, 
and  other  substances.  (B.P.)  An  alcoholic  solution  of 
ethyl  nitrite  (CgH^.NOg),  containing  five  per  cent,  of  the 
crude  ether.     (U.S. P.) 

Liquor  ethyl  nitritis.  Solution  of  ethyl  nitrite.  A  mixture 
of  ninety-five  parts,  by  volume,  of  absolute  alcohol,  with  five 
parts,  by  volume,  of  glycerin,  containing,  when  freshly  made, 
3  per  cent.,  by  weight,  of  ethyl  nitrite  (B.P.). 

When  rectified  spirit,  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  with 
various  practical  safeguards,  are  heated  with  copper  wire, 
the  nitric  acid  radicle  (NO3)  is  deoxidised  by  the  copper; 
the  resulting  nitric  peroxide  or  nitrous  acid  radicle  (NOo) 
displaces  the  hydroxyl  in  the  alcohol  (CoH-.OH),  and  there 
is  formed  ethyl  nitrite  (C.H^.NO.^),  which  distils  over  with 
a  portion  of  the  alcohol.  This  saline  ether,  when  diluted 
wiih  about  three  times  its  bulk  of  rectified  spirit,  constitutes 
sweet  spirit  of  nitre.   As  usually  prepared,  it  is  unstable,  and 


MEDICINAL    USES  363 

readily  loses  strength,  but  the  B.V.  solution  of  ethyl  nitrite 
keeps  well,  and  is  easily  prepared.  Spirit  of  nitrous  ether 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place,  and  in  small  bottles. 

Properties  and  Tests. — Sweet  spirit  of  nitre  is  a  limpid 
liquid  with  a.  very  slight  tinge  of  yellow  ;  it  is  inflammable, 
has  a  peculiar,  penetrating,  apple-like  odour,  and  a  sweetish, 
cooling,  sharp  taste.  Specific  gravity  "SSS  to  "842.  It  should 
not  effervesce,  or  only  feebly,  when  shaken  with  sodium 
bicarbonate.  A  good,  freshly-prepared  specimen  should 
yield  seven  volumes  of  nitric  oxide  gas,  and,  even  when  kept, 
should  yield  not  less  than  five  times  its  volume.  It  should 
contain  between  2|  and  If  per  cent,  of  ethyl  nitrite.  Many 
veterinarians  obtain  from  the  wholesale  chemist  nitrous 
ether  of  guaranteed  strength,  and  dilute  it,  as  required,  with 
spirit  of  such  sort  and  strength  as  they  desire. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Sweet  spirit  of  nitre  conjoins  the 
actions  of  the  alcohol  and  ethyl  nitrite  of  which  it  consists. 
It  is  hence  a  general  stimulant,  and  a  relaxer  and  paralyser 
of  non-striped  muscle.  It  relieves  acute  fever,  and  the 
difficult  breathing  of  bronchitis  and  asthma.  It  is  anti- 
spasmodic, diaphoretic,  and  diuretic.  Large  doses  are 
narcotic. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Consisting  of  strong  spirit  and  a  saline 
ether,  when  swallowed  it  stimulates  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines ;  is  hence  stomachic,  carminative,  and  antispasmodic, 
and  is  prescribed  to  animals  in  indigestion,  tympanites,  and 
colic.  It  is  quickly  absorbed,  and  proves  a  valuable  cardiac 
and  general  stimulant,  serviceable  in  cases  of  prostration 
and  convalescence  from  debilitating  disorders.  But  its  pro- 
perties as  a  diffusible  nitrite,  relaxing  spasm  of  involuntary 
muscles,  also  come  into  operation.  It  dilates  arterioles,  thus 
decreases  arterial  tension,  and  hence  is  of  special  value  in 
the  acute  stages  of  fever,  whether  depending  upon  specific 
conditions  or  local  inflammation.  It  relaxes  the  muscular 
fibres  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  thus  relieves  the  spasmodic 
contraction  and  difficulty  of  breathing  which  characterise 
catarrh,  bronchitis,  and  some  forms  of  asthma.  It  is  specially 
indicated  when  the  heart  action  is  weak  and  there  is  difficulty 
of  breathing — conditions  frequently  concurring  in  influenza 


364  SPIRIT    OF    NITROUS    ETHER 

of  horses.  During  excretion,  notably  by  the  skin  and  kidneys, 
its  twofold  constitution  is  further  useful — the  alcohol  stimu- 
lates secretion,  while  the  ethyl  nitrite  dilates  the  lumen  ot 
contracted  vessels,  and  thus  diaphoresis  and  diuresis  are 
promoted  in  fevers,  local  inflammations,  rheumatism,  and 
other  disorders. 

Doses,  etc.  —  As  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic  horses 
take  fgj.  to  fgiij. ;  cattle,  fgj.  to  fgiv. ;  sheep,  f5ij.  to  f5iv. ; 
pigs,  f5j.  to  f5ij  ;  dogs,  TTLxv.  to  f5j.  The  special  action 
depending  on  the  costly  nitrous  ether,  its  percentage  should 
be  guaranteed  in  all  purchases,  and  the  drug  should  be  pre- 
served in  properly  stoppered  bottles.  As  it  is  readily  decom- 
posed, even  by  water,  it  should  be  diluted  or  mixed  with 
other  medicines  only  immediately  before  it  is  administered. 
It  is  usually  given  in  cold  water,  beer,  or  linseed  tea. 

For  antispasmodic  purposes  it  is  conjoined  with  opium, 
belladonna,  hyoscyamus,  or  chloral  hydrate.  For  colic  in 
horses,  two  to  four  ounces  are  given  with  two  or  three 
drachms  of  aloes,  one  to  tAvo  ounces  of  laudanum  in  certain 
cases  being  added,  and  the  whole  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  cold 
gruel,  ale,  or  water.  Two  to  four  ounces  of  the  spirit,  with 
about  half  the  dose  of  laudanum,  repeated  every  hour, 
counteract  the  spasmodic  pains  Avhich  occasionally  follow 
parturition.  As  a  general  stimulant,  and  for  reheving 
dyspnoea  in  inflammation  of  the  respiratory  passages,  and  in 
catarrhal  fever  in  horses,  two  ounces  each  of  sweet  spirit  of 
nitre  and  ammonium  acetate  solution  are  conjoined  with  a 
drachm  of  belladonna  extract.  The  good  effects  are  some- 
times maintained  by  the  addition  of  two  ounces  of  Avhisky 
or  rectified  spirit,  and  by  repeating  the  draught  at  intervals 
of  two  or  three  hours.  To  combat  serous  exudation  in 
horses  or  cattle,  two  or  three  ounces  of  spirit  of  nitrous  ether 
are  usefully  conjoined  Avith  half  a  drachm  each  of  iodine 
and  potassium  iodide.  Diuresis  is  determined  by  combina- 
tion with  nitre  or  oil  of  turpentine.  Diaphoresis  is  developed 
when  the  patient  is  kept  well  clothed  in  tolerably  warm 
quarters,  and  the  medicine  given  in  small  and  frequently 
repeated  doses. 

For  dogs  with  catarrh,  sore-throat,  or  distemper,  a  soothing 


CHLOROFORM  366 

febrifuge  draught  is  made  with  two  ounces  spirit  of  nitrous 
ether,  an  ounce  spirit  of  camphor,  and  three  ounces  cold 
linseed  tea,  treacle  and  water,  or  solution  of  liquorice  extract, 
the  dose  ranging,  according  to  the  size  and  condition  of  the 
patient,  from  two  to  four  fluid  drachms. 


CHLOROFORM 

Chloroformum,  or  Trichloromethane,  CHCL,  to  which  has 
been  added  sufficient  absolute  alcohol  to  produce  a 
liquid  having  a  specific  gravity  not  less  than  1-490,  and 
not  more  than  1-495.  Trichloromethane  may  be  pre- 
pared by  distilling  together  ethylic  alcohol,  chlorinated 
lime,  slaked  lime  and  distilled  water  (B.P.). 

Chloroform  was  discovered  in  1832,  about  the  same  time, 
by  Soubeiran  and  Liebig:  its  effects  on  the  lower  animals 
were  described  by  Dr.  Glover  in  1842 ;  while  its  valuable 
anaesthetic  properties  were  first  discovered  and  aj^plied  by 
the  late  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson  in  1847.  Since  then  it  has 
been  largely  and  successfully  used  for  the  alleviation  of 
human  and  animal  suffering  during  surgical  operations, 
jDarturition,  and  various  diseases. 

Properties. — Chloroform  is  a  Hmpid,  colourless,  neutral, 
pungent  fluid,  with  a  sweet  taste,  and  a  characteristic  odour. 
At  ordinary  temperatures  it  entirel}'  volatilises.  It  is  slowly 
decomposed  by  sunlight,  and  hence  must  be  kept  in  the  dark. 
Its  vapour  is  four  times  heavier  than  air.  It  should  boil 
between  140°  and  143'  Fahr.  Though  not  spontaneously 
inflammable,  it  can  be  burned  aroimd  a  wick  saturated  with 
alcohol,  forms  a  green,  sooty  flame,  and  evolves  hydrochloric 
acid.  It  is  soluble  in  two  hundred  parts  of  water,  and  in 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  olive  oil, 
and  carbon  bisulphide ;  insoluble  in  glycerin.  It  readdy 
dissolves  iodine,  bromine,  volatile  oUs,  wax,  resin,  and  many 
organic  active  principles. 

Impurfties. — Chloroform  carelessly  prepared  or  imperfectly 
purified  contains  volatile  organic  oils,  which,  if  inhaled, 
induce   nausea   and   headache.      Such   specimens   have  an 


366  CHLOROFORM 

unpleasant,  pungent  odour  when  evaporated  from  the  back 
of  the  hand,  and  are  blackened  by  agitation  with  sulphuric 
acid.  Samples  containing  more  than  the  one  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  authorised  to  check  decomposition  have  their  specific 
gravity  proportionally  lowered,  lose  bulk,  notably  when 
shaken  with  water,  and  moreover  become  cloudy  at  tempera- 
tures approaching  32°  Falir.  Traces  of  sulphuric  acid  are 
discovered  by  the  usual  barium  test ;  chlorine  and  hydro- 
chloric acid  by  silver  nitrate.  The  purity  of  chloroform  is 
also  judged  by  its  odour  when  evaporated,  its  behaviour  when 
agitated  with  sulphuric  acid,  its  reaction  on  litmus,  and  its 
specific  gravity,  which  is  lowered  by  the  ordinary  adultera- 
tions. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Chloroform  precipitates  albumin,  and 
is  a  topical  irritant.  It  is  antiseptic,  and  destro3^s  the  lower 
forms  of  plant  and  animal  hfe,  and  hence  is  parasiticide. 
Small  to  moderate  doses,  swallowed  or  otherwise  absorbed, 
produce  slight  and  temporary  stimulation,  and  hence  are 
carminative,  antispasmodic,  and  analgesic.  Full  doses  quickly 
and  powerfully  paralyse  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system, 
causing  muscular  relaxation,  insensibility  to  pain,  and 
unconsciousness.  It  kills  by  respiratory  and  cardiac  arrest. 
The  paralysant  and  anaesthetic  effects  are  most  rapidly 
induced  when  the  drug  is  inhaled.  Chloroform  is  the 
aniesthetic  most  used  in  this  country,  alike  for  human  and 
veterinary  patients.  Applied  topically,  it  is  rubefacient, 
refrigerant,  anodyne,  and  a  local  anaesthetic. 

General  Actions. — Chloroform  is  allied  chemically  and 
physiologically  to  alcohol,  ether,  and  other  bodies  of  the 
alcohol  series.  It  dissolves  protagon,  the  essential  consti- 
tuent of  nerve-centres,  nerves,  and  red  blood  corpuscles,  and 
retards  oxidation  of  blood  (Brunton).  Applied  to  the  skin, 
it  evaporates,  causing  a  sensation  of  cold ;  but  if  evaporation 
be  prevented,  it  irritates.  Hence,  when  swallowed,  it 
stimulates  the  flow  of  saliva,  excites  gastric  secretion,  in 
men  and  dogs  occasionally  causing  emesis,  and  develops 
carminative  and  antispasmodic  actions.  By  whatever 
channel  it  is  absorbed,  it  acts  on  the  nerve-centres  some- 
what in  the  same  manner  as  alcohol,  but  its  stiuuilant  action 


ANESTHESIA  367 

is  slight  and  brief.  When  the  vapour  is  inhaled  anaesthesia 
is  quickly  produced.  Its  effects  are  divisible  into  four  stages 
— 1.  Stimulant:  2.  Narcotic;  3.  Anaesthetic;  4.  Paralytic. 

The  vapour  inhaled  first  stimulates  and  subsequently 
paralyses  the  parts  with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  Acting 
on  the  nasal  and  laryngeal  mucous  membrane,  it  first  slows 
the  breathing,  and  also  reflexly  the  pulse.  As  it  passes  down, 
it  stimulates  those  branches  of  the  vagus  distributed  to  the 
lungs  and  heart,  quickening  respiration,  and  usually  also 
circulation.  As  paresis  of  the  vagus  takes  place,  the 
respiratory  movements  are  sustained  steadily,  as  in  the 
third  stage  of  ansesthesia.  Still  fuller  effects  paralyse  the 
medullar}'  centres,  respiration  becomes  slower  and  feebler, 
and  stops,  while  pulsation  and  blood-pressure  are  lowered. 
'The  nervous  system,'  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  states, '  is  paralysed 
in  the  following  order — first,  the  cerebral  hemispheres ;  next, 
the  grey  matter  of  the  cord ;  next,  the  white  matter ;  next, 
the  reflex  power  of  the  medulla  oblongata ;  next,  the 
automatic  power  of  the  respiratory  centre  ;  and,  lastly,  the 
cardiac  ganglia.' 

Scottish  medical  men  and  veterinarians  concur  in  the 
belief  that  chloroform  is  the  most  convenient  and  effectual 
anaesthetic,  and  these  conclusions  have  been  fully  justified 
by  two  series  of  investigations  undertaken  at  Hyderabad  in 
18SS  and  1SS9,  under  the  auspices  of  Surgeon-Major  Lawrie 
and  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton,  and  comprising  upwards  of  seven 
hundred  experiments,  chiefly  on  dogs  and  monkeys,  but  also 
on  horses,  goats,  and  rabbits.  Chloroform  was  the  anaesthetic 
chiefl}'  used,  but  ether  and  mixtures  of  cliloroform  and  ether 
were  also  given.  Careful  records  of  every  experiment  were 
made,  and  tracings  of  the  pulse  and  blood-pressure,  registered 
by  a  manometer,  have  been  reproduced  by  photograph}^ 
The  experiments  were  undertaken  to  make  clear  the  manner 
in  which  chloroform  acts,  and  especially  to  determine  how 
overdoses  kill.  With  these  objects,  the  chloroform  was 
administered  in  many  different  ways,  and  under  very  various 
conditions.  Some  of  the  animals  were  fasted  for  twenty-four 
hours ;  others  were  fed  with  flesh  or  farinacea ;  some  had 
coffee,  wine,  or  other  stimulants  shortly  before  inhalation; 


368  CHLOROFORM 

most  were  healthy,  a  few  had  cardiac  disease,  and  some  had 
fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart,  purposely  produced  by 
administration  of  phosphorus.  Morphine,  strychnine,  and 
atropine,  singly  and  in  combination,  were  administered 
subcutaneously  to  various  subjects  before  the  chloroform 
was  inhaled.  The  drug  was  given  with  and  without  an 
inhaler,  and  almost  in  every  conceivable  way. 

Notwithstanding  these  different  conditions,  the  train  of 
effects  followed  in  regular  order.  Preliminary  excitement, 
with  more  or  less  struggling,  occupied  from  one  to  two 
minutes,  but  gradually  gave  place  to  increasing  insensi- 
bility, unconsciousness,  and  muscular  relaxation.  Fuller 
ana3sthesia,  suitable  for  the  performance  of  operations,  was 
reached  in  two  or  three  minutes  from  the  beginning  of  in- 
halation, breathing  became  quiet  and  regular,  blood-pressure 
was  increased,  and  reflex  actions  were  impaired  and  abolished. 
When  the  effects  were  further  pushed,  respiration  ceased  in 
six  or  seven  minutes  from  the  commencement  of  the  experi- 
ment. About  one  and  a  third  minutes  later,  the  pulse,  after 
being  greatly  quickened,  ceased ;  while  two  or  three  minutes 
later  the  heart  itself  stopped.  In  no  case  did  the  heart  stop 
before  the  breathing.  Even  when  poisonous  doses  were 
used,  two  to  six  minutes  elapsed  between  the  time  that 
respiration  ceased  and  the  heart  stopped.  A  somewhat 
shorter  interval  occurred,  however — in  two  cases,  in  which 
the  inhalation  was  very  slow  and  prolonged ;  in  four  cases, 
complicated  with  asphyxia ;  and  in  ten  cases,  in  which 
morphine,  atropine,  or  strychnine  had  been  previously  in- 
jected subcutaneously ;  but  even  in  these  sixteen  cases  the 
heart  continued  to  beat  for  one  minute  after  respiration 
ceased.  Even  in  those  animals  debilitated  by  twenty-four 
hours'  fasting,  by  blood-letting,  or  by  fatty  degeneration  of 
the  heart  caused  by  phosphorus,  the  pulse  and  heart  con- 
tinued to  beat  after  respiration  ceased.  Neither  serious 
surgical  operations  nor  bruising  of  delicate  parts  during  full 
anaesthesia,  or  even  while  the  animal  was  partially  conscious, 
produced  syncope  or  notable  direct  action  on  the  heart. 

These  experiments  testify  that  chloroform  may  be  admin- 
istered to  animals  with  perfect  safety,  provided  there  is  no 


INHALATION  369 

interference  with  breathing.  They  further  incUccate  that  the 
large  projDortion,  if  not  all,  the  fatalities  from  chloroform 
result  from  asphyxia,  depending  upon  some  fault  in  its  ad- 
ministration. As  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  has  aptly  observed, 
suffocation  and  anaesthesia  are  a  deadly  combination.  Danger- 
ous restriction  of  air  may  result  from  the  inhaling  apparatus 
unduly  closing  the  nostrils.  Ingress  of  air  may  be  arrested 
by  pressure  on  the  neck  or  chest,  by  the  animal  being  placed 
in  an  awkward  position,  by  the  tongue  dropping  on  to  the 
larynx,  or  by  vomited  food  entering  the  windpipe.  In 
forcibly  restraining  the  early  struggling,  breathing  is  some- 
times interfered  with,  and  the  deep  inspirations  which  usually 
subsequently  occur  will  convey  into  the  lungs  and  distribute 
to  the  nerve  centres  unduly  large  quantities  of  the  anaesthetic 
vapour.  The  experienced  practitioner  is  always  specially 
watchful  of  cases  in  which  there  is  much  struggling ;  he 
pushes  the  administration  rapidly,  in  order  quickly  to  pro- 
duce perfect  anaesthesia,  but  so  soon  as  this  is  effected  he 
allows  several  full  draughts  of  air.  At  this  stage  the  napkin, 
nose-bag,  or  inhaler  may  be  removed,  for  so  soon  as  full 
anaesthesia  is  produced,  the  insensibility  is  readily  maintained 
by  small  quantities  of  the  drug,  given  occasionally. 

The  further  precautions  mainly  consist  in  the  chloro- 
formist  bestowing  undivided  attention  on  two  points : — (1) 
He  must  watch  the  breathing,  in  order  that  the  patient's 
safety  shall  be  maintained  by  fresh  air  entering  the  lungs, 
thus  preventing  any  dangerous  accumulation  of  the  drug, 
and  the  arrest  of  natural  respiration  ;  (2)  he  must  maintain 
throughout  the  operation  the  requisite  degree  of  anaes- 
thesia, and  accordingly,  from  time  to  time,  he  should  test 
the  cornea,  for  returning  reflex  activity,  which  indicates 
that  more  chloroform  should  be  given.  With  these  pre- 
cautions, anaesthesia  may  be  safely  continued  for  an  hour  or 
more.  Dogs,  without  harm,  have  been  kept  under  chloro- 
form for  two  hours,  and  chloroformed  deeply  on  consecutive 
days.  Frohner  mentions  that  sheep  will  stand  two  hours' 
anaesthesia,  repeated  daily  for  eight  days,  about  an  ounce  of 
the  drug  being  used  each  day. 

Whenever  respiration  is  impaired,  unduly  slow,  shallow, 

2  A 


370  CHLOROFORM 

or  gasping,  the  administration  of  the  drug  should  be  stopped, 
fresh  air  freely  allowed,  the  tongue  drawn  forward,  and  the 
head  placed  on  a  lower  level  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  But 
if  natural  respiration  ceases,  not  a  moment  must  be  lost  in 
adopting  artificial  respiration.  The  Hyderabad  experiments 
show  that  every  animal  was  revived,  in  Avhich  artificial  respir- 
ation was  used  within  thirty  seconds  after  natural  respiration 
ceased,  and  in  some  cases  in  which  it  was  used  after  fifty 
seconds,  but  in  none  in  which  the  treatment  was  delayed  for 
sixty  seconds  after  respiration  stopped.  When  the  pulse  and 
heart  had  ceased  to  beat,  neither  artificial  respiration  nor 
other  remedies,  however  promptly  used,  were  effectual  in 
restoring  life.  In  such  emergencies,  faradic  stimulation  of 
the  phrenic  nerve  and  inhalation  of  amyl-nitritc  may  aid  in 
restoring  respiratory  movements. 

Compared  with  ether,  chloroform  has  several  advantages 
as  an  ana3sthetic  :  it  is  more  agreeable  to  the  taste,  is  less 
irritant,  about  one-fourth  of  the  quantity  suffices,  it  produces 
less  preliminary  excitement,  the  effects  continue  longer  after 
inhalation  ceases,  and  it  is  less  inflammable.  Many  prac- 
titioners, however,  prefer  ether,  as  it  does  not  so  readily 
paralyse  either  the  heart  or  the  vaso-motor  centre.  In  pro- 
tracted and  serious  operations,  especially  in  dogs  or  cats,  it 
is  accordingly  desirable  to  use  either  ether  or  a  mixture  of 
chloroform  and  ether.  In  some  parts  of  the  Continent  the 
A.C.E.  mixture  of  absolute  alcohol  one  part,  chloroform  two, 
and  pure  ether  three  parts,  is  preferred. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Chloroform  is  used  to  anaesthetise  horses 
and  other  animals  during  castration,  firing,  and  other  painful 
operations.  Parturition  in  the  lower  animals  is  usually  j^er- 
formed  so  easily,  and  with  so  little  apparent  pain,  that  chloro- 
form, in  the  majority  of  cases,  is  unnecessary.  Where  false 
presentations  have  to  be  rectified  in  the  mare,  it  is  some- 
times, however,  impossible,  without  anaesthesia,  to  keep  the 
animal  quiet,  or  to  abate  violent  uterine  throes;  while  in 
bitches  it  is  also  sometimes  requisite  when  the  pups  have  to 
be  reduced  before  they  can  be  extracted.  Amongst  cows  and 
ewes,  labour  pains  sometimes  continue  for  hours,  and  other 
preparations  for  parturition  appear  to  be  complete ;  but  the 


MEDICINAL    USES  371 

neck  of  the  uterus  remains  tirmly  closed,  sometimes  in  spite 
of  medicines  and  manipulation.  Chloroform  inhaled  in 
amount  insufficient  to  produce  complete  amesthesia  usually 
relaxes  the  rigid  muscle.  Partial  anaesthesia  generally  con- 
trols labour  pains  occurring  prematurely,  moderates  irregular, 
tumultuous  contractions,  such  as  are  sometimes  met  with  in 
first  parturitions,  and  abates  after-pains,  the  chloroform  in- 
halation in  some  of  these  cases  being  advantageously  aided 
by  hypodermic  injection  of  morphine. 

Inhalation  of  chloroform  has  been  advised  for  relaxing 
intestinal  spasm,  and  hence  aiding  reduction  of  herniae.  It 
has  been  recommended  in  tetanus  in  horses,  and  relief  is 
usually  obtained  so  long  as  anaesthesia  continues ;  but  the 
temporary  benefit  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  dis- 
turbed and  excited  state  caused  by  the  administration  of  the 
drug  and  by  the  excitement  which  succeeds  the  ansesthesia. 
The  shoeing  of  irritable  and  vicious  horses  is  greatly  facili- 
tated if  chloroform  be  given  so  as  to  produce  partial  anses- 
thesia. Inhaled  or  swallowed,  it  is  occasionally  prescribed  to 
check  the  symptoms  of  chorea  and  epilepsy  in  dogs. 

When  swallowed,  it  relieves  gastric  irritation,  spasm, 
and  pain,  and  also  exerts  antiseptic  effects  on  the  contents 
of  the  canal.  Chronic  irritability  of  the  bowels  in  weakly 
foals  and  calves,  after  removal  of  the  irritant  by  castor  oil,  is 
usually  benefited  by  a  dose  of  chloroform  or  of  spirit  of 
chloroform  and  laudanum,  repeated  two  or  three  times  daily. 
Similar  treatment  is  sometimes  useful  in  removing  worms. 
Horses  affected  with  epizootic  sore-throat  and  spasmodic 
cough  are  relieved  by  chloroform,  conjoined  with  belladonna 
extract,  or  laudanum,  dissolved  in  cold  linseed  gruel,  and 
swallowed  slowly,  so  as  to  ensure  more  prolonged  anodyne 
effect  on  the  irritable  nerve-endings. 

As  a  local  anaesthetic  it  has  not  such  direct  paralysing 
effects  on  sensory  nerves  as  ether,  cocaine,  iodoform,  or  even 
as  carbolic  acid  or  cold.  It  is  sometimes,  however,  applied 
to  allay  the  pain  of  neuralgia,  rheumatism,  and  local  inflam- 
mation, and  deep  injection  of  chloroform  is  occasionally 
employed  in  muscular  lameness  of  the  shoulder  and  hip. 
Its  anodyne  and  antiseptic  properties  have  suggested  its  use, 


372  CHLOROFORM 

with  carbolic  acid  and  vaseline  in  stomatitis  and  actinomy- 
cosis. Mixed  with  a  little  spirit,  it  is  a  cleanly  means  of 
destroying  lice  or  Heas  infesting  dogs,  cats,  or  fowls.  As  a 
liniment  it  is  sometimes  useful  in  mannnitis  in  cows.  It  is 
occasionally  added  to  anodyne  enemata  for  the  relief  of  irri- 
tation of  the  lower  bowel  and  urino-genital  organs.  Its  high 
ditfusive  power,  which  it  retains  when  mixed  with  spirit, 
renders  it  a  useful  vehicle  for  the  subcutaneous  injection  of 
morphine,  atropine,  and  other  alkaloids.  It  is  a  solvent  for 
guttapercha,  and  the  solution  is  occasionally  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  collodion. 

Doses,  etc. — To  produce  ana3sthesia  in  horses  and  cattle, 
fgjj.  to  f§jv.  are  required;  f5iv.  to  fgj.  for  sheep  and  pigs; 
f5j.  to  f§j.  for  dogs.  Anaesthesia  is  readily  maintained  by 
repeated  small  doses.  The  chloroform  vapour  may  be  given 
alone,  without  intentional  admixture  of  air  or  diluted  with 
from  ten  to  thirty  volumes  of  air. 

Horses  can  be  chloroformed  standing  or  after  casting — 
the  recumbent  position  being  generally  preferred.  Adminis- 
tration may  be  effected  by  pouring  chloroform — a  drachm 
or  two  at  a  time — on  a  Avarm  sponge,  which  is  placed  close 
to  a  nostril,  and  carefully  covered  with  a  large  towel  folded 
several  times;  or  more  conveniently  by  using  one  of  the 
many  special  muzzles  now  on  sale.  Roalfc  Cox's  waterproof 
canvas  bag  is  very  simple,  inexpensive,  and  efficient.  The 
leather  nuizzlc  patented  by  Messrs.  Carlisle  and  Bell  is 
furnished  with  a  perforated  tin  box  to  contain  the  saturated 
sponge,  and  provided  with  straps  which  allow  of  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  muzzle  to  tit  most  horses.  Gresswell's  nose 
cap,  Doweli's  inhaler,  and  Krohne  and  Sesemann's  modifica- 
tion of  Junker's  apparatus  can  be  recommended.  Inhalers 
properly  used  prevent  waste  of  chloroform.  The  vapour 
being  inhaled  in  tolerably  concentrated  form,  the  initial 
stage  of  excitement  is  shortened,  the  reduced  quantity 
required  to  produce  amesthesia  diminishes  risk  from  respira- 
tory and  cardiac  paralysis ;  while  the  irritation  and  nausea 
apt  to  ensue  from  the  use  of  larger  doses  are  avoided.  The 
subcutaneous  injection  of  morphine  or  of  a  mixture  of 
atropine    and    morphine,    fifteen    minutes    before    giving 


CHLORODYNE  373 

chloroform,  diminishes  preliminary  excitement  and  in- 
tensifies the  anfesthesia.  Partial  or  limited  -ansesthesia 
induced  by  inhalation  of  minimum  doses  of  chloroform 
is  useful  in  difficult  parturition,  and  as  a  means  of  restraint 
when  firing,  castrating,  or  performmg  simple  operations 
on  horses  standing.  Dogs  may  be  chloroformed  by  dropping 
the  drug  on  cotton  wool  or  a  sponge  placed  over  the  nostrils, 
or  by  using  an  inhaler,  which  ought  to  cover  only  the  upper 
jaw.  During  administration  it  is  of  utmost  importance  to 
keep  the  dog's  mouth  open,  which  can  be  effected  without 
difficulty  by  a  small  gag.  Cats,  lap-dogs,  and  other  small 
animals,  may  be  chloroformed  under  a  bell-jar  or  an  in- 
verted box  containing  bits  of  blotting  paper  or  cotton  wool 
charged  with  chloroform.  Administered  by  the  mouth 
as  a  stimulant,  antispasmodic,  and  analgesic,  the  dose  for 
horses  or  cattle  is  f5i.  to  f5ij ;  for  sheep  and  swine,  1T[xx.  to 
Tltxl. ,  and  for  dogs,  Tr[v.  to  "FT^x.  These  doses  are  given  Avith 
syrup,  mucilage,  whisked  egg,  or  weak  spirit,  and  repeated 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours. 

Aqua-Chloroformi,  consisting  of  one  part  chloroform  to 
four  hundred  of  water,  is  used  as  a  carminative,  antiseptic, 
and  stimulant,  and  as  a  convenient  medium  for  givino-  un- 
palatable drugs. 

Spirit  of  Chloroform,  also  called  chloric  ether,  is  made 
by  dissolving  one  fluid  part  of  chloroform  in  nineteen  fluid 
parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  It  has  the  specific  gravity 
•871,  and  a  warm  ethereal  odour  and  taste.  It  is  an  effectual 
stimulant,  antispasmodic,  and  anodyne,  resembling  ether 
and  sweet  spirit  of  nitre.  Diluted  with  water,  or  any  bland 
cold  fluid,  it  is  prescribed  for  horses  in  doses  of  fgi. ;  for 
cattle,  fgij, ;  for  sheep  and  pigs,  fgij.  to  f^vi. ;  and  for  dogs, 
f3i.  to  fSij. 

The  B.P.  Tinctura  Chloroformi  et  Morphinae  Composita, 
is  composed  of  chloroform,  tinctures  of  capsicum  and  Indian 
hemp,  oil  of  peppermint,  hydrocyanic  acid,  morphine  hydro- 
chloride, glycerin  and  alcohol.  Ten  minims  contain  Jy  grain 
of  morphine,  |  minim  diluted  hydrocyanic  acid,  and  |  minim 
of  chloroform. 

Chlorodyne,  so  popular  an  anodyne  in  human  medicine,  is 


374  CHLORAL    HYDRATE 

made  from  different  formulae :  Dr.  Collis  Browne's  is  stated 
to  contain  ten  parts  each  of  chloroform,  ether,  Indian  hemp, 
and  morphine,  two  parts  capsicum  tincture  and  prussic 
acid,  three  parts  aconite  and  hyoscyamus  tinctures,  one 
part  of  oil  of  peppermint,  five  parts  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  fifty  of  simple  syrup  (Xiu  Remedies,  1877).  It  is 
an  etiectual  anodyne  and  antispasmodic,  frequently  pre- 
scribed to  relieve  especially  gastro-intestinal  and  bronchial 
irritation. 


CHLORAL  HYDRATE-CHLORAL  HYDRAS 

Chloral  hydrate,  or  trichlorethylidene  glycol,  CCl3CH(0H)o, 
is  obtained  by  the  addition  of  water  to  the  liquid  chloral 
produced  by  the  action  of  dry  chlorine  gas  on  ethyhc  alcohol. 
(B.P.). 

Chloral  hydrate  occurs  in  colourless  crystals ;  is  neutral, 
aromatic,  bitter,  pungent,  and  permanent  in  air.  It  melts 
at  about  133°  Fahr.,  and  boils  at  205'  Fahr.  It  is  soluble 
in  less  than  its  own  weight  of  water,  alcohol,  and  ether, 
and  in  four  parts  of  chloroform.  Triturated  with  camphor 
it  forms  a  liquid.  The  caustic  alkalies,  and,  in  less  degree, 
the  alkaline  carbonates,  decompose  it  into  chloroform  and 
an  alkaline  formiate.  A  hundred  grains  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  distilled  water,  and  mixed  with  thirty  grains  of 
slaked  lime  submitted  to  careful  distillation,  should  yield 
not  less  than  seventy  grains  of  pure  chloroform.  Inferior 
specimens,  besides  being  of  imperfect  strength,  are  apt  to 
contain  chlorinated  organic  impurities,  which  render  them 
yellow  and  cloudy,  acrid  and  irritating,  imperfectly  soluble 
in  water,  on  which  they  float  as  oily  drops,  while,  instead  of 
hj'pnosis,  they  produce  nervous  excitement. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Like  other  members  of  the  alcohol 
group,  chloral  hydrate  is  antiseptic  and  a  topical  irritant. 
When  absorbed  it  has  a  primary  stimulant  and  secondary 
sedative  action  on  the  circulation  and  central  nervous 
system.  Toxic  doses,  after  slight  and  ternporary  stimula- 
tion, notably  depress  and  paralyse  the  cerebro-spinal  centres. 
Medicinal  doses  are  hypnotic,  analgesic,  and  feebly  anaes- 


ACTIONS    AND   TOXIC    EFFECTS  375 

thetic.     It  is  used  topically  as  a  stimulant,  anodyne,  and 
antiseptic. 

General  Actions. — It  destroys  micro-organisms ;  one  part 
in  a  thousand  hinders  development  of  anthrax  bacilli ;  it  has 
about  the  same  antiseptic  strength  as  carbolic  acid.  Per- 
sonne  exhibited  at  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris,  the 
body  of  a  dog  perfectly  preserved  in  chloral  hydrate  for 
fifty-five  days.  Solutions  exceeding  20  per  cent,  are 
topical  irritants,  and  hence  when  swallowed  cause  a  burn- 
ing sensation  in  the  throat,  and  sometimes  vomiting  and 
purging.  Diluted  solutions  are  readily  absorbed.  The 
drug  acts  apparently  without  undergoing  decomposition  into 
chloroform,  which  is  not  discovered  in  the  blood,  tissues, 
or  expired  air  of  animals  receiving  chloral,  and  only  appears 
in  the  urine  when  that  fluid  contains  sufficient  free  alkali 
to  decompose  the  chloral.  Small  doses  increase  heart  action, 
pulse  rate,  blood  tension,  and  temperature.  Fuller  and 
repeated  doses  slow  circulation  and  respiration,  and  produce 
sleep,  usually  natural  and  deep,  from  which  the  animal 
awakes  without  discomfort.  Anodyne  and  antispasmodic 
actions  are  likewise  produced.  Anaesthesia  cannot  safely  be 
produced  by  giving  the  drug  by  the  mouth,  but  is  caused 
by  intravenous  and  rectal  injections.  Larger  doses  impair 
reflex  irritability  and  sensibilit}',  and  lower  temperature, 
sometimes  to  the  extent  of  6°  or  8°  Fahr.  By  moderate 
doses,  and  during  safe  anaesthesia,  the  pupil  is  contracted ; 
but  it  is  dilated  when  the  doses  are  dangerously  large,  or 
the  anaesthesia  deep  or  long  continued.  Death  results  from 
cardiac  and  respiratory  paralysis.  The  heart  is  arrested  in 
diastole,  with  the  right  cavities  distended.  There  is  no  para- 
lysis of  muscles  or  motor  nerves.  The  drug  is  eliminated 
by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys. 

Toxic  Effects. — Dr.  B.  W.  Richardson,  in  an  extended 
series  of  experiments,  found  that  fish  and  pigeons  were  nar- 
cotised by  one  and  a  half  to  two  grains ;  mice  by  one-third  of 
a  grain ;  rabbits  weighing  eighty-five  ounces,  by  thirty  grains. 
One  hundred  and  eighty  grains  produce  fatal  effects  in  man, 
but  dangerous  symptoms  have  occasionall}-  been  developed 
by  one-fourth  of  that  amount.     Mr.  T.  A.  Dollar  gave  a  horse 


376  CHLORAL   HYDRATE 

suffering  from  spasmodic  colic  two  ounces  in  water;  the 
spasms  were  si^eedily  reniuvcd,  but  for  twelve  hours  the 
patient  remained  very  dull  and  sleepy.  Mr.  F.  J,  Mavor  gave 
a  horse  four  ounces  in  water;  in  five  minutes  he  fell 
insensible,  sweated  freel}^  his  muscles  relaxed,  his  pupils 
dilated;  his  pulse,  at  first  accelerated,  gradually  became 
normal,  respirations  were  quickened,  until  in  an  hour  they 
numbered  thirty-six.  The  temperature,  from  100°  Fahr., 
fell  in  two  hours  to  95^,  but  two  hours  later  rose  to  97].  In 
half  an  hour  he  was  in  a  quiet  sleep,  lasting  one  and  a  half 
hours,  when  he  attempted  but  failed  to  rise,  and  shortly 
again  slept,  the  breathing  being  slow  and  heavy,  the  skin 
cold,  the  sphincters  relaxed.  Four  hours  after  receiving  the 
draught  he  w^as  restless,  shivering,  but  disposed  to  feed, 
continued  in  this  state  for  several  hours,  and  suffered  next 
day  from  bronchitis,  from  which  he  gradually  recovered. 
Mr.  Mavor  gave  a  healthy  horse  four  ounces  in  ten  ounces  of 
water ;  in  half  an  hour  he  was  restless  but  drowsy,  passing 
faeces  frequently ;  his  pupils  dilated.  He  continued  in  this 
state  for  fully  three  hours,  Avhen  he  was  slightly  delirious, 
but  gradually  became  quiot.  Eight  hours  later  the  effects 
had  passed  aAvay. 

Frohner  records  that  horses  receiving,  by  the  mouth  or 
rectum,  three  to  four  ounces,  or  intravenously  six  to  ten 
drachms,  became  intoxicated,  staggered,  fell,  and  lay  uncon- 
scious for  several  hours  with  the  muscles  relaxed.  Sleep 
may  be  maintained  by  repeated  doses,  he  states,  for  several 
days,  or  even  weeks.  Nocard  kept  a  horse  affected  by  tetanus 
under  its  influence  for  thirty  days,  administering  daily  one 
and  a  half  to  two  ounces.  The  lethal  dose  is  four  to  six 
ounces  when  given  by  the  mouth  or  rectum,  but  one-third 
these  quantities  is  fatal  when  introduced  intravenously. 
Cattle  are  affected  in  much  the  same  manner,  and  by  similar 
doses.  The  lethal  dose  for  dogs  is  two  to  six  drachms.  In 
them  the  preliminary  excitement  is  more  marked  than  in 
horses  or  cattle. 

The  treatment  of  poisoning  consists  in  maintaining  the 
temperature  by  warm  clothing,  hot  applications,  stimulants, 
and  hot  coffee.     Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  and  Professor  Strieker 


QUIETS    IRRITABILITY    AND    CAUSES    SLEEP  377 

found  that  animals  which  received  lethal  doses  recovered  it" 
wrajjped  in  cotton  wool  and  kept  in  a  warm  atmosphere. 
Although  chloral  is  an  antidote  to  strychnine,  the  antagonism 
of  strychnine  to  chloral  is  not  so  marked. 

Medicinal  Actions. — Chloral  hydrate  quiets  irritability 
and  causes  sleep.  Conjoined  with  morphine,  it  is  prescribed 
to  relieve  gastro-intestinal  irritation  and  spasm,  but  as  it  is 
a  topical  irritant  it  must  not  be  used  where  there  is  congestion 
or  inflammation.  Small  doses  are  serviceable  in  canine 
asthma,  and  in  violent  paroxysmal  coughing,  both  in  dogs 
and  horses.  It  quiets  the  excitability  and  spasms  of  chorea, 
epilepsy,  and  hysteria,  and  temporarily  relieves  those  of 
tetanus  and  rabies.  It  antagonises  the  tetanic  convulsions 
of  strychnine.  Administered  to  rabbits  along  with  lethal 
doses  of  strychnine,  sleep  is  produced,  and  the  creature 
recovers.  Chloral  is  also  antagonistic  to  physostigmine  and 
picrotoxine,  but  to  act  as  an  effectual  antidote  the  slower- 
acting  chloral  must  be  given  before,  at  the  same  time,  or 
within  two  minutes  after  these  quickly-acting  convulsants 
(R€2Dort  of  the  Edinburgh  Commission  of  the  British 
Association  on  the  Antagonism  of  Medicines).  Mr.  Robert 
Littler  gave  it  with  benefit  in  the  outset  of  those  cases  of 
parturient  apoplexy  in  cows  in  which  there  is  intense 
nervous  excitement,  and  violent  cramp  of  the  muscles  of  the 
hind  extremities.  Conjoined  with  bromides,  it  is  indicated 
in  cases  of  phrenitis.  A  like  combination  abates  the  irritable 
cough  and  sleeplessness  frequently  occurring  in  canine 
distemper.  Injections  and  suppositories,  in  which  opium  is 
frequently  also  used,  allay  irritability  and  straining  in 
disorders  of  the  intestines  and  urino-genital  organs. 

French  veterinarians  use  it  as  an  ana3sthetic.  Kaufmann 
declares  that  it  yields  to  no  other  anaesthetic  when  injected 
intravenously.  But  intravenous  injection  is  troublesome, 
and  attended  with  considerable  danger.  Cagny  anaesthetises 
horses  by  injecting  hypodermically  two  to  three  grains  of 
morphine  with  a  half  to  one  grain  atropine,  and  shortly 
giving  an  enema  containing  eight  drachms  of  chloral  hydrate. 
Anesthesia  occurs  in  about  an  hour,  and  is  maintained  durinsr 
operations   by  inhalation  of  ether  or  chloroform.     But  the 


378  CHLORAL    HYDRATE 

anaesthesia  produced  by  chloral,  however  administered,  is 
neither  so  complete  nor  lasting  as  that  obtained  by  inhalation 
of  chloroform.  Equal  parts  of  chloral  and  camphor,  mixed 
with  six  or  eight  parts  of  vaseline  or  simple  ointment,  form 
an  analgesic  dressing  which  relieves  the  pain  of  neuralgia 
and  the  itching  of  various  skin  complaints.  A  diluted 
solution  is  sometimes  applied  as  an  antiseptic  stimulant  to 
foul  wounds.  It  should  not  be  prescribed  where  there  is 
weak,  irregular  action  of  the  heart  or  congested  lungs. 

Chloral  hydrate  resembles  various  other  drugs.  As  a 
hypnotic,  it  is  allied  to  sulphonal,  paraldehyde,  and  morphine. 
Like  bromides,  it  quiets  excited  cerebral  centres.  Its  anodyne 
and  antisj)asmodic  effects  are  limited  compared  with  those 
of  opium,  but  for  the  relief  of  pain  and  spasm  it  is  usefully 
conjoined  both  with  morphine  and  atropine.  Although  allied 
in  composition  to  chloroform,  it  is  not  so  cfitecLive  as  a  local 
anaesthetic,  and  as  it  cannot  be  inhaled,  general  anaesthesia 
is  produced  only  when  full  doses  are  swallowed  or  injected 
into  the  rectum  or  veins.  In  relieving  spasm  and  lowering 
arterial  pressure  it  bears  some  resemblance  to  amyl-nitrite. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses  and  cattle,  §i.  to  §ij. ;  for  sheep 
and  pigs,  '^ss.  to  5^-;  for  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx.,  repeated 
every  two  or  three  hours,  administered  in  mucilage  or  syrup. 
Intratracheally,  eight  to  thirty  grains  in  water  may  be 
injected  as  an  antispasmodic ;  twenty  to  eighty  grains  in 
difficult  parturition,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty  grains  in 
tetanus  (Levi).  For  enemata  about  half  the  dose,  given  by 
the  mouth,  usually  suffices,  and  should  first  be  tried.  On 
account  of  its  irritating  in-contact  cfl'ects,  it  should  not  be 
used  hypodermically.  Continued  use  of  the  drug  does  not 
establish  tolerance,  as  in  the  case  of  alcohol  or  opium.  For 
relief  of  general  irritability  it  is  prescribed  with  bromides, 
opium,  or  belladonna;  for  relief  of  pain,  with  opium, 
belladonna,  or  camphor.  The  B.P.  syrupus  chloral  contains 
ten  grains  chloral  hydrate  in  each  drachm. 

Butyl-Chloral  Hydrate,  is  obtained  by  the  addition  of 
water  to  the  liquid  butyl-chloral  produced  by  the  action  of 
chlorine  gas  on  aldehyde  (CJT^ClyO.HoO).  It  forms  pearly 
crystalline  scales,  which  arc  pungent,  acid,  and  disagreeable 


SULPHONAL  379 

to  the  taste.  Soluble  in  fifty  parts  of  water,  in  one  of 
glycerin  or  alcohol,  and  in  twenty  of  chloroform.  It 
resembles  chloral,  but  is  less  powerful,  has  less  depressant 
cardiac  action,  paralyses  specially  the  fifth  nerve  and  parts 
supplied  by  it,  and  has  been  prescribed  in  human  medicine 
in  facial  neuralgia,  migraine,  and  as  a  hypnotic  instead  of 
chloral  in  weak  heart  (Brunton). 

Chloralamide  has  been  obtained  by  the  action  of  formamide 
on  chloral.  It  occurs  in  colourless  crystals,  slightly  bitter, 
soluble  in  twenty  parts  of  water,  and  in  two  of  alcohol. 
When  administered  it  appears  to  be  converted  into  chloral, 
which  it  resembles.  It  is  a  topical  irritant,  causing  diarrhoea 
when  full  doses  are  swallowed.  Dogs  receiving  seven  to  ten 
grains  per  kilogramme  of  body- weight  in  five  minutes  become 
restless,  moan,  and  lose  the  power  of  movement.  These 
symptoms  continue  about  an  hour,  and  are  followed  by 
drowsiness,  and  sometimes  by  sleep  (Kaufmann).  Neither 
as  a  hypnotic  nor  as  an  analgesic  is  it  as  effectual  as  chloral. 
Fruhner  states  that  it  is  frequently  substituted  for  chloral, 
but  that  it  is  milder,  and  does  not  act  so  notably  on  digestion 
or  circulation.  He  prescribes  it  in  cramps  and  excitement 
in  dogs,  and  especially  in  distemper.  The  doses,  which  are 
frequently  repeated,  are  one  and  a  half  times  those  of 
chloral. 

SULPHONAL 

Dimethyl  -  methane  -  diethylsulphone  (0113)20  (SOoC2H5)2. 
A  product  of  the  oxidation  of  Mercaptol,  obtained  from 
Acetone  and  Mercaptan  (B.P.). 

Sulphonal  is  a  complex  solid  of  the  methane  series,  crystal- 
line, colourless,  inodorous,  nearly  tasteless,  neutral,  melting 
at  258°  Fahr.,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  soluble  in 
ninety  parts  of  cold  rectified  spirit,  in  ether,  and  chloroform. 

Action  and  Uses. — In  man  it  is  '  a  useful  hypnotic,  pro- 
ducing sleep,  and  in  most  cases  having  no  disagreeable  after 
effects,  even  when  used  continuously  for  a  length  of  time ' 
(Brunton).  In  men  and  dogs  it  is  more  effectual  as  a  sleep 
producer  than  paraldehyde,  but  less  so  than  morphine.   Dogs, 


380  PARALDEHYDE 

whether  healtliy  or  sick,  receiving  it  either  by  the  mouth  or 
siibciitancously,  sleep  quietly  for  six  to  ten  hours  (Frohner). 
K.aufmanu  hypoderjnically  injected  dogs  weighing  ten  kilo- 
grammes with  two  grammes,  and  rej)orts  ataxia,  shortly 
followed  by  calm  and  profound  sleep,  and  without  any  un- 
toward effects.  He  recommends  it  in  canine  subjects  in 
neuroses  characterised  by  agitation  and  hyper-excitability 
(Traite  de  ThSrapeutique).  Horses  and  cattle  resist  its 
hypnotic  action  as  they  do  that  of  opium.  Instead  of  calm- 
ing and  paralysing  their  higher  cerebral  centres,  it  primarily 
and  prominently  stimulates  their  motor  centres,  Frohner 
has  given  it  to  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  Avithout  observing 
any  definite  hypnotic  effect.  Large  doses  (150  to  200 
grammes),  he  states,  produce  in  horses  excitement,  muscular 
trembling,  spasmodic  movements,  paresis  of  the  spinal  cord 
and  muscles,  and  are  excreted  uncombined  in  the  urine. 
Death  is  caused  by  ha3morrhagic  ulcerous  gastro-enteritis. 
He  records  that,  while  0*5  gramme  per  kilogramme  of  body- 
weight  killed  horses  and  cattle,  dogs  stood  one  gramme  per 
kilogramme  of  body-weight.  Horses  and  cattle  receiving 
25  to  75  grammes  suffered  from  weakness  and  trembling, 
but  without  narcosis ;  sleepiness  was  apparent  for  a  day,  but 
was  alternated  with  greatly  increased  reflex  activity,  and 
even  with  fits,  while  numbness  sometimes  lasted  a  week. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  5jv.  to  §j.  in  electuary  or  in  mash. 
A  dose  of  sulphonal  is  sometimes  given  thirty  minutes  before 
casting  a  horse  for  operation.  Dogs  may  be  given  grs.  x.  to 
grs.  xl.,  in  jDill,  hot  milk,  or  soup.  To  ensure  hypnosis  a 
couple  of  doses  should  be  given,  at  intervals  of  two  or 
three  hours. 


PARALDEHYDE 
A  polymeric  modification  of  Aldeh3'de.     CyHj.^Og. 

Paraldehyde  is  a  body  intermediate  between  an  alcohol 
and  an  ether.  It  is  a  colourless  fluid,  soluble  in  ten  parts 
of  water,  still  more  soluble  in  glycerin,  and  of  a  disagreeable, 
persistent,  nitrous  odour  and  taste. 

Actions  and  Doses.— It  is  antiseptic,  hypnotic,  and  slightly 


ANTIPYRINE  381 

diuretic.  It  hinders  fermentation,  and  flesh  placed  in  a  two 
per  cent,  sohition  has  been  kept  fresh  for  two  months.  It  is 
a  more  effectual  hypnotic  than  hj^pnone  or  urethane,  but  does 
not  produce  sleep  in  man  or  dogs  as  readily  as  opium  or 
chloral,  while  horses  are  brought  under  its  soporific  effects 
with  still  greater  difficulty.  Frohner,  experimenting  on 
horses,  found  that  200  grammes  (about  7  fluid  ounces)  pro- 
duced only  slight  trembling,  vertigo,  and  staggering;  450 
grammes  induced  powerful  trembling,  yellow-red  colouring  of 
the  visible  mucous  membranes,  the  presence  of  haemoglobin 
in  the  urine,  but  no  sleep ;  the  effects  passed  off  in  an  hour ; 
500  grammes  caused  staggering,  excitement,  pawing,  plung- 
ing, difficult  breathing,  dulness,  diminished  sensation,  yellow 
membranes,  solution  of  the  red  globules,  with  discharge  of 
hfBinoglobin  in  the  urine,  great  weakness  continuing  for 
twelve  hours,  while  weariness,  anaemia,  and  emaciation 
persisted  for  a  week  (Arziieimittellehre). 

Dogs  receiving  three  to  four  grammes  per  kilogramme  of 
body-weight  had  difficulty  in  balancing  themselves,  and 
cerebral  narcosis  followed  later.  Medicinal  doses  of  fifteen 
to  thirty  minims,  after  brief  excitement,  cause  sleep,  lasting 
six  or  eight  hours.  But  its  efl^cts  are  by  no  means  certain 
when  the  patient  is  excited  or  pained.  In  human  practice 
it  is  prescribed  in  nervous  insomnia,  and  as  a  hypnotic  in 
cardiac  cases.  On  account  of  its  local  irritant  effects  it  is 
unsuitable  for  hypodermic  injection. 

ANTIPYRINE 

Phenazone.  Phenazonum.  Commonly  known  as' an  tipyrine.' 
Phenyl-dimethyl-iso-pyrazolone.     CqH5(CH3).3C3HN.,0. 

Phenazone  is  obtainable  from  phenyl-hydrazine  by  inter- 
action with  aceto-acetic  ether,  and  the  subsequent  interaction 
of  the  resulting  phenyl-methyl-iso-pyrazolone  with  methyl 
iodide  (B.P.).  It  occurs  in  colourless,  odourless,  scaly  crystals, 
with  a  bitter  taste.  Soluble  in  about  one  part  and  a  half  of 
water,  alcohol,  or  chloroform,  and  in  forty  parts  of  ether.  A 
one  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  yields  a  white  precipitate  with 
tannin,  and  is  coloured  yellow  by  concentrated  nitric  acid,  In- 


382  ANTIPYRTNE 

compatibles — spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  nitrites,  tannic  acid,  vege- 
table astringents,  corrosive  sublimate,  chloral,  and  salicylates. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Antipyrine  is  an  active  member  of  the 
benzol  or  aromatic  carbon  group,  and,  like  others  of  the 
scries,  it  is  antiseptic,  antipyretic,  and  analgesic.  It 
diminishes  metabolism.  It  is  a  local  aniesthctic  and  hicmo- 
static.  Strong  doses  irritate  the  mucous  surfaces,  and  hence 
when  swallowed  sometimes  cause  vomiting  and  other  evi- 
dences of  gastro-intestinal  disturbance  in  men  and  dogs. 
Frohncr  reports  that  dogs  receiving  two  drachms  exhibited 
excitement,  and  subsequently  paralysis  of  the  central  ner- 
vous centres,  tetanic  or  epileptic  convulsions,  cyanosis, 
muscular  weakness,  paralysis  beginning  in  the  hind-quarters, 
with  serious  lowering  of  temperature.  Although  elimination 
by  the  kidneys  begins  within  half  an  hour  after  administra- 
tion, it  is  slowly  excreted.  The  urine  of  dogs  receiving  full 
doses,  for  several  days  contained  the  drug,  as  evidenced  by 
its  being  coloured  red-brown  by  ferric  chloride  solution. 
Frohner  further  states  that,  although  medicinal  doses  have 
little  effect  in  lowering  the  temperature  of  healthy  animals, 
they  reduce  abnormal  temperature  usually  within  half  an 
hour,  and  their  effects  continue  two  or  more  hours  (Arzneimit- 
tellehre  fur  Thierdrzte).  Kaufmann  records  that  one  gramme 
(15-4  grains)  given  hypodermically  reduced  the  temperature 
of  dogs  from  38-9°  to  38-2°  Cent.,  of  horses  from  38-7°  to  38-2° 
Cent.,  and  of  rabbits  from  40°  to  37°  Cent.  These  anti- 
pyretic effects  are  ascribed  to  diminished  production  of  heat. 
Observation  shows  that  less  oxygen  is  taken  in,  while  less 
urea  and  carbonic  acid  are  excreted.  It  produces  its  actions 
whether  it  is  swallowed  or  introduced  subcutaneously  or 
intratracheally,  and  seems  to  develop  no  untoward  effects, 
not  even  irritation  at  the  point  of  injection. 

It  has  been  prescribed  for  the  several  domestic  animals  to 
reduce  fever  and  relieve  pain.  German  veterinarians  com- 
mend it  for  horses  in  influenza,  as  well  as  in  muscular  and 
articular  rheumatism ;  but  as  an  antirheumatic  it  is  not  as 
effectual  as  the  salicylates.  In  doses  of  four  to  six  drachms, 
administered  hypodermically,  it  has  been  employed  with 
marked  benefit  in  acute  laminitis.     Dogs  are  brought  under 


ACETANILIDE  383 

its  antipyretic  action  more  effectually  than  cattle  or  horses, 
and  it  deserves  to  be  more  generally  used  in  canine  practice. 
French  veterinarians  prescribe  it  as  a  carminative  in  irritable 
conditions  of  the  central  nervous  system,  and  as  a  general 
analgesic  as  well  as  a  local  anaesthetic  in  neuralgic  cases.  A 
five  per  cent  solution  is  frequently  used  to  check  capillary 
haemorrhages,  and  hypodermically  for  local  pains.  Its  hicmo- 
static  power  is  greatly  increased  by  admixture  with  tannin 
solution. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  gij-  to  giv. ;  cattle,  5iy-  to  5vi; 
sheep,  5i- ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  xx.,  given  in  bolus,  drench,  electu- 
ary, or  in  the  drinking  water,  and  repeated  as  may  be  re- 
quired. For  hypodermic  or  intratracheal  injection  in  horses 
the  dose  is  60  grains  dissolved  in  four  drachms  of  water.  As 
some  animals  are  very  susceptible  to  its  effects,  it  is  well  to 
begin  with  half  doses,  twice  or  thrice  daily. 

ACETANILIDE  OR  ANTIFEBRIN 

AcETANiLiDUM     CHg'CONHCgHg.    Phenyl  -  AcETAMiDE. 
(Antifebrin  is  a  registered  name.) 

Acetanilide,  one  of  the  most  serviceable  of  the  benzol  or 
aromatic  carbon  series,  is  a  crystalline  substance,  prepared 
by  the  interaction  of  glacial  acetic  acid  and  aniline.  It  is 
colourless,  odourless,  with  a  slightly  burning  taste,  oily  to  the 
touch,  soluble  in  190  parts  of  water,  four  parts  rectified 
spirit,  forty  parts  glycerin,  freely  soluble  in  ether,  benzol, 
and  chloroform. 

Actions  and  Uses, — It  is  antipyretic,  sedative,  diuretic,  and 
feebly  antiseptic.  Very  slightly  toxic  even  in  excessive 
doses,  it  is  neither  irritant  nor  nauseous,  and  has,  moreover, 
the  merit  of  cheapness.  Compared  with  antipyrine,  anti- 
febrin is  more  energetic  and  lasting  in  its  effects.  Given  in 
large  doses  it  depresses  the  heart,  alters  the  colour  of  the 
blood  to  a  brownish  red,  and  to  some  extent  reduces  the 
haemoglobin  to  metha^moglobin.  According  to  Lepine  anti- 
febrin exerts  a  destructive  action  on  the  red  corpuscles. 
Elimination  of  the  drug  by  the  kidneys  occurs  within  twenty- 
four  hours  of  its  administration,  and  frequent  large  doses 


384  AMYL-NITRITE 

darken  the  urine  and  increase  the  excretion  of  urea  and  uric 
acid.  The  diuretic  action  of  antifebrin  suggests  its  employ- 
ment in  hiemoglobinnria.  Major  Nunn,  A.  V.  Dep.,  has  pre- 
scribed it  for  the  continued  fevers  which  aftect  cattle  in  Natal; 
has  given  cattle  drachm  doses,  and  dogs  five  grains,  dissolved 
in  ether,  every  four  hours,  and  reports  marked  lowering  of 
temperature,  unaccompanied  by  nausea  or  other  untoward 
eftccts  (Veterinary  Journal,  1888).  Frohner  and  other 
German  authorities  testify  to  its  febrifuge  effects  both  in 
horses  and  dogs,  and  prescribe  it  in  febrile  cases,  cramps, 
neuralgia,  and  rheumatism.  Ordinary  doses  have  no  appre- 
ciable action  on  temperature  in  health ;  but  rapidly  lower  the 
temperature  in  fevers,  pneumonia,  and  influenza,  probably 
by  diminishing  the  production  of  heat  and  by  increasing 
heat  dispersion.  For  relieving  pain  acetanilide  is  less  useful 
than  opium,  cocaine,  or  conium,  and  as  an  antiseptic  it 
cannot  be  recommended. 

The  doses  for  horses  and  cattle  are  grs.  xxx.  to5ij- ;  sheep, 
grs.  XV.  to  5j- ;  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  x. ;  given  in  powder,  pill,  or 
electuary,  or  in  water  containing  alcohol,  several  times  daily, 
in  critical  cases  every  second  hour. 

AMYL-NITRITE 
Amyl-Nitris.     Nitrite  of  Amyl.     CgH^^NO.,. 

A  liquid  produced  by  the  interaction  of  nitrous  acid,  and 
amylic  alcohol  which  has  been  distilled  between  262"  and 
270°  Fahr.  It  consists  chiefly  of  iso-amyl  nitrite,  CgH^^NO.,, 
but  contains  other  nitrites  of  the  homologous  scries  (B.P.). 
Amyl  nitrite  is  a  yellow,  ethereal,  limpid,  volatile  liquid, 
with  a  fragrant  odour.  Specific  gravity,  0870  to  0'880. 
Nearly  insoluble  in  water;  soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  ether, 
and  chloroform,  and  is  itself  a  solvent  for  oils.  It  speedily 
deteriorates  unless  kept  in  Avell-stoppered  bottles  in  a  cool 
dark  place. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  has  in  marked  degree  the  actions 
of  a  nitrite,  relaxing  and  paralysing  non-striped  muscle.  It 
is  hence  an  antispasmodic  of  involuntary  muscle,  dilates 
arterioles,  and  is  prescribed  chiefly  in  angina  pectoris. 


PARALYSES   INVOLUNTARY    MUSCLES  385 

General  Actions. — Whether  swallowed  or  inhaled,  it 
quickly  converts  the  haemoglobin  of  the  blood  into  met- 
haemoglobin,  which  does  not  readily  part  with  oxygen ;  in- 
ternal respiration  is  accordingly  interfered  with ;  convulsions 
and  asphyxia  ensue ;  blood  both  arterial  and  venous  acquires 
a  chocolate  hue.  From  paresis  of  their  unstriped  muscular 
wall  the  arterioles  are  rapidly  and  greatly  relaxed  and 
dilated,  and  blood  pressure  is  diminished.  Secretion  of 
sweat  and  urine  is  increased,  and  the  urine  contains  sugar. 
Human  patients  receiving  one  to  two  minims  within  a  few 
minutes  are  flushed  :  perspiration  overspreads  the  head  and 
neck,  extending  sometimes  over  the  body ;  there  is  general 
vascular  dilatation ;  arterial  pressure  is  reduced ;  the  tempera- 
ture falls,  the  pulse  becomes  soft,  quickened,  and  dicrotic ; 
breathing,  at  first  accelerated,  becomes  slower  and  shallower. 
Similar  symptoms  are  produced  in  dogs,  in  which  the  tem- 
perature may  be  lowered  3^  or  -1°  Fahr.  The  antidotes  are 
stimulants,  alternate  hot  and  cold  douches,  artificial  respira- 
tion, and  inhalation  of  oxygen. 

Medicinal  Uses. — It  has  been  successfully  used  by  Pro- 
fessor "Williams  in  angina  pectoris  in  horses,  and  by  other 
practitioners  in  spasmodic  breathing  occasionally  occurring 
as  a  sequel  of  sore-throat  and  bronchitis.  In  such  asthmatic 
cases  in  horses  and  also  in  dogs  it  was  used  by  Professor 
Robertson.  Experiments  on  rabbits  made  artificially  epileptic 
have  shown  that  it  not  only  prevents  the  impending  fit,  but 
arrests  it  when  it  has  begun.  It  hence  deserves  more  extended 
trial  in  epilepsy  in  dogs  and  young  cattle.  Dr.  B.  W.  Richard- 
son found  that  amyl  nitrite,  promptly  administered  to  rabbits 
and  fi'ogs,  which  had  received  lethal  doses  of  strychnine,  re- 
lieved the  tetanic  spasms  and  generally  ensured  recovery. 
For  tetanus  in  horses  it  has  been  frequently  given,  but 
seldom  with  lasting  benefit.  It  is  useful  as  an  inhalation  in 
bringing  about  recovery  from  deep  chloroform  anaesthesia. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  "H^iii.  to  TIl^x. ;  dogs, 
ni^ss.  to  TT^ii.  A  minimum  dose  should  first  be  tried.  When 
given  hypodermically  half  doses  generally  suflice.  Repeated 
use  does  not  interfere  with  its  efficacy.  It  is  inhaled, 
administered  on  a  piece  of  sugar,  or  in  draught  with  rectified 

2  b 


386  FORMALDEHYD 

spirit  or  ether.     Ether,  chloral,  or  full  doses  of  alcohol  in- 
tensify its  effects. 

Sodium  nitrite,  obtained  by  fusing  soiliuni  nitrate  with 
metallic  lead,  has  the  same  actions  as  amyl  nitrite,  is  given 
in  the  same  doses,  and  is  more  stable  and  convenient.  Its 
effects  are  not  so  rapidly  produced,  but  persist  longer,  often 
continuing  for  half  an  hour. 

Trinitroglycerin,  Nitro-glycerin,  or  glonoin,  C3H5  (N02)3 
prepared  by  dropping  pure  glycerin  into  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phuric and  nitric  acids  kept  cool  by  ice,  and  washing  it  in 
water.  Specific  gravity,  IQ.  It  is  a  colourless,  transparent, 
explosive  liquid,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils.  Its 
actions  resemble  those  of  amyl  and  sodium  nitrites,  but  are 
more  powerful  and  persistent,  while  full  doses  affect  the 
voluntary  as  well  as  the  involuntary  muscles.  It  is  used  for 
the  same  purposes  as  amyl  nitrite.  The  preparation  gener- 
ally preferred  is  the  B.P.  alcoholic  solution,  liquor  trinitrini, 
of  which  110  minims  contain  one  grain  of  nitroglycerin.  The 
dose  for  human  patients  is  a  half  to  two  minims.  For  dogs 
suffering  from  spasmodic  asthma  or  epilepsy,  a  teaspoonful 
of  a  solution  of  TT[30  of  liquor  trinitrini  in  ten  ounces  of 
water  may  be  given  as  required.  Chocolate  tablets  contain- 
ing one-hundredth  of  a  grain  of  nitroglycerin  are  now 
obtainable. 


FORMALDEHYD 

Formaldehyd  (CHoO),  is  a  gaseous  body  obtained  by 
subjecting  methyl  alcohol  to  oxidation.  It  is  a  very  power- 
ful disinfectant  and  germicide.  A  concentrated  (35  to  40 
per  cent.),  aqueous  solution  is  known  as  formalin,  a  colour- 
less liquid,  with  a  strong,  pungent  odour  and  neutral  reaction, 
which  is  largely  used  as  a  disinfectant,  deodorant,  and 
preservative.  Formalin  is  stated  to  retard  the  healing  of 
surgical  wounds.  It  is  irritant  and  caustic  to  tissues,  and 
corrosive  to  surgical  instruments.  Strong  solutions  applied 
to  the  skin  may  induce  poisoning.  A  solution  of  one  in  five 
hundred  may  be  used  as  an  antiseptic  wash  for  the  hands, 
operation   area,   and    accidental   wounds.      A   2   per    cent. 


TANNOFORM  387 

solution  is  recommended  as  an  application  for  ringworm. 
Stronger  solutions  (5  to  10  per  cent)  are  employed  in  the 
treatment  of  canker  of  tlie  horses'  feet;  to  preserve  histo- 
logical, botanical,  and  pathological  specimens,  and  to  disinfect 
stables  and  cowsheds.  Walter  and  Schlossmann  having 
made  critical  tests  of  the  efficiency  of  various  methods  of  dis- 
infection, consider  that  formaldehyd  in  presence  of  sufficient 
water,  deserves  preference  over  other  disinfectants.  Rational 
and  practical  disinfection  requires  rapid  action  with  thorough 
penetration,  but  without  injury  of  the  objects  under  treat- 
ment. To  meet  these  conditions,  glycoformal,  a  mixture  of 
an  aqueous  solution  of  formaldehyd  and  glycerin,  has  been 
introduced.  The  glycerin,  attracting  moisture,  ensures  the 
effectiveness  of  every  particle  of  formaldehyd.  Glycoformal, 
applied  by  means  of  an  atomiser,  successfully  disinfects 
stables  in  from  half  an  hour  to  three  hours  {Newer  Remedies, 
1899). 

Tannoform,  CH2(Ci^Hg09)3,  is  a  condensation  product  of 
gallotannic  acid  and  formaldehyd,  obtained  by  adding  formal- 
dehyd to  an  aqueous  solution  of  tannin,  and  precipitating  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  It  occurs  as  a  pale,  rose-coloured  powder, 
odourless,  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  alkaline  solutions. 
Externally  it  has  been  used,  mixed  with  two  to  five  parts  of 
starch,  as  a  dry  dressing  for  unbandaged  operation  wounds, 
cracked  heels,  collar  sores,  erythema,  burns,  etc.  According 
to  Frohner,  tannoform  disinfects,  checks  discharges,  and 
promotes  healing  under  a  scab.  Internally  it  has  been 
prescribed  as  an  astringent  antiseptic  for  intestinal  catarrh, 
diarrhoea,  and  dysentery  in  cattle,  horses,  and  dogs. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle,  5j-  to  5iij- ;  calves,  grs.  xxx. 
to  5j- ;  dogs,  grs.  XV.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  twice  a  day,  in  linseed  tea 
or  in  electuary. 

Formaldehyd  forms  an  important  constituent  of  the 
following  powders: — glutol,  a  combination  of  gelatin  and 
formaldehyd,  dried  and  reduced  to  powder,  and  employed 
as  an  antiseptic  dry  dressing  for  wounds :  amyloform,  a 
condensation  product  of  formaldehyd  with  starch,  forming 
a  non-poisonous,  white,  odourless,  insoluble  powder,  intro- 
duced as  a  substitute  for  iodoform ;  and  amyloiodoform,  a 


388  BENZOL 


compound  of  starch,  iodine,  and  formaldehyd,  employed  as 
an  antiseptic  dry  dressing. 


BENZOL  OR  BENZENE  SERIES  OF  AROMATIC 
CARBON  COMPOUNDS 

The  benzol,  benzene,  or  aromatic  series  of  carbon  compounds 
includes  a  number  of  antiseptics  and  antipyretics.  The  lowest 
members  of  this  series  contain  six  carbon  atoms,  five  of 
which  have  their  affinities  satisfied  by  hydrogen,  constituting 
the  organic  radicle  phenyl  (CgH^).  The  hydride  is  benzene 
(CgHjH),  Substitution  of  hydroxyl  (OH)  for  the  separate 
hydrogen  atom  produces  the  alcohol — carbolic  acid  (CgH^OH). 
A  like  substitution  of  one  or  more  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  for 
other  organic  radicles  forms  other  aromatic  bodies.  Further 
variety  of  constitution  is  determined  according  to  which  of 
the  six  atoms  of  carbon  in  the  so-called  carbon  ring  assume 
the  hydroxyl  or  other  radicle.  Still  further  variety  appears 
to  result  from  fusion  of  molecules  of  the  same  or  of  different 
members  of  the  group;  two  benzene  molecules  appear  to 
form  naphthalin  (C^oHg) ;  a  benzene  and  p}T.-idine  molecule 
chinoline  (CqHk,),  which  is  allied  to  quinine;  indeed,  it  is 
generally  believed  that  many  of  the  organic  alkaloids  are 
closely  related  to  this  aromatic  series  (Dr.  Lauder  Brunton). 
The  higher  members  appear  to  be  the  most  active.  Slight 
rearrangement  of  the  atoms  of  these  bodies,  and  substitution 
of  various  radicles,  will  doubtless  produce  other  valuable 
substances. 

The  lower  members  of  the  scries  are  the  most  useful 
medicinally.  They  are  antiseptic,  usually  antipyretic,  fre- 
quently analgesic.  They  chiefly  affect  the  motor  centres ; 
excessive  doses  cause  tremors,  convulsions,  and  paralysis. 
They  exhibit  a  marked  contrast  to  the  lower  members  of  the 
fatty  carbon  or  marsh-gas  series  (CH^),  which  chiefly  affect 
sensory  nerve  centres  and  are  stimulants  and  anfesthetics. 

Benzol  or  Benzene,  a  mixture  of  homologous  hydrocarbons, 
obtained  from  light  coal  tar  oil.  It  contains  about  70  per 
cent,  of  benzene,  C,.H-H.  and  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  toluene, 
CgHgCHg.     It  is  an  ethereal,  inflammable  liquid,  with  the 


ANTISEPTIC   AND    ANTIPYRETIC 


389 


odour  of  coal-gas,  and  the  specific  gravity  -888.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  a  useful 
solvent  for  sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine,  iodine,  alkaloids, 
fats,  resins  and  caoutchouc.  Benzene  is  a  perfectly  distinct 
body  from  benzin,  petroleum  benzin,  or  petroleum  ether, 
which  is  a  purified  distillate  obtained  from  American  petro- 
leum— a  paraffin  of  the  marsh  gas  series,  consisting  chiefly 
of  C-H^o,  and  sometimes  used  as  an  anaesthetic,  anthelmintic, 
and  parasiticide. 

Benzol  or  coal-tar  benzene  is  antiseptic,  irritant,  and 
parasiticide.  Its  irritant  effects  are  especially  notable  on 
mucous  and  skin-abraded  surfaces,  or  when  applied  with 
friction.  Moderate  doses,  when  swallowed,  produce  slight 
temporary  pyrexia.  It  is  excreted  in  the  urine,  to  which  it 
imparts  the  odour  of  violets.  Larger  doses  accelerate  cardiac 
and  respiratory  movements,  while  toxic  doses  cause  nervous 
depression,  muscular  trembling,  convulsions,  lowered  tem- 
perature, and  loss  of  sensibiHty.  Benzene  is  an  effectual 
poison  for  various  skin  parasites  in  all  classes  of  patients, 
and  is  usually  applied  after  a  thorough  wash  with  soap  and 
water,  either  undiluted,  or  in  young  and  delicate  subjects,  and 
in  cats,  dogs,  and  fowls,  which  are  sensitive  to  its  irritant 
effects,  mixed  with  one  to  three  parts  of  oil  or  vaseline. 
Weaker  solutions  are  sometimes  used  to  allay  irritation  in 
prurigo  and  urticaria,  and  as  solvents  for  fats  and  resins. 

Benzoic  Acid,  obtained  from  benzoin,  naphthaUn,  and 
hippuric  acid,  is  antiseptic,  stimulant,  and  expectorant.  It 
is  as  effectual  as  carboHc  acid  in  arresting  the  action  of 
enzymes  and  destroying  bacteria.  It  appears  to  act  on  the 
proteids  of  the  body,  and  diminishes  excretion  of  urea. 
Professor  Rutherford  found  that  twenty  grains  increased  the 
biliary  secretion  of  dogs.  It  is  eliminated  chiefly  by  the 
skin  and  kidneys ;  in  the  latter,  uniting  with  glycocol,  it  is 
excreted  as  hippuric  acid,  exerting  slight  antisepsis  in  bladder 
catarrh,  and  also  increasmg  the  quantity  and  acidity  of  the 

urine. 

Resorcin,  a  product  of  the  distillation  of  galbanum, 
ammoniacum,  asafcetida,  or  extract  of  Brazil  wood,  with 
caustic  alkalies,  is  usually  obtained  from  benzene  or  phenol 


390  BENZOL   SERIES   OF   CARBON   COMROUNDS 

It  occurs  in  colourless,  crystalline  plates,  which  become  pink 
on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  has  a  harsh,  sweet  taste,  and  is 
freely  soluble  in  Avater,  alcohol,  and  oils.  It  coagulates 
albumin,  and  is  an  effectual  antiseptic.  Concentrated 
solutions  irritate  the  skin  and  mucous  surfaces,  but  it  is  not 
so  irritant  as  its  analogues,  carbolic  acid  and  creosote,  while, 
like  them,  it  has  a  slight  topical,  anaesthetic  effect.  Lethal 
doses,  given  to  dogs  and  rabbits,  cause  clonic  convulsions, 
dyspncea,  and  paralysis.  Its  antipyretic  action  is  of  short 
duration.  As  an  intestinal  antiseptic,  calves  and  other 
young  animals  suffering  from  gastric  catarrh  receive  thirty 
to  sixty  grains,  while  four  times  these  doses  are  occasionally 
prescribed  for  horses.  It  is  used  as  an  antiseptic  in  surgical 
cases — in  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  mammae,  urino-genital 
organs,  and  other  sensitive  parts.  Kaufmann  commends  it 
in  erythema,  herjoes,  and  eczema,  especially  of  the  seborrhoeal 
type,  in  dogs.  The  solutions  and  ointments  applied  contain 
one  to  ten  parts  per  hundred. 

Hydroquinone  is  chemically  para-di-hydroxy-benzene,  re- 
sembles resorcin,  but  is  about  four  times  stronger,  and  is 
soluble  in  twenty  parts  of  water,  and  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
As  it  is  excreted  in  the  urine,  it  exerts  a  stimulant  and 
antiseptic  action  on  the  urino-genital  mucous  membrane. 

Pyrocatechin,  or  ortho-di-hydroxy-benzene,  resembles  re- 
sorcin in  its  actions  and  uses,  but  is  about  three  times 
stronger. 

Pyrogallic  Acid,  or  tri-hydroxy-benzene,  is  obtained  by 
heating  gallic  acid,  and  is  readily  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 
It  is  more  irritant  than  most  of  the  series,  but  is  a  doubtful 
antiseptic.  A  few  grains  produce  in  dogs,  as  well  as  in  man, 
vomiting,  purging,  and  collapse.  It  decomposes  the  red 
corpuscles.  Mixed  with  fatty  matters  or  starch,  it  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  caustic.  A  15  per  cent,  ointment  has 
been  applied  with  good  effect  in  psoriasis. 

Saccharin,  glusidum,  or  benzoyl-sulphonimide,  is  deriv- 
able from  toluene  of  coal-tar.  It  is  a  colourless,  crystalline 
powder,  two  hundred  and  twenty  times  sweeter  than  sugar, 
soluble  in  four  hundred  parts  of  water,  twcnly-five  of  alcohol, 
forty-eight  of  glycerin,  and  slightly  in  ether  or  chloroform. 


SACCHARIN    AND  SALOL  391 

It  is  antiseptic,  very  stable,  passes  through  the  body 
unchanged,  and  is  eliminated  in  the  urine.  As  it  is 
inconvertible  into  sugar,  it  is  used  in  tablets  for  sweetening 
food,  and  flavouring  the  medicines  of  human  patients 
suftering  from  diabetes,  being  given  in  quantities  of  one-fifth 
to  half  a  grain.  An  elixir  is  made  with  saccharin,  twenty- 
four  grains,  sodium  bicarbonate,  twelve  grains,  rectified 
spirit,  one  drachm,  distilled  water,  seven  drachms.  Twenty 
mimims  contain  one  grain  of  saccharin. 

Salol,  or  phenyl  salicylate,  is  prejDared  by  the  interaction 
of  salicylic  acid  and  phenol.  It  occurs  as  a  crystalline  white 
powder,  with  an  aromatic  smell  and  insipid  taste.  Insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  in  ten  parts  alcohol,  less  than  one  of 
ether,  chloroform,  or  benzene;  and  in  the  fixed  oils.  The 
actions  and  uses  are  those  of  its  tw^o  components.  It  is  anti- 
septic, analgesic,  antipyretic,  and  an  intestinal  disinfectant. 
It  is  not  so  irritant  as  salicylic  acid.  By  the  saliva,  the 
pancreatic  and  intestinal  juices,  it  is  resolved  into  salicylic 
and  carbolic  acids,  which,  with  their  products,  can  be  detected 
in  the  urine.  It  checks  undue  fermentation  in  the  digestive 
canal,  and  is  serviceable  in  diarrhoea.  Frohner  recommends 
it  as  an  anti-rheumatic,  especially  in  dogs ;  but  neither  in 
muscular  nor  arthritic  rheumatism  does  it  appear  to  be  so 
effectual  as  sodium  salicylate.  Kaufmann  advises  its  use  as 
a  substitute  for  iodoform  in  surgical  cases,  notably  in  diseases 
of  the  urino-genital  organs,  and  in  otorrhoea.  Horses  take 
5ij.  to  5j^- ;  dogs,  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  xii.,  in  pill  or  electuary. 
For  the  several  purposes  of  a  non-irritant  antiseptic  it  is 
used  as  powder,  liniment,  or  ointment.  A  useful  dressing 
for  catheters  consists  of  one  part  salol,  and  fifteen  parts  each 
of  castor  oil  and  almond  oil  (G.  B.  Browne). 

Salacetol,  a  salicylic  ester  of  acetone,  introduced  as  a 
substitute  for  salol,  which  contains  phenol.  It  contains 
about  sevent3-five  per  cent,  of  salicylic  acid,  occurs  in  shining 
crystals,  insoluble  in  Avater,  freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
and  chloroform.  It  is  emplojed  as  a  disinfectant  for  the 
digestive  and  urinary  tracts.  Doses,  horses,  5ii-  to  gvi. ;  dogs, 
grs.  iv.  to  grs.  xx. 

Pyoktanin  (methyl  violet),  is  a  powerful  antiseptic,  pro- 


392  NAPTHALIN    AND    NAPTHOLS 

ducing  little  irritation.  Soluble  in  seventy-five  parts  of  water, 
and  twelve  of  alcohol.  A  solution  of  one  in  one  thousand, 
destroys  the  vitality  of  anthrax  bacilli ;  and  a  solution  of 
one  ill  two  thousand,  arrests  the  development  of  pyogenic 
organisms.  It  is  used  as  an  injection  (one  in  five  hundred) 
for  malignant  growths,  and,  in  powder,  as  a  dry  dressing  for 
ulcers  and  superficial  wounds  {Extra  PhamiacopcBia). 

Methylene  Blue,  a  complex  derivative  of  aniline,  occurs  in 
dark  blue  crystals  or  crystalline  powder  of  a  bronze-like 
tinge.  Slightly  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  glycerin,  it  has 
been  prescribed  as  an  anodyne  in  painful  nervous  affections 
{Lancet,  1890),  and  as  an  antiseptic  dressing  for  ulcers  of  the 
lips  in  dogs  and  cattle — for  which  purpose  Professor  Cadiot 
employs  a  solution  of  ten  parts  dissolved  in  fifty  parts  each 
of  alcohol  and  glycerin. 

Naphthalin  is  prepared  from  tar  and  tar  oils,  and  occurs 
in  colourless,  soft,  peculiar-smelling,  but  tasteless  crystals. 
Soluble  in  ether,  alcohol,  fats  and  oils.  It  is  antiseptic, 
feebly  antipyretic,  and  parasiticide.  Moderate  doses  are 
non-poisonous,  but  when  given  for  several  months  they  cause 
wasting,  with  ulceration  of  the  cornea,  opacity  of  the  lens, 
and  spots  on  the  retina  (Kaufmann).  It  is  used  as  an  intes- 
tinal antiseptic,  and  vermicide,  is  serviceable  in  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery,  in  protracted  cases  of  influenza  and  purpura, 
and  is  prescribed  either  with  mucilage  or  castor-oil.  In  the 
bowel  it  is  decomposed  into  alpha-  and  beta-naphthols.  Being 
excreted  in  part  in  the  urine,  it  exerts  antisepsis  in  diseases 
of  the  bladder.  It  is  used  for  antiseptic  dressings,  and  in 
all  animals  for  the  destruction  of  skin  parasites.  The  dose 
for  horses  and  cattle  is  5i-  to  '^\\].\  for  sheep  and  dogs,  grs.  ii, 
to  grs.  XV.,  administered  in  electuary  or  bolus.  Externally  it 
is  applied  with  vaseline,  or  glycerin. 

The  Naphthols  are  prepared  from  naphthalin.  Alpha- 
naphthol  is  stated  to  be  more  active  and  less  toxic  than  beta- 
naphthol.  The  /3  variety,  which  is  chiefly  used,  is  a  colourless, 
crystalline,  phenol-smelling  powder,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  olive  oil,  and  vaseline. 
Its  actions  and  uses  are  the  same  as  those  of  naphthalin,  and 
also  closely  resemble  those  of  resorcin.     It  is  antiseptic  and 


NAPHTHALOL    AND   PHENACETIN  393 

anti-parasitic.  One  part  in  3000  prevents  the  development 
of  the  microbes  of  anthrax  and  glanders.  For  such  anti- 
septic purpose  it  is  five  times  more  effectual  than  carbolic 
acid.  Small  doses  stimulate  the  mucous  and  glandular 
secretions.  Somewhat  larger  doses  induce  nausea,  diarrhoea, 
and  dysuria.  Powerful  doses,  exceeding  one  gramme  for 
every  ten  kilogrammes  of  body  weight,  cause  epileptiform 
convulsions  in  cats  and  horses,  but  in  dogs  there  occur 
instead  coma  and  reduced  temperature.  All  animals  usually 
also  exhibit  nephritis,  albuminuria,  and  hsemoglobinuria. 
Rabbits  relatively  to  their  weight  will  stand  three  times  the 
dose  borne  by  dogs  and  cats.  Naphthol  is  administered  in- 
ternally to  destroy  tape-  and  round-worms  (Willenz),  as  well  as 
putrefactive  and  infective  materials  lodged  in  the  intestines. 
As  it  is  not  readily  soluble,  full  doses  exert  antisepsis 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  intestinal  tract,  lessen- 
ing the  smell  and  irritant  action  of  the  faeces,  and  hence 
checking  diarrhoea.  Externally  it  is  used  as  an  antiseptic 
and  parasiticide,  one  part  being  usually  mixed  with  eight  of 
oil  or  twenty  of  vaseline.  One  part  mixed  with  two  of 
camphor  forms  a  viscid,  non-toxic,  antiseptic  dressing  for 
small  wounds.  Doses,  horses,  5jss.  to  5iij- ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  X.  Sometimes  conjoined  with  bismuth  salicylate  and 
given  suspended  in  mucilage. 

Hydronaphthol  is  a  useful  antiseptic  and  g-ermicide, 
soluble  in  one  hundred  parts  of  water  and  twenty  of  oil,  and 
often  conveniently  applied  as  a  dry  dressing,  mixed  with 
twenty  to  thirty  parts  of  fullers'  earth, 

Naphthalol  (Betol),  prepared  from  beta-naphthol-sodium, 
phosphorus  oxychloride,  and  sodium  salicylate ;  and  alphol, 
the  salicylic  ester  of  alpha-naphthol,  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed as  intestinal  antiseptics.  In  the  bowel  betol  and 
alphol  are  decomposed  into  salicylic  acid  and  naphthol. 
Benzo-naphthol,  the  benzoate  of  /S  naphthol,  has  been  re- 
commended as  a  gastro-intestinal  disinfectant.  It  is  split 
up  into  naphthol  and  benzoic  acid  (Coblentz).  Benzo-naj^hthol 
is  very  slightly  toxic.  Horses  take  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  Ix. ;  dogs, 
grs.  iv.  to  grs.  viii.,  in  bolus,  pill,  or  electuary. 

Phenacetin    (para-acet-phenetidin)   is   produced   by    the 


394  PIPERAZIN,    CHINASEPTOL   AND   EXALGIN 

action  of  glacial  acetic  acid  on  para-phcnetidin,  a  body  ob- 
tained from  para-nitro-phenol  (B.P.).  It  is  white,  tasteless, 
odourless,  occurs  in  glistening,  scaly  crystals,  sparingly 
soluble  in  cold  water,  soluble  in  twenty  parts  of  alcohol,  and 
in  chloroform  and  glycerin ;  insoluble  in  acid  or  alkaline 
solutions.  Like  antifcbrin  and  antipyrine,  it  lowers  tempera- 
ture, diminishes  pain,  and  depresses  the  heart.  Although 
its  action  is  less  rapid,  it  is  more  prolonged,  and  less  liable 
than  either  of  these  analogues  to  produce  collapse,  while  in 
human  patients  it  has  also  slight  soporific  effects  (Brunton). 
Frohner  and  other  German  observers  state  that  grs.  iii.  to 
grs.  vii.  given  to  dogs  in  a  febrile  condition  lower  the  tem- 
perature 2"  Fahr.,  also  slow  the  pulse,  and  relievo  respiratory 
difficulty.  These  effects  continue  for  four  hours.  Horses 
and  cattle  take  3ij-  to  5iv. ;  dogs,  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  xv.,  in  bolus 
or  electuary ;  repeated  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours. 

PiPERAZiN  (C^HjoNg),  an  organic  base  allied  to  benzene, 
and  produced  by  the  interaction  of  sodium  glycol  and  ethy- 
lene-diamine hydrochloride.  It  occurs  in  white  deliquescent 
scales,  very  soluble  in  water.  Outside  the  body  it  dissolves 
uric  acid  and  insoluble  urates ;  but  when  administered  its 
action  is  exceedingly  doubtful.  It  is  excreted  unchanged  or 
combined  with  uric  acid  in  the  urine.  The  granular  citrate  is 
generally  used.  Doses  of  five  to  fifteen  grains  in  carbonated 
water,  taken  twice  daily,  are  stated  to  break  up  cystic  con- 
cretions in  human  patients  (Braithwaitc's  Retrospect,  1894). 

CHiNASEPTOL,diaphthol,orortho-oxy-chinolin-meta-sulphonic 
acid,  occurs  in  yellowish  crystals,  which  are  soluble  in  water. 
Solutions  of  one  or  two  per  cent,  are  powerfully  antiseptic, 
but  their  use  in  surgery  is  restricted  owing  to  their  etl'cct  on 
instruments.  It  is  rapidly  absorbed,  as  an  alkaline  diaphtho- 
late,  from  the  intestine  and  excreted  by  the  kidneys — disin- 
fecting the  urine  and  urinary  passages.  Medicinal  doses  are 
free  from  toxic  effects.  Horses  take  3j-  to  gij- ;  dogs,  grs,  x. 
to  grs.  XXX.,  in  bolus  or  electuary. 

ExALGiN  occurs  in  nearly  colourless  cr3'stals,  is  odourless, 
almost  tasteless,  slightly  soluble  in  water  and  freely  in  alcohol. 
It  is  slightly  antiseptic,  distinctly  antipyretic,  and  markedly 
analgesic.     As  an  antipyretic  it  resembles  antifcbrin;  it  im- 


CniNOLINE   AND    THALLIN  395 

pairs  perception  of  painful  impressions ;  Lut  large  doses  are 
dangerous,  and  produce  epileptiform  convulsions,  dyspnoea, 
stupor,  and  death.  Small,  perfectly  safe  doses,  such  as  one 
or  two  grains  in  human  patients,  or  half  a  grain  in  dogs, 
repeated  hourly,  relieve  neuralgic  pain ;  but  for  the  pain  of 
muscular  rheumatism  it  is  not  so  effectual  as  salicylates. 
It  does  not  appear  to  produce  any  disagreeable  secondary 
symptoms.  It  has  been  used  with  benefit  in  epilepsy  and 
chorea  in  man,  and  may  be  serviceable  in  such  cases  in  dogs. 
It  is  generally  administered  dissolved  in  weak  spirit. 

Chinoline  is  an  oily  liquid  produced  by  oxidation  of  aniline 
and  nitro-benzene.  It  is  related  to  cinchonine  and  quinine, 
from  which  it  may  also  be  obtained.  It  is  colourless  or 
yellow,  bitter  and  acrid,  almost  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  benzene.  Chino- 
line and  its  salts,  tartrate  and  salicylate,  are  antiseptic  and 
antipyretic,  but  other  drugs  of  this  aromatic  series  are  safer 
and  more  effectual.  Dogs  and  cats,  receiving  three  to  six 
grains  per  kilogramme  of  body  weight,  exhibit  increased 
secretion  of  saliva  and  bile,  and  suffer  from  vomiting  and 
general  enfeeblement. 

Thallin  is  a  synthetically  prepared  base  chemically  known 
as  tetra-hydro-para-methyl-oxy- chinoline.  It  is  crystalline 
and  colourless,  has  a  piquant,  bitter,  anise-like  taste,  is 
soluble  in  seven  parts  of  cold  water  and  a  hundred  of  alcohol. 
Both  the  watery  and  alcoholic  solutions  are  inflammable.  It 
combines  with  acids,  and  is  used  as  a  suljjhate  or  acetate. 
It  is  antiseptic  and  antipyretic.  It  resembles  antifebrin, 
but  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  considers  it  is  less  effectual.  Pro- 
fessor Thomas  Eraser  regards  it  as  probably  the  most 
trustworthy  antipyretic  of  the  series.  Both  Kaufmann  and 
Friedberger  testify  to  its  febrifuge  effects  on  veterinary 
patients,  and  state  that  it  causes  neither  digestive  nor 
nervous  disturbance.  Moderate  doses  given  to  horses  and 
dogs,  in  one  hour  reduce  abnormal  temperature  3°  Cent.,  and 
such  reduction  is  stated  to  be  maintained  for  several  hours. 
It  slows  respiration,  diminishes  the  number  of  the  pulsations, 
and  lessens  arterial  pressure.  These  effects  appear  to  depend 
upon  diminished  oxidation,  and  consequent  lessened  elimi- 


396  CHINOSOL 

nation  of  carbonic  acid  and  urea.  Thallin  is  stated  to  com- 
municate a  dark-red  colour  to  the  blood,  and  sometimes 
causes  a  red  eruption  on  the  tongue  (Kaufmann).  It  is 
slowly  excreted  in  the  urine,  which  acquires  a  greenish- 
brown  hue,  and  is  coloured  purple  by  ferric  chloride  solution. 
Fried berger  prescribes  it  in  croupous  and  contagious  pneu- 
monia in  horses,  both  per  orem  and  hypodermically.  Horses 
take  5ii-  to  giii. ;  cattle,  5ii-  to  5iv. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xv. 
to  grs.  XXX, ;  dogs,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  iv.,  given,  as  the  sulphate,  in 
bolus  or  solution.  Hypodermically  one-third  to  one-half  of 
these  doses  may  be  given. 

Kairine  is  derived  from  chinoline.  It  is  crystalline,  greyish- 
white,  with  a  bitter,  nauseous  taste  and  aromatic  odour, 
soluble  in  six  parts  of  water  and  in  alcohol.  It  is  slightly 
antiseptic,  has  no  analgesic  action,  and  is  not  a  safe  antipyretic. 
Frohner  states  that  its  antipyretic  effects  do  not  last  more 
than  fifteen  minutes,  and  that  the  frequently  repeated  doses 
hence  needful  are  apt  to  cause  weakness,  dangerous  collapse, 
and  sometimes  hyper-excitability  and  convulsions,  both  clonic 
and  tonic.  Kaufmann  states  that  a  dog  of  three  kilogrammes 
was  killed  by  a  hypodermic  injection  of  fifteen  grammes, 
while  another  of  seven  kilogrammes  succumbed  from  the 
internal  administration  of  forty-five  grammes.  The  doses 
of  the  hydrochloride  for  horses  are  5i-  to  3ii->  a-iid  for  dogs 
grs.  iii.  to  grs.  xii. 

Pyridine  (C5H5N)  is  obtained  from  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  bones  and  other  organic  substances,  and  is  one  of 
the  empyreiimatic  constituents  of  tobacco  smoke.  It  is  a 
typical  member  of  the  alkali-like  bases  found  in  coal-tar,  and 
from  it  various  bodies  of  the  aromatic  series  are  prepared. 
It  is  a  colourless,  strong-smelling,  volatile,  antiseptic  liquid. 
Soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils.  It  diminishes  the 
reflex  activity  of  the  medulla  and  spinal  cord,  notably  of 
the  respiratory  centre,  and  causes  death  by  asphyxia;  but 
is  so  rapidly  eliminated  by  all  the  excretory  channels  that 
large  doses  are  required  to  kill.  As  an  inhalation  it  has  been 
used  in  asthma  and  other  cases  of  difficult  breathing. 

Chinosol,  or  oxy-chinolin-sulphonate  of  potassium,  is  a 
derivative  of  coal-tar.      It  occurs  as  a  yellow,  crystalline 


CARBOLIC    ACID  397 

powder,  with  a  faint  odour,  soluble  in  water,  insoluble  in 
alcoliol  or  etlier.  Its  solution  is  unaffected  by  albumin. 
Chinosol  is  antiseptic,  antipyretic,  styptic  and  disinfectant. 
A  solution  of  one  part  in  forty  thousand  prevents  bacterial 
development,  and  a  grain  dissolved  in  six  drachms  of  water 
is  stated  to  be  equal  in  antiseptic  power  to  a  one  in  forty 
solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Applied  to  wounds,  the  alkaline 
discharges  decompose  it  and  liberate  oxychinoline,  which 
oxidises  and  disinfects.  In  the  treatment  of  surgical  cases 
solutions  varying  from  one  in  twelve  hundred  to  one 
in  sixty  have  given  most  satisfactory  results.  Mixed  with 
boric  acid,  zinc  oxide,  or  starch,  it  forms  an  excellent  dry 
dressing,  and  with  collodion  it  is  used  for  sealing  small 
wounds.  Professor  Hobday  considers  that  its  action  is  better 
marked  when  used  in  lotion  than  in  powder,  and  that  con- 
centrated solutions  should  not  be  used  to  disinfect  instru- 
ments {British  Medical  Journal,  1898).  Chinosol  has  been 
used  as  an  udder  injection  in  parturient  apoplexy.  For  this 
purpose  fifteen  grains  are  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  and 
a  fourth  part  injected  into  each  quarter  (yeterinary  Record, 
1899).  Chinosol  can  be  obtained  in  tablets  containing  eight 
or  fifteen  grains. 

CARBOLIC    ACID 
AciDUM  Carbolicum.     Phenol.     CgHgOH. 

Carbolic  acid  is  an  occasional  constituent  of  the  urine  of 
most  animals,  may  be  extracted  from  some  plants,  and  is 
one  of  the  many  products  of  coal-tar.  Cannel  coal  is  its 
most  prolific  source ;  but  it  also  occurs  in  other  coals,  as 
well  as  in  bitumen  and  petroleum.  It  is  obtained  from  coal- 
tar  oil  by  fractional  distillation  (B.P.). 

Carbolic  acid  occurs  in  small,  colourless,  deliquescent 
crystals,  having  a  peculiar  odour  and  sweetish  pungent 
taste.  Exposed  to  moist  air  it  may  acquire  a  pinkish  tinge. 
Specific  gravity  1060  to  1-066.  It  is  devoid  of  acid  reaction, 
is  liquefied  at  60^  Fahr.  by  ten  parts  of  water,  and  completely 
dissolved  by  twelve  hundred  parts  of  cold  water.  It  is  freely 
soluble  in  glycerin,  most  volatile  oils,  alcohol,  ether,  alkaline 


398  CARBOLIC    ACID 

solutions,  and  acetic  acid.  It  has  a  caustic  action  on  the 
skin  and  mucous  membranes,  coagulates  albumin,  and 
liquefies  camphor.  It  destroys  the  particulate  cells  which 
produce  the  several  fermentations.  With  an  equivalent  of 
sulphuric  acid,  it  forms  sulpho-carbolic  acid,  which  produces 
a  series  of  definite,  stable,  soluble,  crystallisable  salts — the 
sulpho-carbolates,  which  have  no  action  of  carbolic  acid. 
With  nitric  acid,  it  forms  explosive  compounds  and  picric 
acid  (CyH2(NO.^)30H),  an  antiseptic,  and  much  used  as  a 
yellow  dye.  When  carbonic  anhydride  is  passed  through 
dry  powdered  phenol  sodium,  salicylic  acid  is  produced. 

Carbolic  acid  is  distinguished  by  its  odour.  Bromine 
water  forms,  even  in  very  dilute  aqueous  solutions,  pale- 
yellow  crystalline  needles  of  tribromo-phenol.  An  aqueous 
solution,  even  if  containing  t^^j^  part,  when  treated  with  a 
drop  or  two  of  ferric  chloride  solution,  produces  a  purple 
colour. 

According  to  Martindale  {Extra  Pharmacopceia),  there 
are  seven  commercial  varieties  in  general  use : — (a)  Absolute 
phenol;  (h)  No.  1  carbolic  acid,  in  crystals  and  in  liquid,  con- 
taining 10  per  cent,  of  added  water :  the  crystals  are  soluble 
in  fourteen  parts  of  water ;  (c)  No.  2  carbolic  acid,  also  in 
crystals  and  in  liquid,  soluble  in  eighteen  parts  of  water; 
(d)  No.  4  carbolic  acid,  a  pale  straw-coloured  liquid,  con- 
taining about  10  per  cent,  of  phenol,  and  nearly  90  per  cent. 
of  cresols ;  (e)  No.  5  carbolic  acid,  a  dark-coloured  liquid  of 
uncertain  strength. 

The  B.P.  acidum  carbolicum  liquefactum,  or  phenol,  to 
which  distilled  water  has  been  added  in  the  proportion  of 
ten  parts  of  water  to  one  hundred  of  phenol,  is  a  colourless 
or  slightly  red  liquid,  with  the  taste,  odour,  and  properties 
of  the  pure  acid.  The  empyreumatic  red-brown  liquid 
commercial  acid  contains  the  uncrystallisable,  acrid  meth3'l- 
phenol  or  cresol  (CeH^.(0H).CH3).  Calvert's  carbolic 
powders  convsist  of  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  carbolic  acid,  in- 
corporated with  refuse  from  the  alum  works.  M'Dougall's 
disinfecting  powders  contain  about  33  per  cent,  of  calcium 
carbolate  and  59  per  cent,  of  magnesium  sulphite.  A  mix- 
ture of  carbolic  acid  and  bleaching  powder  has  been  patented. 


COAGULATES  ALBUMIN  AND  DESTROYS  ORGANISMS       399 

Blast  furnace  residual  oils,  produced  largely  in  Scotland, 
consist  of  20  to  35  per  cent,  of  phenoloids,  soluble  in  caustic 
soda,  resemble  wood- tar  products,  and  are  used  for  preserving 
timber. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Carbolic  acid  belongs  to  the  benzol  or 
aromatic  series  of  carbon  compounds,  wliicli  are  notable  for 
their  antiseptic  and  antipyretic  properties  (p.  388).  It 
closely  resembles  creosote  and  creolin.  Large  doses  are 
irritant  and  narcotic  poisons.  It  is  used  as  an  antiseptic, 
antiparasitic,  and  occasionally  as  a  local  anaesthetic,  stimu- 
lant, rubefacient,  and  caustic.  It  is  administered  in  various 
contagious  and  zymotic  diseases,  with  a  view  to  prevent  or 
arrest  the  development  of  micro-organisms.  It  is  employed 
as  a  disinfectant. 

General  Actions. — It  coagulates  albumin  and  destroys 
micro-organisms.  It  is  not  nearly  so  active  as  corrosive 
sublimate,  chlorine,  iodine,  or  sulphurous  acid  in  arresting 
the  action  of  ptyalin,  pe23sin,  diastase,  and  other  organic 
ferments,  or  in  killing  or  preventing  the  development  of 
bacteria ;  but  Koch's  experiments  show  that  about  one  part 
to  500  prevents  the  growth  of  anthrax  and  other  bacilli. 
Oats,  barley,  beans,  and  lentils,  soaked  in  a  one  per  cent, 
solution,  do  not  germinate.  Milk  is  maintained  unchanged 
by  ^th  part  of  acid.  The  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  are  killed 
in  twenty-four  hours  by  a  5  per  cent,  solution.  The 
development  of  putrefactive  organisms  is  arrested  by  a  4 
per  cent,  solution  which  is  also  fatal  to  the  organisms  of  pus. 
Aqueous  solutions  are  more  powerfully  antiseptic  than 
solutions  in  alcohol,  oil,  or  glycerin.  As  carbolic  acid 
gradually  volatilises,  not  only  may  fresh  infection  occur, 
but  spores  and  organisms,  the  development  of  which  has 
been  arrested,  may  regain  activity. 

A  strong  solution  applied  to  the  skin,  or  to  a  mucous 
surface,  coagulates  albumin,  acts  as  a  topical  irritant  and 
slight  caustic;  anaesthetises  not  only  the  skin,  but  the 
underlying  structures;  causes  a  stain  at  first  white,  but 
shortly  becoming  brown ;  and  leaves  a  dry,  roughened 
surface,  from  which  the  shrivelled  epidermal  scales  sub- 
sequently peel  oft'. 


400  CARBOLIC    ACID 

Full  doses  when  swallowed,  besides  producing  local  effects, 
cause  increased  salivation,  and  in  carnivora  usually  vomit- 
ing", with  gastro-enteritis  and  collapse,  which  may  end 
fatally.  It  is  absorl)0(l,  and,  like  other  members  of  the 
alcohol  series,  it  first  stimulates  and  subsequently  paralyses 
the  medulla  and  spinal  cord,  and  involves  also  the  cerebral 
centres.  The  respiratory  and  vaso-niotor  centres  are  first 
stimulated,  quickening  respiration,  raising  blood-pressure, 
and  accelerating  the  pulse;  but  as  paralysis  is  developed, 
respiration  is  slowed,  and  blood-pressure  falls.  Stimulation 
of  the  sweat-centre  increases  perspiration.  Implication  of 
the  cerebral  centres  gives  rise  to  restlessness,  irregular 
movements,  convulsions,  and  anaesthesia.  Moderate  doses 
kill  by  paralysis  of  respiration,  but  larger  doses  besides 
cause  cardiac  paralysis.  It  is  excreted  in  part  by  the 
lungs  and  skin,  mainly  by  the  kidneys,  and  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  alkaline  carbolates,  detectable,  two  or  three  hours 
after  administration,  by  bromine  water  or  ferric-chloride. 
The  urine  has  an  olive-brown  hue,  and  for  a  considerable 
time  resists  putrefaction ;  but,  if  it  stands  long,  it  becomes 
amber- brown,  depending  upon  hydro-quinone  and  other 
phenol  products  undergoing  further  oxidation.  Excretion 
is  tolerably  rapid;  carbolic  acid  can  seldom  be  found 
in  any  notable  amount  in  the  urine  either  of  men  or 
animals  twenty-four  hours  after  the  exhibition  of  the 
last  dose. 

Toxic  Effects. — Two  drachms  prove  immediately  fatal  to 
dogs,  and  kill  full-grown  cats  in  two  minutes  (Dr.  Sansom). 
Dr.  Cullcn,  of  Calcutta,  found  that  one  drachm  given  to 
small  dogs  caused  excitement,  dilated  pupils,  shallow, 
stertorous  breathing,  convulsions,  and  death  in  ten  minutes 
(Veterinarian,  1872).  Friedberger  found  that  fifteen  grains 
killed  dogs  in  a  few  hours.  Three  or  four  drops  placed 
under  the  wings  of  sparrows  caused  excitement,  restlessness, 
and  death  in  half  an  hour;  toads,  earthworms,  beetles,  ants, 
and  fleas  were  promptly  poisoned  (Lamaire).  Two  drachms 
repeatedly  given  by  the  late  Mr.  Romanes  of  Leith,  to  a 
donkey  had  no  very  notable  effect.  Half  ounce  doses  are 
dangerous  for  horses ;  ounce  doses  are  fatal  (Kaufmann), 


AN   IRRITANT   AND   NARCOTIC  POISON  401 

Poisonous  doses  immediately  cause  dogs,  rabbits,  and  other 
animals  to  reel,  move  in  jumps,  and  fall  as  when  in- 
toxicated by  alcohol :  they  tremble  and  show  muscular 
weakness,  cough,  and  froth  at  mouth ;  the  pulse  is 
small,  quick,  irregular,  and  intermittent;  temperature  is 
lowered;  albuminuria  and  haematuria  are  occasionally 
present ;  shallow,  gasping,  difficult  breathirg,  collapse, 
paralysis,  more  or  less  anaesthesia,  and  occasionally  con- 
vulsions, precede  death. 

By  whatever  channel  it  is  introduced  into  the  body,  its 
characteristic  effects  are  produced.  Dressings  used  in 
human  surgery  sometimes  cause  nausea,  vomiting,  giddi- 
ness, high-coloured  urine,  and  occasionally  collapse,  and 
even  death.  Scabby  sheep  too  freely  dressed  may  suffer 
from  congested  and  inflamed  lungs,  linger  for  weeks,  and 
even  then  die.  Dogs  and  cats  are  particularly  sus- 
ceptible ;  even  a  single  dressing,  incautiously  applied  over 
a  large  surface,  produces  dulness,  trembling,  and  disin- 
clination for  food,  which  may  coDtinue  for  several  days. 
Stronger  dressings  within  a  few  minutes  cause  excitement, 
blowing,  unsteady  gait,  and  occasionally  fatal  collapse. 
A  considerable  skin  surface,  freely  wetted,  is  recorded  by 
Professor  Williams  to  have  produced  'gradual  failure  of 
the  heart's  action ' ;  whilst  in  other  cases  the  dog  has 
fallen  into  a  state  of  marasmus,  with  sunken  eyes,  foetor 
of  the  breath,  formation  of  sordes  on  the  teeth,  'tarry' 
faeces,  and  total  loss  of  appetite,  followed  by  death  in  six 
to  twelve  days. 

The  Post-Mortem  Appearances  are — brown  discoloration 
and  corrugation  of  the  membrane  of  the  mouth  and  fauces, 
and  sometimes  of  the  stomach;  strong  solutions  leave 
patches  of  redness  and  inflammation  in  the  stomach  and 
small  intestines.  The  kidneys  are  sometimes  congested, 
occasionally  inflamed.  The  blood  is  dark-coloured  and 
feebly  coagulated,  but  the  corpuscles  are  unchanged. 
Chronic  poisoning  sometimes  produces  granular  and  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  liver,  heart,  and  kidneys  (Mosselman). 
Where  death  has  occurred  within  a  day  after  the  poison 
has  been  taken,  a  smoky  phenol  odour  pervades  the  body, 

2c 


102  CARBOLIC    ACID 

and  the  poison  has  been  discovered  in  most  of  the  internal 
organs ;  but  where  hfe  has  bjeen  jjrolonged  beyond  twenty- 
four  hours,  the  volatile  drug  may  not  be  discoverable.  Dr. 
Cullen  records  that  the  vessels  of  the  brain  are  full  of 
fluid  blood;  while  serous  effusion  is  generally  observable 
on  the  surface  of  the  brain  and  within  the  ventricles.  The 
lungs,  in  cases  that  have  survived  several  da3's,  are  some- 
times ecchymosed. 

Antidotes. — Where  the  poison  has  been  swallowed,  any 
unabsorbed  portion  should  be  removed  by  the  stomach- 
pump,  or  by  an  emetic.  Pharyngeal  and  gastric  irritation 
is  allayed  by  alcohol,  by  inhalation  of  steam,  medicated 
with  laudanum,  and  by  demulcent  drinks,  saccharated  lime, 
oil,  camphor,  or  vinegar.  Neutralisation  of  the  poison,  by 
conversion  into  sulpho-carbolates,  and  excretion  by  the 
kidneys,  are  hastened  by  administration  of  sulphates,  con- 
venientl}^  given  in  the  form  of  sodium  sulphate.  The  escha- 
rotic  action  of  pure  carbolic  acid  is  quickly  neutralised  by 
alcohol. 

For  Surgical  Purposes  carbolic  acid  is  the  antiseptic  most 
frequently  and  generally  used  in  this  country.  According 
to  Lister,  it  has  a  powerful  affinity  for  the  epidermis.  Car- 
bolic acid  penetrates  deeply  into  its  substance,  and  mingles 
with  fatty  materials  in  any  proportion.  Corrosive  subhmate 
solution,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  penetrate  in  the  slightest 
degree  into  anything  greasy.  Preparatory  to  an  operation 
the  parts,  and  the  hands  of  the  operator  and  his  assistants, 
are  w^ashed  with  a  5  per  cent,  warm,  aqueous  solution,  and 
the  instruments,  sutures,  and  other  appliances  are  placed  in 
a  solution  of  the  same  strength.  During  operation  a  one  to 
forty  solution  is  used  for  washing  sponges,  and  rinsing 
instruments,  and  for  irrigating  the  wound.  Extensive 
wounds,  likely  to  be  irritated  by  continuous  contact  of 
considerable  amounts  of  carbolic  acid,  are  sometimes  first 
covered  by  a  protective  of  oiled  silk  varnished  with  copal 
and  coated  with  dextrin,  which  allows  the  silk  to  be 
uniformly  wetted  with  the  antiseptic  solution.  Over  this 
protective — or,  in  ordinary  cases,  directly  upon  the  wound — 
are  laid   six  or  eight  folds  of  freshly-prepared  carbolised 


SURGICAL    USES  403 

gauze,  made  of  unbleached  muslin,  which  has  been  medicated 
with  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  carbolic  acid,  four  of  resin, 
and  four  of  paraffin.  Through  these  dressings,  the  air, 
before  reaching  the  abraded  surface,  is  filtered  and  deprived 
of  micro-organisms.  With  similar  antiseptic  precautions, 
human  surgeons  have  reduced  the  mortality  of  capital 
operations  by  more  than  one-half,  and  equally  favourable 
results  have  been  obtained  by  veterinarians. 

To  prevent  and  arrest  attacks  of  micro-organisms, 
carbolic  acid  is  applied,  in  all  classes  of  patients,  to  most  acci- 
dental or  surgical  wounds.  Incised  or  lacerated  wounds  are 
washed,  according  to  their  condition,  with  a  one  to  forty  or 
one  to  twenty  solution,  before  and  after  being  secured  with 
stitches  or  sutures.  Broken  knees  and  open  joints  are 
cleansed,  and  at  intervals  irrigated  with  carbolic  lotions. 
"WTien  wounds  for  several  days  have  been  treated  with  the 
stronger  carbolic  solutions,  an  aseptic  condition  may  be  main- 
tained, and  healing  usually  hastened  by  milder  dressings  of 
boric,  salicylic,  or  sulphurous  acid.  Added  to  Carron  oil, 
it  allays  j^ain,  and  prevents  or  limits  suppuration  of  burns 
and  scalds.  Over-reaches  and  other  bruises,  after  being 
thoroughly  cleansed,  are  dressed  with  a  watery  solution,  and 
covered  with  a  few  folds  of  carbolised  lint  or  oakum,  secured 
by  a  bandage.  Similar  treatment  is  serviceable  in  necrosis 
of  the  coronary  band,  occurring  in  hard-worked  horses  in 
wet,  cold  weather.  A  saturated  watery  solution  is  used  in 
foot-rot  in  sheep  ;  but  in  chronic  cases,  and  where  reparative 
power  is  deficient,  it  is  usefully  alternated  with  turpentine 
and  oil,  or  where  granulations  are  superabundant,  with 
copper  sulphate.  Ulcers  are  stimulated,  and  their  healing 
promoted,  by  thorough  soaking  with  strong  carbolic,  and 
afterwards  coating  the  sore  with  collodion.  Sinuses  of  the 
poll,  withers,  or  coronet,  cleansed  of  micro-organisms  by 
strong  acid,  and  provided  with  a  dependent  opening,  fre- 
quently heal  if  protected  b}-  carbolic  gauze  from  fresh 
infection. 

Injuries  of  the  uterus  or  vagina,  resulting  from  parturi- 
tion, and  metritis  in  all  animals,  are  treated  with  carbolic 
solutions,  with  the  effect  of  abating  irritation,  noisome  dis- 


404  CARBOLIC    ACID 

charges,  and  straining.  No  treatment  is  so  effectual  in 
metritis  in  ewes,  the  prevalence  of  which  might  be  materially 
abated  if  shc^jherds  would  observe  greater  cleanliness,  and 
wash  their  hands  with  an  antiseptic  fluid  before  rendering 
assistance  to  lambing  ewes.  Such  precautions  are  specially 
needful  where  post-mortem  examinations  have  been  engaged 
in,  where  dead  lambs,  which  have  lain  about  for  some  days, 
have  been  skinned,  or  where  cases  of  metritis  have  been 
handled.  No  one  who  has  been  in  contact  with  such  a  con- 
tagious complaint  can  enter  the  lambing  pens  without  much 
risk  of  distributing  the  specific  organisms.  After  washing 
with  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  a  strong  carbolic  solution 
painted  over  the  navel  of  foals  and  calves  at  birth,  and 
repeated  daily  for  a  week,  effectually  prevents  septic  infec- 
tion, necrosis,  and  the  ensuing  pysemic  extension  to  joints 
and  other  parts  {Jour.  Gomp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  1892), 

Carbolic  acid  is  seldom  used  as  a  caustic.  Concentrated 
solutions  applied  to  boils  frequently  cause  their  abortion, 
and  prevent  their  spreading,  and  arc  sometimes  injected  into 
lymphatic  glands,  and  into  tuberculous,  cancerous,  and 
melanotic  tumours.  Injected  into  the  swellings  on  cattle  or 
horses,  caused  by  oestridse,  it  kills  the  larvae.  Painted  over 
the  skin,  strong  solutions  cause  superficial  local  anaesthesia, 
sufficient  for  the  opening  of  abscesses,  but  insufficient  for 
the  painless  insertion  of  setons,  or  for  moderately  deep  firing. 
Eight  or  10  per  cent,  solutions  are  occasionally  applied 
as  topical  stimulants  and  rubefacients  for  sore- throat  and 
rheumatic  joints. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Carbolic  acid  has  been  prescribed  in 
most  diseases  produced  by  micro-organisms.  In  cattle- 
plague  it  appears  to  lower  advancing  temperature,  and 
prolong  even  where  it  does  not  save  life.  Mr.  William 
Crookes  injected  105  grains  in  6  ounces  of  water  into  the 
jugular  of  a  cow  suffering  from  cattle-plague,  with  little 
apparent  injury  beyond  what  might  be  expected  from  the 
injection  of  any  simple  fluid,  and  the  patient  gradually  re- 
covered. Bouley  reports  that  cattle  inoculated  with  malignant 
pustule  invariably  died ;  but  when  the  inoculatctl  subjects 
were  promptly  dosed  with  two  or  three  drachms  daily  of 


MEDICINAL   USES  405 

carbolic  acid,  four  out  of  five  recovered.  Similar  results 
followed  the  use  of  the  acid  in  horses  and  sheep  inoculated 
with  pustule.  For  Texas  cattle-fever  an  approved  remedy 
consists  of  twelve  ounces  each  of  carbolic  acid  and  sodium 
bicarbonate,  mixed  with  four  fluid  ounces  of  glycerin,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  mixture  being  given  thrice  daily  in  a 
quart  of  water.  In  black-quarter,  Professor  Robertson  advised 
half  a  drachm  in  a  pint  of  water  three  or  four  times  daily, 
conjoined  with  morphine  when  there  was  abdominal  pain. 
For  tetanus,  Bacelli  recommends  subcutaneous  injection  of 
a  3  per  cent,  solution  in  distilled  water.  Mr.  Priestman 
and  other  practitioners  used  carbolic  acid  with  some  benefit 
in  the  treatment  of  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle. 
It  has  been  administered  in  foot-and-mouth  complaint,  in 
which  the  glycerin  of  phenol  and  other  solutions  are  also 
applied  locally  with  zinc  and  lead  lotions.  The  severity  of 
catarrhal  influenza  amongst  horses  is  materially  abated, 
while  its  spread  is  checked  by  administration  of  antiseptics 
and  by  spraying  the  nostrils  and  throat  with  a  one  per  cent, 
carbolic  solution.  In  such  cases,  and  also  in  chronic  bron- 
chitis and  pharyngitis,  air  or  steam,  medicated  with  carbohc 
acid,  is  used  as  an  inhalation.  In  tedious  cases  of  strangles 
and  in  purpura  it  is  prescribed  with  iodine  or  iron,  or  both, 
and  is  also  applied  externally. 

Stomatitis  and  ulcerations  about  the  mouth  and  throat 
are  treated  with  the  acid  conjoined,  sometimes  with  iodine, 
or  with  tannin  and  glycerin.  Actinomycosis,  after  the 
diseased  surface  has  been  scraped,  is  dressed  with  four  parts 
of  carbolic  acid  and  one  of  iodine,  dissolved  in  six  or  eight 
parts  of  glycerin  (Walley).  Added  to  the  ordinary  prescrip- 
tions used  in  dyspepsia,  diarrhoea,  and  dysentery,  carbolic 
acid  or  creolin  checks  fermentative  changes  and  lessens 
acridity  and  foetor  of  the  excreta.  With  oil  of  turpentine 
and  opium  tincture,  it  is  used  for  intratracheal  injections 
in  calves  suffering  from  parasitic  bronchitis.  Foals  and 
other  animals  infested  with  S.  Tetracanthus  have  been  suc- 
cessfully treated  with  carbolic  acid  conjoined  with  turpentine 
and  dialysed  iron.  Carbolic  solutions  relieve  the  itching 
and   swelling  occasioned   by  bees,  wasps,  mosquitoes,  and 


406  CARBOLIC    ACID 

ants,  anrl,  promptly  used,  prevent  mischief  from  dissection 
wounds. 

(Jarbolic  acid  checks  the  ]xarasitic  growth  of  ringworm, 
but  is  not  so  effectual  as  iodine  or  ferric-chloride  dressings. 
Alternated  with  other  remedies,  it  is  often  serviceable  in 
that  form  of  eczema  popularly  known  as  grease.  In  these 
and  other  cases  where  there  are  foul  discharges,  it  proves  a 
useful  addition  to  lead,  zinc,  or  other  appropriate  dressings. 
In  eczema  in  dogs,  attended  with  discharge,  the  acid  is  some- 
times applied  mixed  with  starch  powder  or  fullers'  earth. 
For  most  eczema  cases  the  wood-tar  oils  are,  however,  more 
suitable  than  those  derived  from  coal-tar.  Diluted  solutions 
are  used  for  destroying  ticks,  keds,  lice,  and  the  acari  of 
scab  and  mange.  The  preparation  known  as  M'Dougall's 
sheep-dipping  composition  vas  favourably  reported  on  by 
the  Australian  Government  Commissioner  appointed  to  in- 
quire into  the  spread  and  cure  of  scab  in  that  colony.  Folli- 
cular mange  in  dogs  may  be  treated  by  shaving  the  hair, 
scrubbing  thoroughly  with  soap  and  water,  and  painting  the 
skin  with  a  solution  of  one  part  of  acid  to  twenty  of  water  or 
glycerin,  but  to  avoid  dangerous  absorption,  too  large  a 
surface  must  not  be  dressed  at  a  time. 

Carbolic  acid  is  used  for  the  disinfection  of  stables,  kennels, 
cow-houses,  piggeries,  and  poultry  pens ;  of  railway  horse- 
boxes, cattle-trucks,  and  loading-places,  and  of  cattle  vessels 
and  landing-stages.  Carbolic  disinfecting  powders  are  con- 
veniently sprinkled  daily  throughout  the  stables  of  many 
omnibus,  cab,  and  carrying  establishments  of  London, 
Liverpool,  and  other  large  towns,  at  an  annual  cost  of  about 
five  shillings  for  each  horse.  Thus  employed,  carbolic  acid 
is  not  injurious  or  distasteful  either  to  the  animals  or  their 
attendants.  It  drives  away  flies  and  vermin;  arresting 
decomposition,  it  prevents  unpleasant  smells;  fixing  am- 
monia, it  increases  the  value  of  manure  with  which  it  has 
been  mixed.  To  ensure  purification  of  infected  premises, 
the  antiseptic  nuist  be  freely  and  frequently  used  in  the 
condition  of  powder,  fluid,  spray,  or  vapour,  or  in  several  of 
these  forms.  Solutions  of  less  than  one  per  cent,  are  not  to 
be  relied  on.     The  vapour  is  readily  evolved  by  sprinkling 


AS    A   DISINFECTANT  407 

the  acid  on  live  coals  or  on  a  hot  metal  plate.  Besides 
smearing  the  walls  and  woodwork  with  the  crude  brown  acid, 
during  the  prevalence  of  infectious  and  zymotic  diseases, 
sheets  wetted  with  it  should  be  suspended  here  and  there  to 
catch  floating  germs.  Along  with  carbolic  acid,  sulphurous 
acid  or  sulphites  may  be  fittingly  used.  To  destroy  germs 
or  limit  their  distribution,  animals  infected  with  contagious 
disorders  shoidd  receive  antiseptics  internally,  and  should 
be  sponged  daily  with  a  one  per  cent,  carbolic  solution. 
Infectious  germs  may  thus  be  prevented  sjjreading  to  healthy 
subjects,  which,  by  daily  administration  of  antiseptics,  may, 
moreover,  be  rendered  less  liable  to  suffer  from  disease. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  "ntxv.  to  Tf[xl. ;  sheep 
and  large  pigs,  Tliv.  to  Tllx. ;  dogs,  ITj^i.  to  1T[ii.  The  crystallised 
acid  is  best  for  internal  use.  It  may  be  made  into  bolus  with 
meal,  but  is  more  readily  absorbed,  more  regular  in  its  effects, 
and  less  likely  to  develop  local  irritation,  when  given  either 
in  water  or  in  glycerin  and  water.  One  part  by  weight  of 
acid  rubbed  in  a  mortar  with  five  of  glycerin  forms  a 
convenient  compound,  readily  miscible  with  water  or  other 
solvent.  Brown  discoloration  of  the  urine  need  not  prevent 
the  continued  use  of  the  drug.  Such  discoloration  results 
more  frequently  from  external  applications  which  favour 
rapid  oxidation.  An  ointment  is  made  by  rubbing  in  a 
mortar  about  one  part  of  acid  with  twenty  of  lard.  The 
liniment  usually  contains  one  part  of  acid  shaken  up  with 
twenty  to  forty  of  rapeseed  oil,  which  is  preferable  to  the 
drying  linseed  oil.  It  is  occasionally  mixed  with  soap.  For 
dusting  irritable  surfaces  it  is  mixed  with  starch,  lycopodium, 
and  occasionally  with  charcoal  and  plaster  of  Paris.  Watery 
solutions  are,  however,  most  convenient  and  penetrating, 
and  are  best  fitted  for  antiseptic  purposes.  Camphorated 
carbolic  acid,  used  as  a  germicide  dressing  for  sluggish  sores, 
consists  of  twelve  parts  phenol,  four  of  camphor,  and  one  of 
water;  liquefied  by  trituration.  Carbolic  oil,  made  with 
one  of  phenol,  seven  of  castor  oil,  and  eight  of  almond  oil,  is 
used  for  oiling  catheters  and  instruments  after  they  have 
been  disinfected.  Aseptic  Chinese  twist  for  sutures,  is 
prepared   for  use   by  stretching   the  twist,  boiling   for  ten 


408  CREOSOTE 

minutes,  rewinding  on  a  glass  slide,  and  preserving  in  5 
per  cent,  carbolic  solution.  Carbolised  tow,  contains  tar, 
and  10  per  cent,  of  phenol.  Carbolised  wool,  contains  6 
per  cent,  of  phenol.  Carbo-sapol,  consists  of  fifty  parts 
carbolic  acid,  twenty-five  parts  yellow  hard  soap,  and  twenty- 
five  parts  soft  soap.  The  ingredients  are  heated  together  on 
a  water  bath  until  a  clear  solution  is  obtained.  It  readily 
mixes  with  water,  and  a  one  per  cent,  solution  does  not 
attack  the  hands.  Its  antiseptic  power  is  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  corrosive  sublimate  {Neiver  Reviedies,  1899). 

Sulpho-carbolic  or  sulpho-phenic  acid  (H.CgH^O.HSOg) 
is  prej^ared  by  the  action  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  on  phenol. 
It  crystallises  slowly,  and  forms  colourless,  deliquescent 
needles,  having  less  odour  than  carbolic  acid ;  at  400°  Fahr. 
it  becomes  red ;  at  540°  Fahr.  it  boils.  It  is  antiseptic  and 
disinfectant,  and  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  glycerin. 
With  the  oxides  or  carbonates  of  the  alkalies,  earths,  or 
metals,  it  forms  crystalline,  soluble,  almost  odourless,  usually 
colourless,  stable  sulpho-carbolates,  which  do  not  give  any 
evidence  of  the  actions  of  carbolic  acid.  The  sodium  salt  is 
not  now  trusted  either  as  a  surgical  or  medical  antiseptic. 
The  iron,  zinc,  and  copper  salts  exhibit  the  actions  of  their 
bases.  These  sulpho-carbolates  are  excreted  by  the  kidneys 
in  great  part  unaltered,  they  probably  do  not  readily  give  up 
their  carbolic  acid  in  the  body,  and  certainly  have  not 
fulfilled  the  expectations  formed  of  them  when  they  were 
introduced  thirty  years  ago  as  antiseptics.  Sulpho-carbolic 
acid  is  stated  to  form  33J-  per  cent,  of  aseptol,  an  antiseptic 
which  is  soluble  but  inactive  in  glycerin,  alcohol,  or  oil.  A 
10  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  is  used  as  a  dressing  for 
wounds. 

CREOSOTE 

CilEOSOTUM.  Creosote.  A  mixture  of  guaiacol,  creosol,  and 
other  phenols,  obtained  in  the  distillation  of  wood-tar 
(B.P.). 

Tar  obtained  from  hard  woods  yields  20  to  25  per  cent, 
of  creosote.     The  process  of  extraction  is  tedious  and  com- 


ACTIONS   AND   USES  409 

plex,  requiring  repeated  distillations  and  the  removal  of 
the  lighter  paraffin  oils.  It  is  a  mixture  of  phenol,  cresol, 
phlorol,  guaiacol,  and  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  creosol.  It  yields 
creosotic  acid,  which  in  its  properties  and  uses  closely 
resembles  salicylic  acid. 

Creosote  is  a  mobile,  oily,  neutral,  or  only  faintly  acid  fluid, 
colourless  and  transparent  when  first  prepared,  but,  unless 
very  pure,  soon  becoming  brown.  Specific  gravity  1-079. 
It  has  a  strong,  persistent,  smoky  odour,  and  a  pungent,  acrid 
taste,  with  a  sweet  after-taste.  It  requires  for  solution  one 
hundred  and  fifty  parts  of  water,  but  readily  dissolves  in 
alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and  volatile  oils.  Dropped  on 
white  filtering  paper,  and  ex230sed  to  a  heat  of  212'  Fahr., 
it  leaves  no  translucent  stain  (B.P.). 

Impure  carbolic  acid  and  other  coal-tar  oils,  frequently 
mixed  with  or  substituted  for  the  more  expensive  wood 
creosote,  are  distinguished  from  it  by  their  greater  solubility 
in  water;  by  their  solidifying  in  acicular  crystals  at  low 
temperatures ;  by  their  not  affecting  a  ray  of  polarised  light, 
which  creosote  turns  to  the  left ;  by  their  producing  a  clear 
jelly  when  shaken  with  collodion,  which  does  not  affect  wood 
creosote ;  while  their  watery  solution  gives  a  blue  colour, 
with  a  neutral  iron  perchloride  solution,  which  gradually 
browns  the  watery  solution  of  wood  creosote. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Creosote  belongs  to  the  aromatic  series 
of  carbon  compounds.  Containing  so  many  phenols  and 
guaiacol,  it  has  a  complex  action,  but  it  resembles  carbolic 
acid,  and  is  a  more  active  germicide.  It  is  occasionally 
administered  to  arrest  gastro-intestinal  fermentation,  and 
diminish  foetor  of  the  discharges.  It  is  used  as  an  anti- 
septic, hemostatic,  and  analgesic,  and  for  the  destruction 
of  skin  parasites  and  bacteria.  In  large  doses  it  is  an  irritant 
poison  and  cardiac  paralysant. 

General  Actions. —  When  undiluted,  it  coagulates  albumin 
and  destroys  the  epithelium  of  mucous  membranes,  and  even 
of  the  skin,  producing  corrugation  and  a  white  stain  or  scar. 
Diluted  it  is  astringent  and  antiseptic,  irritates  slightly,  and 
then  causes  analgesia  and  feeble  anaesthesia.  Althouo-h  in 
saturated  solution  it  has  little  effect  on  enzymes,  one  part  in 


4 1 0  CREOSOTE 

five  hundred  of  water  arrests  the  action  of  yeast,  while  one 
in  one  thousand  kills  bacteria  (Bucholtz).  It  is  absorbed, 
and  communicates  its  odour  to  the  various  tissues.  Large 
doses,  given  internally,  cause  nausea ;  in  carnivora,  vomiting, 
colicky  pains,  and  diarrhoea,  with  muscular  paralysis,  espe- 
cially involving  the  lieart,  and  depressing  the  central  nervous 
system.  It  is  excreted  by  the  lungs,  but  chiefly  by  the 
kidneys. 

Toxic  Effects. — Three  drachms  given  to  horses  caused 
slight  and  temporary  feverishness,  and  imparted  to  the 
breath  a  creosote  odour  (Hertwig).  Tliirt}^  drops  given  to 
dogs  caused  uneasiness,  copious  salivation,  vertigo,  muscular 
twitching,  enfeebled  and  fluttering  action  of  the  heart, 
laboured  breathing,  diminished  sensibility,  dulness,  and 
stupor.  The  symptoms  came  on  within  a  few  minutes,  and 
continued  for  two  or  three  hours.  For  a  day  or  two,  however, 
irritability  of  the  stomach,  occasional  vomiting,  and  dulness 
were  still  observable.  Two  dogs  got  two  drachms  each,  and 
died  within  three  hours,  evincing,  besides  the  symptoms 
above  mentioned,  violent  convulsions  and  complete  coma. 
A  rabbit  was  thrown  into  convulsions,  and  died  within  a 
minute,  from  the  effects  of  thirty  drops  {Treatise  on  Creosote, 
183G).  From  the  prominence  of  the  convulsions  in  these 
cases,  it  is  probable  that  the  creosote  was  largely  mixed  with 
carbolic  acid.     The  antidotes  have  been  enumerated  (p.  402). 

Medicinal  Uses. — It  is  prescribed  in  some  forms  of  in- 
digestion, to  arrest  undue  fermentation,  and  is  given  to  dogs 
in  chronic  vomiting.  With  chalk  and  catechu  mixture, 
or  a  little  laudanum  and  an  aromatic,  it  helps  to  check 
diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  A  few  drops  inhaled  with  steam 
benefit  chronic  bronchitis  and  lung-  complaints,  when 
accompanied  by  excessive  or  fcetid  discharges.  Parasites 
lodged  in  the  air-passages  are  destroyed  by  creosote,  ad- 
ministered by  the  mouth,  or,  more  effectually,  by  inhalation 
or  intratracheally.  In  contagious  pleuro- pneumonia  in 
cattle,  creosote  was  some  years  ago  used  at  the  Edinburgh 
(Dick's)  Veterinary  College  with  some  advantage  in  re- 
lieving distressed  breathing  and  irritable  bowels.  It  has 
been    tried   in   purpura   in   horses,  but   without   any  very 


ANTISEPTIC    AND    ANALGESIC  411 

striking  results.  Nasal  gleet,  with  enlarged  glands  and 
foetid  discharge,  is  sometiines,  however,  benefited  by  a 
daily  drachm  of  creosote,  given  with  thirty  minims  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  made  into  bolus  with  linseed  meal. 

For  external  purposes,  carbolic  acid  has  superseded 
creosote  as  an  antiseptic  for  wounds,  but  as  a  stimulant 
and  escharotic  in  caries,  fistula,  canker,  thrush,  and  foot- 
rot,  creosote  with  an  equal  part  of  tincture  of  iodine,  is 
still  used.  Diluted  with  alcohol  and  water,  or  with  vinesrar, 
it  is  occasionally  used  to  relieve  itching  and  remove  scurf 
in  chronic  eczema,  prurigo,  and  psoriasis.  It  destroys 
parasites  infesting  the  skin.  For  mange  and  scab,  Gerlach 
advised  an  ounce  of  creosote,  dissolved  in  fifteen  ounces 
of  spirit  and  forty  of  water.  For  intractable  follicular 
mange,  after  washing  the  dog  with  soap  and  water,  or, 
better  still,  shaving  him,  Mr.  Hunting  advises  inunction 
of  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  creosote  and  fourteen  of  olive- 
oil,  the  penetrating  power  being  increased  by  the  addition 
of  two  parts  solution  of  caustic  potash.  Human  patients 
suffering  from  toothache  depending  on  caries  are  often 
relieved  by  a  drop  of  creosote  cautiously  placed  in  the 
hollow  of  the  tooth. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses,  TT^xx.  to  5j  ;  for  cattle,  f5ss.  to 
f5jj. ;  sheep,  Tl[x.  to  TTixxx. ;  pigs,  TT^v.  to  TT[xv. ;  dogs,  Tq^i.  to 
TIl^v.  It  is  given  in  bolus  with  syrup;  in  solution,  with 
mucilage,  acetic  acid,  volatile  oils,  or  alcohol;  or  con- 
veniently shaken  up  with  milk.  As  a  stimulant  or 
escharotic,  it  is  applied  with  a  camel's -hair  brush;  is 
used  in  solution  in  spirit  or  acetic  acid,  or  as  an  ointment, 
made  with  one  part  to  eight  of  lard  or  simple  ointment. 
For  skin  diseases,  equal  parts  of  creosote  and  sulphur  may 
be  made  into  an  ointment  with  lard,  or  a  liniment  with  oil. 
A  few  drops  are  sometimes  added  to  turpentine,  ammonia, 
or  other  embrocations.  For  intratracheal  injection  in 
parasitic  bronchitis  TT^S  to  TT^IO  creosote  are  dissolved  in 
TliGO  to  TTI^lOO  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and 
water. 

Guaiacol  (methyl-pyrocatechin),  obtained  by  distillation 
from   beech   creosote,  or   from   guaiacum   resin,  is  closely 


412  CRESOL — CREOLIN 

allied  in  antiseptic  properties  and  general  actions  to  creosote. 
Commercial  guaiacol  is  an  oily  liquid  containing  about  90 
per  cent,  of  pure  guaiacol,  which  is  crystalline.  It  is  soluble 
in  eighty-five  parts  of  water,  and  freely  in  alcohol,  ether,  oils, 
and  glycerin.  Applied  to  the  skin  in  fever  it  lowers  tem- 
perature, but  for  this  purpose  it  has  been  little  used.  It  is 
antipyretic,  germicide,  and  a  local  anaesthetic.  A  one  per 
cent,  solution  in  castor  oil  is  used  as  an  anaesthetic  instillation 
for  the  eye;  and  fifteen  grains  pure  guaiacol  dissolved  in 
four  or  five  drachms  of  glycerin  form  an  anesthetic  injection 
which  is  useful  in  minor  surgery.  It  has  been  prescribed  in 
phthisis  and  pneumonia  of  man,  and  in  most  cases  the 
temperature  was  markedly  reduced.  It  is  excreted  by 
skin  and  kidneys  (Braithwaite's  Retrospect,  1894).  The 
carbonate  (ductal),  a  neutral  crystalline  powder,  is  some- 
times prescribed  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic.  It  passes  un- 
changed through  the  stomach  into  the  bowel,  where  it  is 
split  up  (Coblentz). 


CRBSOL-CREOLIN-JEYES'  FLUID 

Cresol  is  a  coal-tar  product  of  complex  composition,  con- 
taining naphthalin,  xylenol,  phloral,  leucoline,  anthracene, 
paracresol,  pyridine,  with  sodium  carbonate,  sulphate  and 
chloride,  and  traces  of  carbolic  acid. 

Creolin,  Cresyl-Jeycs',  or  cresols  and  hydrocarbons  saponi- 
fied with  resin  and  alkalies,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of 
the  benzol  or  aromatic  carbon  scries.  It  is  a  dark-brown, 
oily  liquid,  of  a  tar-like  odour  and  an  aromatic  taste ;  neutral 
or  slightly  alkaline ;  soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  and  in 
ninety-five  parts  of  strong  alcohol;  mixed  with  forty  or 
more  parts  of  water  it  forms  an  ojiaque  milky  emulsion. 

Actions  and  Uses. — -Creolin  is  antiseptic,  disinfectant,  de- 
odorant, parasiticide,  astringent,  and  styptic.  Its  antiseptic 
power  has  been  investigated  by  Nocard,  Esmarch,  Frohner, 
Albrecht,  and  Eisenberg.  Bacteriological  tests  prove  it  to 
be  more  prompt  and  effective  than  carbolic  acid  in  the 
destruction  of  the  microbes  of  glanders,  anthrax,  fowl- 
cholera,  etc.      A  one   per   1000   solution   is   stated   to  kill 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  413 

cholera  bacteria  in  ten  minutes,  and  arrest  development  of 
typhus  bacilli  in  one  hour;  while  a  one  per  1000  solution 
of  carbolic  acid  requires  four  days  to  kill  the  microbes  of 
cholera,  and  had  no  effect  on  those  of  typhus  in  twenty-six 
days  (Esmarch,  Frohner).  In  solutions  of  3  to  5  per 
cent,  creolin  destroys  nearly  instantaneously  the  bacteria 
of  glanders,  anthrax,  and  mammitis,  as  well  as  pyogenic 
organisms  (Nocard).  The  virulence  of  tubercle  bacilli  is 
destroyed  in  a  few  minutes  by  a  3  per  cent,  solution, 
while  a  5  per  cent,  solution  is  fatal  to  anthrax  spores  in 
twenty-four  hours.  Kaufmann  states  that  as  a  bactericide 
it  is  ten  times  as  powerful  as  carbolic  acid.  It  coagulates 
albumin,  but,  unlike  carbolic  acid  and  creosote,  10  per  cent, 
solutions  do  not  irritate  the  skin,  even  when  abraded,  or  the 
mucous  membranes.  It  is  quickly  absorbed,  but  large  doses 
are  given  without  causing  intoxication  or  injury.  It  quickly 
impregnates  with  its  empyreumatic  phenol  odour  the  sweat, 
milk,  and  urine,  by  which  it  is  excreted,  partly  as  naphthalin, 
partly^  as  sulphuric  acid.  It  usually  colours  the  urine  brown. 
Used  with  ordinary  care  it  is  not  poisonous.  Horses 
have  received  in  emulsion  from  one  and  a  half  to  three 
fluid  drachms  without  effect,  and  cattle  still  larger  doses. 
A  medium-sized  dog  had  a  drachm  and  a  half,  and  another 
thirty  minims  daily  for  four  weeks  without  injury.  Sheep 
and  goats  have  taken  with  impunity  two  to  six  fluid  drachms. 
Very  large  doses  have  been  given  by  the  mouth  and  by  in- 
travenous injection  without  provoking  serious  symptoms. 
The  in-rubbing  even  of  concentrated  solutions  is  well  borne. 
Frohner  records  that  at  the  Berlin  Veterinary  College 
upwards  of  1000  mangy  dogs  have  been  treated  with 
creolin  lotions  without  a  mishap.  A  thousand  horses 
suffering  from  mange  have  been  dressed  with  a  10  per 
cent,  solution ;  sheep  suffering  from  scab  have  been 
dipped  in  a  2|  per  cent,  solution;  while  20,000  sheep  are 
stated  to  have  been  washed  with  creolin  dips  in  Prussia  in 
1888.  Further  testimony  of  its  innocuous  and  non-irritant 
character  is  adduced  by  Professor  Spath  and  two  of  his 
colleagues,  who  took  daily  from  thirty  minims  to  two  fluid 
drachms  without  loss  of  appetite,  nausea,  or  disturbance  of 


414  JEYES     FLUID 

circulation  or  secretion.  The  larger  doses  diminished  the 
amount  of  intestinal  gas,  the  faeces  lost  their  distinctive  smell, 
and  the  urine  contained  less  indican,  and,  although  kept  for 
several  days  in  a  warm  room,  did  not  decompose. 

Medicinal  Uses. — At  the  several  Continental  veterinary 
schools  Creolin-Pearson  or  Jeyes'  Fluid,  is  much  used,  and 
is  characterised  as  the  cheapest  and  best  antiseptic  and 
disinfectant.  It  is  not  often  prescribed  internally,  but,  as 
already  indicated,  in  gastro-intestinal  derangements  it  is 
effectual  in  checking  undue  fermentation,  and  lessening  the 
foetor  and  acridity  of  the  excretions.  As  a  surgical  antiseptic, 
it  has  the  merit  of  being  non-irritant  and  non-poisonous.  It 
does  not  dry  or  harden  the  operator's  hands,  or  spoil  the  steel 
instruments,  as  carbolic  acid  does.  AVith  glycerin  and  water 
it  is  a  serviceable  gargle  in  aphthous  ulcerated  conditions  of 
the  mouth  and  throat.  It  is  inhaled  in  ozojna,  strangles, 
bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  purpura.  In  the  form  of  injection 
it  is  useful  in  retention  of  the  foetal  membranes,  metritis, 
cystitis,  and  otorrhoea.  It  destroys  skin  parasites,  whether 
animal  or  vegetable,  in  all  animals,  and  is  recommended  in 
chronic  eczema.  It  is  used  for  the  several  purposes  of  a  dis- 
infectant. Jeyes'  fluid  or  creolin  has  been  thoroughly  tested 
by  Albrecht  and  Frohner,  who  report  most  favourably  of  its 
antiseptic  value  in  the  treatment  of  accidental  and  surgical 
wounds,  skin  affections,  and  diarrhoea. 

Doses,  etc. — Creolin,  horses  and  cattle,  f5ij-  to  f5vi. ;  dogs, 
TTIv.  to  fl^xx.  Calves,  sheep,  and  pigs,  tl^xxx.  to  TTilx.,  in  five 
to  ten  ounces  of  water.  For  external  purposes,  one  to  five 
parts  are  mixed  with  a  hundred  of  water,  solution  being 
facilitated  by  addition  of  a  little  glycerin  or  soft  soap.  As 
a  dry  dressing  it  is  used  with  boric  acid,  zinc  oxide,  or  kaolin. 
Creolin  solutions  lose  their  efficacy  when  long  kept,  and 
hence  should  be  made  up  fresh  every  week.  For  mange 
or  scab  Frohner  advises  the  dressing  of  the  worst  parts  with 
a  lotion  of  one  part  each  of  creolin  and  methylated  spirit 
and  eight  parts  of  soap,  and  subsequently  placing  the  patient 
for  two  or  three  minutes  in  a  bath  of  two  or  two  and  a  half 
per  cent,  of  creolin,  and,  if  necessary,  repeating  the  treatment 
in  a  week. 


IODOFORM  415 

Lysol,  stated  to  be  the  product  of  a  solution  of  tar  oils  in 
a  neutral  soap — is  a  clear,  brown,  syrupy  liquid,  containing 
about  50  per  cent,  of  cresols.  Mixed  with  water  it  forms  a 
clear,  saponaceous  liquid.  As  an  antiseptic  it  is  four  or  five 
times  stronger  than  carbolic  acid.  A  one  or  two  per  cent, 
aqueous  solution  is  used  as  a  wound  dressing,  as  a  bath  for 
instruments  and  ligatures  and  for  disinfection  of  the  hands. 
A  one  per  cent,  solution  has  been  prescribed  as  a  vermicide, 
and  as  an  udder  injection  in  parturient  apoplexy;  and 
a  three  per  cent,  solution  is  serviceable  as  a  dressing  for 
parasitic  affections  of  the  skin.  Izal,  is  said  to  consist  of  an 
emulsion  containing  about  30  per  cent,  of  a  new  tar  oil  pro- 
duced by  a  special  process  in  the  manufacture  of  coke.  It 
is  used  as  a  disinfectant  and  antiseptic.  Solutol,  an  alkaline 
solution  of  sodium  cresol,  and  Solveol,  a  solution  of  cresol 
in  sodium  cresotate,  are  used  as  disinfectants.  Solutol  is 
unsuitable  for  surgical  uses  because  of  its  caustic  alkalinity. 
Solveol  is  nearly  odourless,  and  miscible  with  water  in 
all  proportions,  forming  a  solution  which  is  free  from  the 
greasiness  of  lysol  and  creolin.  As  a  microcide,  an  aqueous 
solution  of  one  part  in  two  hundred,  is  stated  to  be  equal  to 
a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  (Coblentz). 


IODOFORM 

loDOFORMUM.  Tri-iodomethaue.  A  product  of  the  action  of 
iodine  on  ethylic  alcohol  in  the  presence  of  solution  of 
potassium  carbonate.     CHI3  (B.P.). 

It  occurs  in  shining,  lemon  yellow,  hexagonal  cr3^stals; 
is  volatile,  has  a  persistent,  disagreeable  odour  and  taste ;  is 
very  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but  is  soluble  in  10 
of  ether,  12  chloroform,  95  rectified  spirit,  10  collodion,  60 
vaseline,  14  eucalyptus  oil,  and  in  glycerin,  fixed  and  volatile 
oils. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  contains  96  per  cent,  of  iodine  with 
which  it  readily  parts,  exerting  antiseptic  and  parasiticide 
actions.  It  has  only  a  very  limited  power  of  destrojdng 
bacteria  which  grow  and  multiply  on  media  charged  with 


416  IODOFORM 

the  drug.  It,  however,  diminishes  the  virulence  of  micro- 
organisms by  acting  on  their  products  which,  according  to 
Lister,  it  chemically  alters  or  destroys.  Local  suppuration 
invariably  produced  by  subcutaneous  injection  of  cadaverin 
does  not  occur  when  iodoform  is  added  to  this  toxine. 
Behring  found  that  cultures  of  pyogenic  organisms  injected 
into  the  peritoneum  caused  death  in  twenty-four  hours,  but 
had  no  effect  when  the  culture  was  mixed  with  a  little 
iodoform.  Although  proved  to  be  a  feeble  germicide,  iodo- 
form has  rendered  excellent  service  in  clinical  practice.  It 
is  not  so  irritant  as  iodine.  It  resembles  chloroform  and 
bromoform,  and,  like  them,  is  a  local  anaesthetic.  Applied 
to  a  wound  it  remains  long  unconsumed ;  and  under  the 
combined  influence  of  heat,  moisture,  and  fat  it  is  slowly 
dissolved  and  decomposed  with  liberation  of  free  iodine  upon 
which  its  antiseptic  power  probably  depends. 

It  has  little  effect  on  the  unbroken  skin,  but  slightly 
irritates  abraded  skin  and  mucous  surfaces.  It  is  a  more 
effectual  local  anaesthetic  than  chloroform  or  bromoform, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  neither  so  irritant  nor  so  volatile.  It  is 
slowly  absorbed,  forms  iodides  and  iodates,  and  produces 
many  of  the  effects  of  iodine ;  but  when  swallowed  in  large 
doses  it  is  more  lethal.  In  dogs  and  cats  it  induces  gastric 
derangement,  vomiting,  muscular  spasms,  lowered  tempera- 
ture, impaired  heart  action,  albuminuria,  and  narcosis;  but 
neither  in  rabbits  nor  in  man  is  narcosis  produced  (Brunton). 
Frohner  records  that  for  each  kilogramme  of  body-weight 
dogs  are  poisoned  by  fifteen  grains  given  by  the  mouth, 
twenty  to  thirty  grains  given  subcutaneously,  or  seven  grains 
injected  into  a  serous  cavity.  An  old  cow  Avhich  received 
an  ounce  and  a  half  died  in  thirty-six  hours,  with  spasms 
and  narcosis.  Chronic  poisoning  induces  emaciation  and 
fatty  degeneration  of  muscles  and  glands.  Iodoform  is 
slowly  excreted  in  the  urine  chiefly  as  sodium  iodide. 

It  is  rarely  prescribed  internally.  Its  chief  use  is  as  an 
antiseptic  dressing  for  unhealthy  wounds,  being  especially 
useful  when  dressings  cannot  be  conveniently  changed,  or 
where  they  cannot  be  properly  applied,  as  in  wounds  of  the 
rectum,  bladder,  and  generative  organs.     It  is  used  in  burns, 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  417 

eczema,  canker  in  horses'  feet,  and  fistulaa.  Small  doses 
maintain  wounds  in  an  aseptic  state,  promote  granulation, 
and  allay  irritation.  Wounds,  after  cleansing  with  carbolic 
or  zinc  chloride  solution,  are  dusted  with  the  j)owder,  used 
alone  or  mixed  with  boric  acid,  and  covered  with  iodoform 
or  carbolic  gauze,  or  moistened  with  an  ethereal  or  oily 
solution.  Oil  of  eucalyptus,  and  balsam  of  Peru  or  Tolu, 
are  convenient  solvents,  which  also  cover  the  disagreeable 
smell  and  taste.  As  a  parasiticide  it  is  used  for  the  same 
cases  as  iodine.  Ethereal  solutions  are  injected  in  ozoena 
and  ulcerated  sore-throat.  Pencils  made  with  50  to  70  per 
cent,  of  iodoform,  mixed  with  starch  and  gum,  are  used  in 
Avooden  holders  for  dressing  wounds;  while  injections  and 
suppositories  made  with  eucalyptus  oil  and  cacao  butter,  are 
serviceable  as  deodorisers  and  local  antiseptics  in  painful 
conditions  of  the  rectum  and  urino-genital  organs.  Although 
not  liable  to  cause  injury  by  absorption,  dogs,  unless  muzzled, 
are  prone  to  lick  the  dressed  surfaces,  and  in  this  way  are 
sometimes  poisoned.  Iodoform  emulsion — containing  one 
part  iodoform  moistened  with  alcohol,  two  parts  boiling 
water,  and  seven  of  glycerin — is  a  valuable  injection  for 
sinuous  wounds. 

lodol  (tetra-iodopyrrol)  (C^I^NH),  containing  89  per  cent. 
of  iodine,  is  a  light-brown,  tasteless,  crystalline  powder,  with 
a  faint  thymol-like  smell,  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolved 
by  three  parts  of  alcohol,  and  also  readily  in  ether,  chloroform, 
glycerin,  and  collodion.  It  resembles  iodoform,  and  being 
less  irritant,  is  preferable  for  internal  use.  Horses  and  cattle 
take  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xxv. ;  dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iii.  It  may  be 
given  suspended  in  glycerin  or  mucilage. 

Aristol  (di- thymol-iodide)  is  a  compound  of  iodine  and 
thymol,  conjoins  the  properties  of  its  two  constituents,  and 
resembles  iodoform,  but  is  devoid  of  its  disagreeable  taste 
and  toxic  effects.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
iodoform.  It  dries  excessive  skin  secretions,  and  is  useful 
for  burns,  and  cracked  heels.  It  is  soluble  in  lixed  oils, 
ether  and  collodion,  but  not  in  water,  alcohol  or  glycerin. 
It  contains  46  per  cent,  of  iodine. 

Europhen,  containing  28  per  cent,  of  iodine,  is  a  light 

2  D 


418  PRUSSIC   ACID 

yellow  powder,  insoluble  in  water  and  glycerin,  but  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether  and  oil.  It  is  non-poisonous,  has  very  little 
odour,  and  is  used  as  a  dry  dressing  in  eczema  and  otorrhoea 
in  dogs.  lodo-salicylic  acid,  containing  50  per  cent,  of 
iodine,  and  di-iodo-salicylic  acid,  containing  66  per  cent,  of 
iodine,  are  anodyne,  antipyretic  and  antiseptic,  and  are  used 
internally  as  substitutes  for  salicylates  in  the  treatment  of 
rheumatism.  Horses  take  3j-  to  5ij->  dissolved  in  alcohol, 
ether,  or  oil. 

Loretin,  losophan,  sanoform,  sozoiodol,  and  periodate, 
are  odourless  iodoform  substitutes.  All  contain  iodine,  and 
are  used  as  antiseptics  in  powder,  or  solution,  or  mixed  with 
vaseline  or  collodion.  lodoformin,  an  odourless  powder,  con- 
taining 75  per  cent,  of  iodoform ;  and  iodoformal,  prepared 
by  the  action  of  ethyl  iodide  on  iodoformin,  having  a  strong 
odour  of  coumarin  but  no  odour  of  iodoform,  are  sometimes 
employed  in  place  of  iodoform.  lodoformogen,  a  new, 
odourless  combination  of  iodoform  and  albumin ;  is  a  light 
yellow  powder  which  does  not  form  lumps.  It  is  an  excellent 
substitute  for  iodoform  {Newer  Remedies^  1899). 


PRUSSIC  OR  HYDROCYANIC  ACID 

AciDUM  Hydrocyanicum  Dilutum.  An  aqueous  solution 
containing  2  per  cent,  by  weight  of  hydrogen  cyanide, 
HCN.     (B.P.) 

Prussic  acid  was  so  called  from  being  first  obtained  from 
Prussian  blue.  Its  title  of  hydrocyanic  acid  is  derived  from 
its  being  composed  of  hydrogen  and  the  compound  radicle 
cyanogen.  It  is  one  of  the  products  of  the  distillation  of 
coal,  and  traces  are  found  in  imperfectly  purified  coal-gas. 
The  leaves  and  kernels  of  various  stone  fruits  of  the  apple 
and  almond  natural  orders,  when  crushed  and  moistened, 
undergo  a  species  of  fermentation,  their  albuminoid  emulsin 
decomposing  the  glucoside  am3'gdalin,  and  producing  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  a  hydrocyanated  oil,  benzaldehyde,  and  glucose. 

Prussic         Benzalde- 
Amygdaliii.  Water.  Acid.  }iyde.  Glucose. 

C^oH^^NO^  +  2H2O  =  HCN  +  C,H,0  +  ^O.^i^.p,. 


A   NERVE   PARALYSANT  419 

Medicinal  hydrocyanic  acid  may  be  prepared  by  the  inter- 
action of  dikited  sulphuric  acid  and  potassium  ferrocyanide. 

The  anhydrous  acid  is  obtained  by  cautiously  distilling 
the  medicinal  acid,  and  collecting  the  vapour  in  a  receiver 
kept  cold  by  ice.  It  is  a  colourless,  very  volatile,  inflammable 
liquid,  and,  alike  in  its  gaseous  and  liquid  form,  is  a  most 
active,  deadly  poison. 

The  medicinal  acid,  when  freshly  prepared,  contains  two 
per  cent,  of  anhydrous  acid,  but  on  account  of  its  volatility 
it  is  apt  to  lose  strength.  This  may  be  obviated  by  keeping 
it  in  stoppered  bottles,  tied  over  with  some  impervious  cover- 
ing, laid  down  inverted  and  in  a  dark  place.  It  is  colourless, 
with  a  diffusible,  peculiar  odour.  Specific  gravity,  -997.  It 
only  slightly  reddens  litmus.  Evaporated  on  a  platinum 
capsule  it  leaves  no  residue.  Scheele's  acid  contains  four 
per  cent,  of  hydrogen  cyanide. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Prussic  acid  paralyses  all  nerve  struc- 
tures with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  A  few  drops  of  the 
diluted  acid  applied  to  mucous  or  skin  surfaces  diminish  or 
arrest  sensation.  It  is  hence  used  as  an  analgesic  for  relief 
of  irritation  and  pain,  especially  of  the  skin,  stomach,  and 
throat.  It  is  quickly  absorbed.  Full  doses  paralyse  the 
cerebro-spinal  axis,  kill  almost  instantaneously  by  cardiac 
arrest,  or  somewhat  less  suddenly  by  respiratory  arrest. 

General  Actions. — It  stops  protoplasmic  movements  both 
in  plants  and  animals,  kills  infusoria,  checks  oxidation,  and 
arrests  fermentation  (Brunton).  The  anhydrous  acid  applied 
to  the  skin,  after  momentary  irritation,  paralyses  and  anaes- 
thetises. The  diluted  acid  applied  to  the  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces  quickly  penetrates  and  paralyses  the  nerve-endings, 
impairing  and  destroying  tactile  sensation  and  sensibility  to 
pain.  If  the  surfaces  are  freely  moistened,  these  eftects 
usually  continue  for  one  or  two  hours.  Its  volatility  and 
rapidity  of  diffusion  ensure  quick  absorption,  and  poisonous 
doses  promptly  paralyse  the  central  nervous  system.  The 
respiratory,  vaso-motor,  and  spasm  centres  of  the  medulla, 
and  the  peripheral  afferent  nerves,  are  early  and  notably 
affected ;  and  in  all  mammalia  death  usually  occurs  within 
a  few  minutes.     When  poisoning  is  not  immediate,  it  is, 


420  PRUSSIC    ACID 

according  to  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton,  divisible  into  three 
stages — (1)  The  brain  is  affected ;  there  is  giddiness,  stag- 
gering movements,  and  a  few  slow  inspirations,  followed  by 
rapid  expirations  and  irregular  heart  action.  (2)  Convul- 
sions, both  tonic  and  clonic,  appear,  depending  upon  paralysis 
of  the  cerebro-spinal  axis,  and  hence  diftering  entirely  from 
those  of  strychnine,  which  result  from  stimulation  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  axis.  (3)  Coma,  ana3sthesia,  and  paralysis  of 
voluntary  muscles  supervene,  with  weak  cardiac  and  respira- 
tory movements,  and  death  from  paralysis  of  the  cardiac  or 
respiratory  centres.  Concurrently  Avitli  these  in-contact 
etfects  on  nervous  tissues,  and  most  notable  where  life  is  pro- 
longed, is  the  combination  of  the  acid  with  the  hannoglobin 
of  the  blood,  forming  cyan-ha3nioglobin,  which  parts  slowly 
with  its  ox3'gen,  and  hence  impairs  internal  respiration. 
Unlike  other  acids,  prussic  acid  does  not  coagulate  albumin 
or  break  down  the  formed  elements  of  the  blood.  The 
potassium  and  other  cyanides  are  soluble,  readily  yield  their 
cyanogen,  and  are  active  poisons ;  but  the  ferro-cyanides  are 
insoluble,  and  greatly  less  active. 

Toxic  Actions. — Horses  have  been  poisoned  in  one  or  two 
minutes  by  ten  to  twenty  minims  of  anhydrous  acid,  injected 
hypodermically.  Trousseaux  and  Pidoux  placed  a  piece  of 
cotton  wool,  on  which  six  minims  of  anhydrous  acid  had  been 
dropped,  in  the  nostrils  of  two  horses.  In  ten  seconds  they 
dropped  as  if  dead,  and  continued  for  an  hour  to  exhibit 
grave  nervous  symptoms  —  convulsions,  spasms,  vertigo^ 
paralysis,  and  stupor  {TraiU  de  Thenqyeutique).  Horses 
swallowing  four  to  five  drachms  of  the  two  per  cent,  medi- 
cinal acid  may  die  within  an  hour.  Professor  Coleman  gave 
an  aged  horse  repeatedly,  at  intervals  of  several  days,  one  to 
three  drachms  of  acid,  containing  about  four  per  cent,  of 
anhydrous  acid,  and  noted  nuicli  excitement,  the  pulse  raised 
to  100,  and  in  one  experiment  to  IGO,  laboured  breathing 
and  tetanic  contraction  of  the  muscles ;  but  the  effects 
gradually  passed  away.  Six  ounces  of  medicinal  acid  given 
to  Wombwell's  old  elephant,  killed  at  Birmingham  in  1855, 
caused  only  slightly  laboured  breathing. 

Dogs,  cats,  and  rabbits,  which  had  one  to  four  drops  of 


KILLS    BY    CARDIAC  OR   RESPIRATORY   ARREST       421 

anhj'drous  acid  placed  on  the  tongue  or  within  the  eyehds, 
in  ten  to  thirty  seconds  made  three  or  four  hurried  inspira- 
tions, a  convulsive  expiration,  often  a  cry,  had  tetanic  con- 
vulsions, and  died  in  one  to  three  minutes.  Air  saturated 
with  the  gas  killed  one  dog  in  ten  seconds,  another  in  five,  and 
a  cat  in  two  seconds.  Guinea-pigs  inhaling  it  for  one  second 
die  in  fifteen  seconds.  Strong  rabbits  inhaling  it  for  three 
seconds  die  in  thirty  seconds  :  but  birds  are  not  susceptible, 
and  frogs  are  still  less  so.  Dogs  and  cats  receiving  forty  to 
sixty  minims  of  the  two  per  cent,  acid  were  sometimes 
poisoned  almost  as  rapidly  as  with  the  anhydrous.  More 
frequently,  however,  life  is  prolonged  for  several  minutes, 
and  death  is  preceded  by  giddiness,  im]3aired  voluntary 
movement,  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  a  slight  rise  and  sub- 
sequent fall  of  blood-pressure,  slowing  of  the  pulse,  rapid 
failure  of  respiration,  and  tetanic  convulsions.  The  heart 
continues  to  beat  for  several  minutes  after  respiration  has 
ceased.  In  experiments  made  by  direction  of  Messrs.  Young, 
of  Leith,  two  ounces  were  found  to  cause  rapid  death  of 
Greenland  whales,  when  discharged  by  an  ingenious  device 
into  the  wound  Tiiade  by  the  harpoon.  Direct  application  of 
the  acid  to  the  medulla  of  an  alligator,  Avhich  had  been  im- 
perfectly affected  by  doses  administered  internally,  caused  a 
long,  deep  expiration,  tetanic  spasm  of  the  respiratory 
muscles,  and  death  (Jones  and  Bartholow). 

Post-mortem  discloses  variable  appearances.  Animals 
dying  almost  instantaneously  from  cardiac  arrest  have  the 
blood  of  an  arterial  hue,  as  if,  from  dilatation  of  the  remote 
capillaries,  it  had  passed  through  them  without  change. 
When  the  respiratory  centre  of  the  medulla  has  been 
paralysed,  causing  death  somewhat  more  slowly  by  respi- 
ratory arrest,  the  appearances  are  those  of  suffocation.  For 
some  hours  after  death  the  blood  remains  fluid,  of  a  blue 
colour,  and  occasionally  evolves  the  peculiar  odour  of  the  acid. 

Antidotes. — Prussic  acid  is  usually  so  rapidly  fatal  that  the 
animal  is  often  dead  before  any  remedial  measures  can  be 
adopted ;  but  so  volatile  is  the  poison,  and  so  rapidly  is  it 
removed  from  the  body,  chiefly  by  the  lungs,  that  if  the 
animal  lives   for  half  an  hour   it  will   generally  recover. 


422  PRUSSIC    ACID 

Artificial  respiration,  and  subcutaneous  injection  of  ether, 
sometimes  save  animals  that  have  had  letha]  doses.  Cautious 
hypodermic  injection  of  small  doses  of  atropine  sulphate 
stimulates  the  cardiac  and  respiratory  centres,  and  may  thus 
avert  mortal  paralysis.  Inhalation  of  ammonia  and  douch- 
ing alternately  with  cold  and  warm  water  applied  to  the 
head  and  neck,  have  also  been  advised.  The  chemical  anti- 
dote is  a  mixture  of  a  ferrous  and  ferric  salt,  administered 
with  magnesia  or  potassium  carbonate,  and  forming  the  in- 
soluble Prussian  blue.  But  to  be  effectual  the  antidote  must 
be  swallowed  before  the  rapidly-acting  poison  is  absorbed. 

Medicinal  Uses. — By  paralysing  the  ends  of  the  sensory 
nerves,  the  acid  allays  the  irritation  of  urticaria,  prurigo, 
and  other  itching  skin  complaints.  In  like  manner  it  some- 
times relieves  gastrodynia  and  chronic  vomiting,  being  con- 
joined in  such  cases  with  ice,  bismuth,  and  morphine ;  while 
in  irritable  conditions  of  the  throat  it  is  prescribed  with 
cocaine,  chlorodyne,  morphine,  or  atropine.  In  the  symp- 
tomatic treatment  of  tetanus  and  nervous  diseases  it  is  given 
to  allay  excitement.  For  destroying  the  strongyles  of  hoose  in 
calves,  and  soothing  consequent  irritation.  Professor  Williams 
prescribes  "n^x.  to  IT^xx.  of  acid,  conjoined  with  sodium  car- 
bonate and  gentian. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  B.P.  two  per  cent,  acid,  horses  and 
cattle  take  TT[xx.  to  TlLlx ;  sheep,  Tl^x.  to  Tl^xv. :  pigs,  lltij.  to 
IT^vij. ;  dogs,  Tl[ij.  to  fl^iv.,  given  in  water  sweetened  with 
syrup.  As  the  soothing  effects  are  transient,  suitable  doses 
may  be  repeated  three  or  four  times  daily,  but  their  effects 
should  be  carefully  watched ;  while,  to  prevent  mistakes  apt 
to  occur  with  such  a  poisonous,  colourless  liquid,  it  is  often 
made  up  with  compound  tincture  of  cardamoms.  For  ex- 
ternal use  it  is  diluted  Avith  two  hundred  parts  of  water,  a 
few  drops  of  glycerin  being  added  to  retard  evaporation. 
Lotions  must  be  cautiously  applied,  especially  where  the 
skin  is  broken.  But  the  potassium  or  other  soluble  cyanide 
being  stable  and  not  volatile,  is  more  convenient  for  most 
external  uses. 


PETROLEUMS  423 

PETROLEUMS  OR  PARAFFINS 

Hard  paraffin.  Paraffinum  durum.  A  mixture  of  several 
of  the  harder  members  of  the  paraffin  series  of  hydro-carbons; 
obtained  by  distillation  from  shale  (B.P.). 

Liquid  paraffin.  Paraffinum  liquidum.  A  clear,  oily  liquid, 
obtained  from  petroleum,  after  the  more  volatile  portions 
have  been  removed  by  distillation  (B.P.). 

Soft  paraffin.  Paraffinum  moUe.  A  semi-solid  mixture 
containing  soft  members  of  the  paraffin  series  of  hydro- 
carbons ;  obtained  by  purifying  the  volatile  portions  of 
petroleum  (B.P.). 

The  petroleums  or  paraffins  are  hydro-carbons,  produced 
by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter.  They  are  obtained 
from  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal,  from  bituminous 
shales,  and  from  the  oil-wells  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  They  occur  as  gases,  fluids,  and  solids,  and  many  are 
used  in  the  arts  and  in  medicine.  The  simplest  of  the  series 
is  marsh  gas,  methane,  fire-damp,  or  light  carburetted 
hydrogen  (CHJ — the  inflammable  gas  which  causes  coal-pit 
explosions. 

When  rock-oil  is  distilled,  ethane  and  other  gaseous 
paraffins  are  first  evolved,  are  collected,  and  in  great  part 
Hquefied  by  a  condensing  pump,  and  yield  the  liquid 
cymogene,  which,  on  account  of  the  cold  produced  by  its 
rapid  evaporation,  is  used  in  freezing  machines.  Proceeding 
with  the  fractional  distillation,  the  products  which  come  off" 
below  170°  Fahr.,  and  consist  chiefly  of  pentane  and  hexane, 
are  sold  as  petroleum  spirit,  or  petroleum  ether,  and  used 
for  making  varnishes,  for  dissolving  indiarubber,  and  for 
singeing  lamps.  The  next  portion  of  the  distillate,  coming 
off  about  212°  Fahr.,  is  heptane,  and  is  used  for  illuminating 
purposes,  under  the  names  benzoline,  paraffin  oil,  and  mineral 
sperm  oil.  For  safe  use  this  oil,  when  placed  in  an  open 
saucer  at  100°  Fahr.,  should  not  kindle  when  a  light  is 
brought  near  its  surface.  At  higher  temperatures  there 
come  off  hexadecane  and  other  paraffins,  richer  in  carbon, 
constituting  such  soft  solids  as  vaseline  and  the  soft  petro- 
leums, while   still  higher  temperatures  produce  the  hard 


424  RANGOON    PETROLEUM 

paraffins,  cereses,  or  paraffin  waxes.  These  soft  and  hard 
paraffins  are  also  obtained  by  distillation  from  shale,  the 
liquid  portions  being  separated  by  refrigeration,  and  the 
solid  products  purified  by  melting  and  filtration.  They  are 
frequently  substituted  for  oils,  lard,  and  wax  in  the  making 
of  ointments. 

Rangoon  petroleum,  obtained  from  wells  on  the  Caspian 
shores,  and  the  analogous  Barbados  or  mineral  tar,  found 
in  the  island  of  Barbados  floating  on  the  surface  of  springs 
or  pools,  and  in  Trinidad  forming  extensive  beds  or  lakes, 
are  of  the  consistence  of  treacle,  of  a  dull  green-brown  colour, 
with  a  petroleum  odour  and  a  bitter  taste. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  petroleums  belong  physiologically 
to  the  fatty  or  alcohol  series  of  hydro-carbons.  Methane, 
ethane,  and  the  gases  low  in  the  series,  and  the  more  volatile 
liquids,  are  more  easily  absorbed  and  excreted  than  the 
heavier  liquids  and  solids,  and  are  stimulants,  amesthetics, 
and  inebriant  narcotics. 

Petroleum  benzin,  or  petroleum  spirit,  is  a  topical  irritant, 
germicide  and  vermicide,  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic, 
and  is  used  for  many  of  the  purposes  of  oil  of  turpentine. 
It  must  be  distinguished  from  benzine  (CgH^H)  obtained 
from  the  distillation  of  coal-tar,  which  has  a  higher  specific 
gravity  and  a  higher  boiling-point.  The  dose  for  horses 
and  cattle  is  fgss.  to  fgj. ;  for  dogs,  f3j.  to  f5ij.,  given  in  milk 
or  gruel. 

Animals  are  sometimes  poisoned  by  the  refuse  oils  from 
petroleum  works  contaminating  the  drinking  water.  Pro- 
fessor Williams  records  cases  of  cattle  suffering  from  diarrhoea, 
wasting,  and  anremia,  and  their  intestinal  glands  being  found 
saturated  and  darkened  with  the  oil. 

The  petroleum  spirit  and  other  paraffin  oils,  in  virtue  of 
their  diffusive,  solvent,  stimulant,  and  antiseptic  actions,  are 
applied  in  scaly  skin  complaints,  as  in  old-standing  cases  of 
grease  in  horses,  to  remove  scurf  and  dissolve  accumulated 
sebaceous  matters,  to  stimulate  the  dermis,  and  promote 
growth  of  hair.  For  such  purposes  they  are  frequently 
used  in  conjunction  with  alkalies,  bland  oils,  or  vaseline. 
In  the  treatment  of  ring-worm,  mange,  and  scab,  they  arc 


VASELINE  425 

united  or  alternated   with   sulphur,  iodine,  or   solution  of 
tobacco  or  stavesacre. 

Vaseline,  the  petrolatum  of  the  U.S.P.,  is  prepared  by  the 
Chesebrough  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York,  by  heating 
rock-oil  in  iron  retorts,  and  filtering  the  residual  heavier  oils 
through  animal  charcoal.  It  is  red,  yellow,  or  white,  accord- 
ing to  the  proportion  of  colouring  matter  retained.  It  has 
the  consistence  of  summer  butter,  is  tasteless,  odourless,  and 
neutral.  It  melts  about  95°  Fahr.,  and  boils  about  300°  Fahr. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water,  glycerin,  cold  alcohol,  and  ether,  but 
is  soluble  in  chloroform,  carbon  disulphide,  and  in  fixed  and 
volatile  oils.  A  handy  solvent  is  made  of  one  part  of  castor 
oil  and  eight  of  water.  Vaseline  dissolves  bromine,  iodine, 
sulphur  iodide,  and  carbolic  acid,  as  well  as  fixed  and  volatile 
oils  and  alkaloids,  and  is  a  serviceable  basis  for  ointments, 
liniments,  and  pomades.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being 
nearly  free  from  greasiness ;  it  is  not  oxidisable,  and  hence 
does  not  become  rancid.  Ointments  prepared  with  it  accord- 
ingly keep  better  than  those  made  with  animal  and  vegetable 
fats.  It  is  used  as  a  lubricant  and  emollient  for  irritable, 
inflamed,  or  blistered  mucous  and  skin  surfaces.  It  is  a 
convenient  basis  for  electuaries.  It  is  used  for  making  up 
boluses,  and  as  a  protective  for  leather  and  cutlery. 

Rangoon  and  Barbados  tars  were  at  one  time  prescribed 
in  chest  diseases  and  as  anti-emetics,  but  are  not  now  used 
internally.  Externally,  they  are  applied  for  the  sarae 
purposes  as  wood-tar,  and  particularly  in  the  treatment  of 
skin  complaints,  thrush,  canker,  and  other  diseases  of  the 
feet.  Coal-tar  differs  from  Barbados  tar  in  having  a  stronger 
and  more  offensive  sulphurous  smell,  but  it  deserves  its 
popular  credit  as  an  antiseptic  and  stimulant  adhesive  for 
diseases  of  the  feet.  The  alcoholic  solution  of  coal-tar,  sold 
as  liquor  carbonis  detergens,  is  useful  in  eczema,  one  or  two 
drachms  in  a  pint  of  warm  water  being  applied  either  alone 
or  with  liquor  plumbi  diacetatis.  The  B.P.  liquor  picis 
carbonis,  prepared  with  two  ounces  of  soap-bark,  twenty 
ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  and  four  ounces  of  coal-tar,  is  also 
used  for  diseases  of  the  skin. 


Section    III 

Medicines  derived  from  the  Vegetable  Kingdom 

ALOES 

Aloe. — Inspissated  juice  from  the  transversely- cut  bases  of 

the   leaves  of  various  species   of   Aloe,  evaporated   to 

dryness.     Nat.  Ord — Liliacese. 
Aloin,    C^gH^yOySHgO. — A  crystalline   substance  extracted 

from  aloes  by  solvents  and  purified  by  recrystallisation. 

(B.P.) 

The  several  species  of  Aloe,  which  yield  the  various  com- 
mercial aloes,  are  succulent  liliaceous  perennials,  having 
short  woody  stems  ;  strong,  thick,  fleshy,  amplexicaul  light- 
green  leaves,  with  sharp  serrated  edges,  and  a  stout  spine 
projecting  at  the  apex;  while  on  a  slightly  branched  scape 
is  carried  a  raceme  of  yellow,  scarlet,  or  white  tubular 
pendulous  flowers.  Underneath  the  leathery  cuticle,  and 
exterior  to  the  loose  mucilaginous  pulp,  lie  elongated  thin 
walled  cells,  which  contain  the  yellow,  bitter,  purgative 
juice. 

Barbados  Aloes. — Aloe  Barbadensis,  or  Curayoa  aloes,  the 
product  of  the  aloe  vera,  aloe  chinensis,  and  probably  other 
species,  is  the  variety  chiefly  used  in  veterinary  practice. 
Imported  from  Barbados  and  most  of  the  West  Indian 
islands.  A  dwarf  variety  is  cultivated  ;  the  leaves,  measur- 
ing a  foot  to  two  feet  in  length,  are  chopped  off  close  to  the 
stem;  are  placed  for  twelve  to  twenty  hours  in  tubs  with 
their  cut  ends  down  ;  from  the  longitudinal  vessels  the  juice 
trickles,  is  collected  in  casks,  and  heated  for  four  or  five  hours, 
sediment  and  impurities  being  carefully  kept  back.  When 
sufficiently  concentrated,  the  juice  is  poured  into  gourd 
shells,  and  the  opening  closed  by  a  portion  of  shell  let  in, 
and  secured  in  its  place  by  a  piece  of  coarse  cloth  nailed  over 

426 


BARBADOS,    SOCOTRINE,    AND    CAPE    ALOES  427 

it.  The  gourds,  when  filled,  usually  weigh  from  10  to  40  lbs. 
Barbados  aloes  has  a  liver-brown  colour ;  a  brown,  opaque, 
earthy  fracture ;  a  disagreeable,  bitter,  persistent  taste,  and 
a  strong  and  disagreeable  odour,  especially  when  breathed 
upon — an  odour  generally  likened  to  that  of  the  human 
axilla.  It  is  hard,  tough,  and  difficult  to  pulverise ;  small 
fragments  are  translucent,  and  of  an  orange-brown  hue ;  its 
powder  is  dull  olive-yellow,  and  darker  than  that  of  other 
varieties.  It  is  almost  entirely  soluble  in  alcohol  (40  per 
cent.). 

SocoTRiNE  (also  known  as  East  Indian,  Bombay,  or  Zanzibar 
aloes)  is  chiefly  imported  from  Bombay  and  other  Indian 
ports.  It  is  stated  to  be  the  product  of  the  leaves  of  Aloe 
Perryi,  and  probably  also  of  other  species.  It  occurs  in  red- 
brown  pieces  of  variable  size  ;  darkens  on  exposure ;  breaks 
usually  with  a  smooth  resinous  fracture  ;  thin  fragments  are 
translucent  and  orange-red  or  orange-brown ;  the  odour, 
though  strong,  is  somewhat  agreeable ;  the  taste  very  bitter. 

Cape  Aloes  (brought  from  Cape  Town  and  Natal)  is  chiefly 
got  from  the  Aloe  ferox,  Alricana,  or  Spicata,  or  from  hybrids 
obtained  by  crossing  these  with  other  varieties.  The  better 
qualities  have  a  dark-brown  or  olive-green  resinous  appear- 
ance, a  compact  structure,  a  vitreous,  conchoidal,  dark-green 
fracture,  and  a  strong  and  rather  disagreeable  sour  odour. 
It  is  very  brittle,  and  easily  reduced  to  a  gamboge-yellow 
powder.  The  better  qualities  of  Cape  are  little,  if  at  all, 
inferior  to  Barbados  or  to  Socotrine  aloes.  Mr.  Joseph 
Gamgee's  experiments  show  that,  compared  with  Barbados, 
Cape  aloes  causes  equally  copious  but  less  watery  discharges, 
while  its  action  is  sooner  expended  (Veterinarian,  1856). 

Caballine  or  Horse  Aloes  usually  consists  of  the  residue 
from  the  purification  of  more  valuable  sorts.  It  is  black, 
vesicular,  and  bituminous,  lacks  the  compact  structure  of  the 
better  kinds,  usually  contains  such  impurities  as  straw,  bark, 
stones,  and  sand,  and  should  be  discarded  from  veterinary 
practice. 

Properties. — The  several  varieties  have  a  specific  gravity 
of  1-364,  are  resinoid,  rather  brittle,  their  external  surface  is 
duller  and  darker  than  a  freshly-made  fracture.     The  tern- 


428  ALOES — ALOIN 

peratiire  at  Avhich  the  juice  is  concentrated  accoimtis  for  such 
marked  differences  in  opacity,  as  the  dull  opaque  Barbados 
and  the  translucent  East  Indian.  All  have  an  intensely 
bitter  and  persistent  taste,  and  a  strong  and  more  or  less 
disagreeable  odour,  much  increased  when  the  specimen  is 
breathed  upon  or  heated.  When  held  in  the  hand  for  a  few 
minutes,  aloes  softens  and  becomes  adhesive.  At  a  low  red- 
heat  it  is  partially  fused,  froths  up,  chars,  and  burns.  Tem- 
peratures exceeding  150°  Fahr.  alter  its  composition  and 
impair  its  purgative  property.  Moistened  with  rectified 
spirit,  a  thin  stratum,  examined  under  the  microscope, 
exhibits  numerous  crystals.  It  is  almost  entirely  soluble  in 
boiling  water,  which  deposits.  hoAvever,  as  it  cools,  60  to  SO 
per  cent,  of  a  broAvn  resin.  Good  specimens  are  almost 
entirely  soluble  in  alcohol  (40  to  60  per  cent.).  The  watery 
solution,  when  cold,  reddens  litmus,  is  deepened  in  colour 
by  alkalies,  blackened  by  ferric  chloride,  and  yields  a  yellow- 
grey  precipitate  with  lead  acetate. 

Composition. — Messrs.  T.  and  H.  Smith,  Edinburgh,  have 
thoroughly  investigated  the  composition  of  aloes,  and  isolated 
from  25  to  80  per  cent,  of  an  active  yellow,  crystalline,  neutral 
bitter  principle — aloin,  which  is  noticed  more  in  detail  at  the 
end  of  this  article;  and  about  the  same  proportion  of  an 
equally  soluble,  uncrystallisable  aloin,  into  which  the  crys- 
tallisable  form  is  convertible  by  heat,  much  in  the  same  way 
as  uncrystallisable  treacle  is  formed  during  the  careless 
manufacture  of  crystallisable  cane-sugar.  A  pale-yellow, 
mobile,  mint-flavoured  volatile  oil,  of  which  only  an  ounce 
is  obtained  from  400  lbs.  of  aloes,  imparts  its  characteristic 
odour.  Besides  mineral  matters  and  albumin,  aloes  contains 
about  30  per  cent,  of  a  transparent  brown  resin,  deposited 
from  watery  decoctions  as  they  cool,  almost  entirely  soluble 
in  rectified  spirit,  occurring  in  large  amount  in  inferior 
samples,  in  which  it  is  formed  at  the  expense  of  the  aloin, 
usually  by  exposure  of  the  juice  to  high  temperatures  during 
inspissari(»ii.     This  resin  possesses  little  purgative  activity. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Aloes  is  purgative ;  a  bitter  tonic  in 
small  doses,  insufficient  to  increase  the  action  of  the  bowels; 
applied  externally  it  is  stimulant  and  desiccant. 


PURGATIVE   AND    TONIC  429 

General  Actions. — Given  by  the  mouth,  it  is  dissolved  iu 
the  gastric  fluid,  and  emulsionised  and  saponified  by  the  bile 
and  pancreatic  juice.  Mr.  Joseph  Gamgee  made  seven 
drachms  of  Cape  aloes  into  a  ball  with  sixty  minims  of 
glycerin,  rolled  it  in  tissue  paper,  and  gave  it  to  a  horse, 
which,  in  thirty-three  minutes,  was  killed  by  dividing  the 
carotid  artery.  An  hour  later  the  ball  was  found  entirely 
dissolved  :  the  distinct  odour  of  aloes  in  the  stomach  and 
duodenum  had  not,  however,  extended  to  the  larg-e  intes- 
tines.  Aloes  enters  the  circulation,  communicates  its 
bitterness  and  purgative  properties  to  the  milk  and  other 
secretions,  and  is  excreted  chiefly  by  the  intestinal  glandular 
apparatus,  and  also  in  less  amount  by  the  kidneys,  Avhen  it 
causes  diuresis.  It  is  prone  to  cause  hyperaemia  of  the 
kidneys,  uterus,  and  pelvic  organs.  While  in  contact  with 
the  intestines  it  produces  both  peristalsis  and  increased 
secretion.  It  acts  chiefly  on  the  large  intestine,  which 
in  part  explains  its  rather  slow  effects.  It  causes  copious 
evacuations,  but  not  such  fluid  discharges  as  usually  follow 
full  doses  of  salines,  gamboge,  or  croton.  It  is  not  so  irritant 
as  croton,  colocynth,  elaterium,  or  podophyllum.  Even  after 
repeated  doses  it  is  less  liable  than  most  other  cathartics  to 
lead  to  constipation.  It  increases  the  secretion  of  bile. 
Professor  Rutherford  introduced  aloes  into  the  duodenum  of 
a  fasting  dog,  and  found  that,  although  only  slight  purga- 
tion ensued,  all  the  bile  constituents  were  increased.  It  is 
said  to  produce  evacuations  which  possess  a  peculiar  dis- 
agr.eeable  odour  (Hertwig). 

Six  drachms  of  Barbados  aloes,  dissolved  in  twenty-four 
ounces  of  water,  and  injected  into  the  jugular  vein  of  a  horse, 
caused  nausea,  frequent  straining,  and  colic — which,  how- 
ever, was  only  of  short  duration — and,  after  twelve  hours, 
purgation.  Administered  intravenously,  it  sometimes  acts 
more  powerfully  on  the  kidneys  than  the  bowels.  Moiroud  in- 
jected four  drachms,  dissolved  in  diluted  alcohol,  into  a  vein 
of  a  horse,  and  next  day  eight  drachms,  dissolved  in  a  similar 
manner ;  but  instead  of  catharsis,  observed  only  diuresis. 

The  several  varieties  differ  somewhat  in  the  desfree  of 
their  action.     Barbados,  although  not  the  most  expensive, 


430  ALOES 

is  generally  preferred  by  veterinarians.  It  is  the  most  active 
and  uniform  in  its  effects,  but  not  more  drastic  than  Soco- 
trine,  while  it  is  certainly  less  liable  than  Cape  aloes  to  pro- 
duce diuresis.  Every  sort  is  most  effective  when  freshly 
powdered,  and  hence,  except  for  immediate  use,  should  be 
kept  in  pieces,  preserved  from  moisture  in  oiled  silk  or  in 
tin.  A  temperature  approaching  150"  Fahr.  applied,  whether 
in  the  extraction  of  the  juice,  or  in  making  it  up  for  use, 
impairs  activity  by  converting  the  active  aloin  into  inert 
resin. 

In  the  horse,  a  cathartic  dose  generally  causes  in  a  few 
hours  dryness  and  increased  warmth  of  the  mouth ;  a  rise 
of  one  or  even  two  degrees  in  temperature  occasionally 
occurs ;  the  pulse  is  somewhat  quickened ;  nausea,  colic,  and 
copious  secretion  of  urine  may  result.  Such  diuresis  occurs 
sometimes  with  good  Barbados  aloes,  especially  when  the 
bowels  are  constipated,  and  more  commonly  with  inferior 
specimens  of  Cape  and  other  kinds,  in  which  the  aloin  has 
been  converted  into  resin.  Combination  with  jalap,  calomel, 
or  other  purgatives,  usually  counteracts  this  diuretic  ten- 
dency. Combination  with  ginger  or  other  aromatic,  or  with 
hyoscyamus  or  belladonna,  wards  off  nausea  and  straining. 
The  purgative  effect  is  usually  accelerated  and  increased 
by  giving  the  drug  in  solution,  or  conjoined  with  oil  or 
calomel. 

The  time  required  for  the  operation  of  aloes  differs  con- 
siderably in  different  horses,  being  modified  by  various  cir- 
cumstances, especially  by  the  previous  feeding.  Four  to  six 
drachms  generally  operate  in  sixteen  to  twenty-four  hours. 
The  degree  and  continuance  of  the  action  are  also  liable  to 
variation ;  in  some  horses  purging  is  over  in  two  or  three 
hours  ;  in  others  it  extends  over  twenty-four  hours.  When 
aloes  fails  to  move  the  bowels  it  is  seldom  wise  to  prescribe 
another  dose  until  forty-eight  hours  have  elapsed.  A  second 
dose  too  closely  following  the  first  is  liable  to  cause  nausea  or 
super-purgation.  If  more  physic  should  be  deemed  absolutely 
necessary,  oil  and  a  little  calomel  may  be  given,  and  enemata 
.should  be  diligently  used.  In  order  to  prevent  superpurga- 
tion,  which  even  ordinary  doses  of  aloes  and  other  cathartics 


MEDICINAL   USES  431 

occasionally  produce  in  horses,  it  is  important,  until  purging 
has  ceased,  that  the  quantity  of  cold  water  allowed  be  care- 
fully regulated,  and  that  the  animal,  although  at  walking 
exercise,  be  not  put  to  work.  Neglect  ot  such  precautions 
may  lead  not  only  to  superpurgation  but  to  enteritis  and 
congestion  of  the  feet. 

Ruminants  are  neither  promptly  nor  powerfully  purged 
by  aloes  alone.  When  given  to  cattle,  even  in  the  fluid 
state  and  in  doses  of  several  ounces,  it  fails  to  produce 
copious  evacuations.  Hertwig  mentions  that,  in  an  experi- 
ment made  at  the  Veterinary  School  of  Lyons,  a  cow  got  six 
ounces  of  aloes,  partly  in  solution,  partly  in  electuary ;  but 
although  uneasiness  and  loss  of  appetite  were  observed,  the 
bowels  remained  unmoved.  Gilbert  also  gave  six  ounces, 
with  an  infusion  of  four  ounces  of  senna  leaves,  without 
effect.  Sheep  and  goats  take  doses  varying  from  two 
drachms  to  an  ounce  without  being  speedily  or  effectively 
purged.  This  tardy  and  uncertain  action  has  been  attributed 
to  the  drug  being  delayed  by  the  gastric  contents  and  to 
peristalsis  of  the  bowel  being  more  difficult  to  excite  in 
ruminants. 

For  the  dog,  aloes,  when  given  alone,  is  neither  so  speedy 
nor  so  safe  a  cathartic  as  calomel,  jalap,  buckthorn,  or  castor 
oil.  It  has  also  the  disadvantage  of  occasionally  producing 
irritation  of  the  rectum ;  but  this  may,  in  great  part,  be 
overcome  by  combining  it  with  other  purgatives.  The  dose 
required  to  purge  a  dog  is  large  when  compared  with  that 
administered  either  to  man  or  to  the  horse.  The  doses  of 
most  medicines  for  men  and  dogs  are  very  similar ;  but  man 
is  purged  by  an  eighth  or  tenth  of  the  aloes  requisite  to  physic 
the  dog.  Aloes  is  a  good  though  slowly  acting  cathartic  for 
swine.     It  operates  usually  in  about  twelve  or  fifteen  hours. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Aloes  is  the  purgative  in  general  use 
for  horses.  In  dyspepsia,  where  the  appetite  is  capricious, 
the  bowels  irregular,  the  coat  staring,  or  where  there  is 
itching  with  swelling  of  the  limbs,  a  dose  of  aloes  is  pre- 
scribed, and  generally  followed  by  salines,  acids,  or  bitters. 
In  torpidity  of  the  bowels  it  is  conjoined  with  nux  vomica, 
which  stimulates  peristalsis.    In  flatulent  or  spasmodic  colic 


432  ALOES 

it  is  prescribed  either  in  bolus  or  rubbed  down  with  warm 
water,  and  followed  with  volatile  oils,  ethers,  ammoniacal  or 
other  stimulants  and  antiseptics.  Professor  Dick  recom- 
mended four  or  five  drachms  of  aloes  dissolved  in  a  quart 
of  hot  water,  with  an  ounce  each  of  oil  of  turpentine  and 
laudanum.  Some  colic  cases  are  relieved  by  conjoining  with 
the  aloes  twenty  minims  of  tincture  of  aconite.  In  obstinate 
torpidity,  eserine  sulphate,  conveniently  given  hypodermi- 
cally,  promptly  produces  in  most  cases  copious  evacuations. 
When  the  bowels  are  overloaded  with  indii^cstible  food, 
aloes  is  frequently  given,  but  linseed  oil  and  calomel  are 
often  preferable.  Whatever  physic  is  used,  enemata  of  water 
should  be  thrown  into  the  colon  with  an  extra  long  tube,  in 
quantities  of  six  to  eight  gallons.  In  obstruction,  obstinate 
torpidity,  and  severe  colic,  copious  injections  introduced  into 
the  large  intestine  are  very  important  adjuncts.  Aloes,  in 
virtue  of  its  bitterness  and  power  of  increasing  peristalsis,  is 
a  useful  anthelmintic.  For  entozoa  it  is  administered  with 
oil  of  turpentine,  ether,  santonin,  sometimes  with  iron  or 
copper  sulphate.  Although  aloes  is  effectual  in  sweeping 
out  excess  of  bile  lodged  in  the  intestines,  it  is  unsuitable 
in  jaundice  or  torpidity  of  the  liver,  in  which  the  bile 
requisite  for  its  solution  is  deficient.  In  such  cases,  salines, 
oils,  and  calomel  are  preferable,  or  the  aloes  may  be  prescribed 
with  ox  bile,  which  greatly  assists  its  action. 

Aloes  promotes  excretion  of  wasce  products,  and  hence 
usefully  relieves  febrile  symptoms,  rheumatic  attacks,  skin 
irritation,  swollen  limbs,  and  inflamed  joints.  It  is  effectual 
alike  in  preventing  and  curing  lymphangitis;  while  it  also 
hastens  the  removal  of  a'dematous  swellings,  when  not  de- 
pending upon  debility  or  serious  disease  of  internal  organs. 
Removing  excreta,  and  withdrawing,  by  derivation  or  counter- 
irritation,  blood  from  congested  or  inflamed  parts,  it  relieves 
congestion  and  inflammation  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  full 
doses  being  usually  requisite ;  while  it  is  also  serviceable  in 
the  onset  of  paralysis,  especially  in  subjects  in  gross  or  high 
condition,  or  suft'erino:  from  sfastro-intestinal  derangement. 
Repeated  doses  lessen  the  formation  of  superfluous  blood 
and   fat,  are  given  both  professionally  and  empirically  to 


DOSES    AND    ADMINISTRATION  433 

promote  condition — an  object  usually,  however,  more  safely 
and  etiectually  secured  by  judicious  feeding  and  well-regu- 
lated exercise. 

To  cattle  and  sheep,  in  constipation  and  indigestion,  as 
well  as  in  febrile  and  inflammatory  complaints,  aloes  is 
occasionally  giren ;  but,  as  already  stated,  it  is  less  reliable 
in  ruminants  than  in  horses.  If  used  for  cattle  and  sheep, 
it  should  be  combined  with  salines,  gamboge,  or  croton,  and 
given  in  drench.  For  dogs  it  is  sometimes  prescribed  in  the 
same  class  of  cases  for  which  it  is  given  to  horses;  but 
calomel  and  jalap,  or  some  of  the  oils,  act  more  promptly. 

Aloes  should  be  avoided  in  irritation  or  inflammation  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  and  in  piles  or  haemorrhage  from  the 
rectum ;  in  bronchitis,  inflammatory  affections  of  mucous 
membranes  or  the  skin,  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  and 
in  influenza.  In  such  cases  if  used  at  all,  it  must  be  with 
great  caution;  for  in  these  diseases  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  is  unusually  irritable,  and  superpurgation  is  readily 
induced.  During  pregnancy,  both  in  the  mare  and  bitch, 
the  violent  operation  of  aloes  must  be  carefully  avoided. 
Some  practitioners  give  it  both  to  foals  and  calves,  but  for 
these  young  animals  linseed  or  castor  oil,  or  a  mixture  of 
the  two,  is  more  suitable. 

As  a  bitter  aloes  is  occasionally  prescribed  in  enfeebled 
and  relaxed  conditions  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  where 
there  is  suspicion  of  intestinal  worms.  It  is  sometimes 
applied  externally,  as  a  gentle  stimulant  and  desiccant,  and 
is  an  ingredient  of  the  once  famous  friar's  balsam.  {See 
Benzoin.) 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  receive  5ij-  to  '5^iij.,  the  dose  depend- 
ing upon  the  rapidity  and  degree  of  catharsis  required.  For 
foals  several  months  old,  the  dose  may  be  readily  ascertained 
by  allowing  grs.  v.  for  every  week  of  the  patient's  age.  Cattle 
take  §i.  to  §ij.;  sheep,  §ss.  to  §i. ;  dogs,  grs.  xxx.  to  3iss. : 
and  swine,  3j-  to  5iv. 

As  a  tonic,  the  dose  of  aloes  for  any  of  the  domesticated 
animals  is  about  an  eighth  or  tenth  of  that  given  as  a 
purgative.  Tonic  doses  may  be  administered  daily,  or  every 
second  day,  in  combination  with  other  bitters  and  aromatics. 

2  E 


434  ALOES — INFUSIONS,    TINCTURES,    EXTRACTS 

A  convenient  laxative  for  the  horse  is  made  with  two 
drachms  each  of  aloes,  gentian,  and  ginger,  made  into  a 
ball  with  treacle.  Another  is  prepared  with  a  drachm  each 
of  aloes  and  iron  sulphate,  and  half  an  ounce  of  ginger,  made 
up  with  treacle  and  linseed  meal.  Either  of  these  may  be 
repeated  daily,  or  every  second  day. 

Aloes  is  generally  administered  in  ball  or  in  watery 
solution.  A  ball  for  immediate  use  is  made  with  freshly- 
powdered  aloes,  mixed  with  about  one-eighth  of  ginger,  and 
made  up  with  soft  soap,  lard,  glycerin,  or  vaseline.  The 
physic  mass  of  the  Edinburgh  (Dick's)  Veterinary  College 
was  composed  of  equal  weights  of  Barbados  aloes  and  treacle, 
with  two  ounces  of  ginger  to  every  pound  of  aloes.  The 
addition  of  ginger,  or  some  such  aromatic,  hastens  catharsis, 
and  diminishes  nausea  and  griping.  The  ingredients  were 
mixed  over  a  slow  fire,  and  constantly  stirred  until  properly 
melted,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  the  temperature  rising 
above  120°  Fahr.  The  mass  should  be  kept  in  air-tight  jars 
the  balls  being  made  up  as  required.  Another  good  and 
less  bulky  mass  is  prepared  by  adding  to  melted  aloes  about 
one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  rectified  spirit  or  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, which  keeps  the  mass  soft  and  moist.  Aloetic 
balls  made  with  lard,  oils,  or  soap  are  only  suitable  for 
immediate  use,  and,  if  kept  for  several  weeks,  become  dry 
and  hard.  Drying  may,  however,  be  retarded  by  adding 
a  little  glycerin  and  an  ounce  of  potassium  carbonate  or 
acetate  to  every  pound  of  the  combination.  Twenty  grains 
each  of  powdered  aloes,  jalap,  ginger,  and  soap,  made  into  a 
pill,  Avith  glycerin  or  vaseline,  is  a  good  purge  for  a  large 
dogf,  and  will  make  two  doses  for  a  small  one. 

Watery  infusions  for  immediate  use  are  prepared  byrubbing 
down  the  aloes  in  hot  water,  avoiding  a  temperature  exceed- 
ing 120"  Fahr.  Tinctures  made  by  macerating  the  drug  in 
alcohol  (60  per  cent.)  for  seven  days,  and  afterwards  filtering, 
may  be  of  such  strength  as  suits  the  practitioner's  conven- 
ience. The  B.P.  tincture  is  prepared  with  extract  of  Barbados 
aloes,  liquid  extract  of  liquorice,  and  alcohol  (45  per  cent). 
Extracts  made  with  the  view  of  removing  a  portion  of  the 
resin  have  nothing  to  recommend  them.    Aloes  is  slowly  dis- 


ALOIX  435 

solved  when  introduced  into  the  rectum,  and  hence  exerts 
little  laxative  effect ;  but  one  or  two  drachms  are  occasionally 
ordered  as  an  enema  for  the  horse,  dissolved,  with  soap  and  a 
drachm  of  potassium  carbonate,  in  two  quarts  of  warm  water. 
Aloin. — In  1850,  Messrs,  T.  and  H.  Smith,  Edinburgh, 
discovered  first  in  Barbados  aloes,  and  subsequently  in  the 
other  varieties,  the  active  crystalline  principle  aloin.  An 
analogous  crystalline  substance  has  been  separated  from 
Natal  aloes,  and  named  nataloin,  while  from  Socotrine  aloes 
socaloin  has  been  obtained.  These  three  aloins  are  generally 
believed  to  be  isomeric,  although  some  authorities  resard 
them  as  a  homologous  series.  Histed  distinguishes  them  by 
the  following  tests :  A  drop  of  nitric  acid  produces  with 
barbaloin  a  brilliant  crimson,  which  rapidly  fades;  with 
nataloin  a  brilliant  crimson,  which  is  permanent  unless  heat 
be  applied ;  with  socaloin  little  effect  follows.  A  drop  of 
sulphuric  acid,  similarly  applied,  and  a  rod  dipped  in  nitric 
acid  passed  over  the  mixture,  has  no  effect  on  barbaloin  or 
socaloin,  but  develops  with  nataloin  a  tine  blue. 

Pure  barbaloin  is  odourless  ;  its  taste,  at  first  slightly  sweet,  soon 
becomes  intensely  and  permanently  bitter,  and  distinctly  aloetic.  It  is 
entirely  combustible,  burning  with  a  yellow  flame  and  much  smoke.  It 
yields,  by  destructive  distillation,  an  aromatic  volatile  oil,  and  a  resinous 
residue.  It  is  neutral  to  test  paper,  is  soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  but  less 
so  in  cold  water,  an  ounce  of  which  dissolves  about  a  grain  of  aloin.  The 
solvent  power  both  of  water  and  alcohol  is  greatly  increased  by  heat. 
Barbaloin  is  also  dissolved  by  acetic  acid  and  alkalies,  forming  Avith  the 
latter  orange-yellow  solutions,  which  deepen  in  colour  by  oxidation.  It  is 
insoluble  in  ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  chloroform.  Watery  solutions 
rapidly  darken  by  exposure  to  air  and  light  ;  and  when  heated  above  150^ 
Fahr.,  the  aloin  is  oxidised,  decomposed,  and  converted  into  a  resinous 
substance  of  little  activity. 

Actions  and  Uses. — For  twenty-five  years  aloin  has  been 
used  with  growing  favour  in  medical  practice,  and  with  some 
practitioners  it  has  entirely  superseded  aloes.  The  dose  for 
an  adult  is  from  one  to  two  grains,  or  about  one- third  of  the 
quantity  of  Barbados  aloes  usually  prescribed. 

Messrs.  Smith  having  liberally  supplied  me  with  aloin,  I 
administered  drachm  doses  made  up  with  Hour  and  glycerin 
to  six  three-parts-bred  carriage  horses,  four  and  five  j-ears 
old,  15  to  16  hands  high,  in  good  health  and  condition,  and 
prepared  with  one  bran  mash  given  four  hours  previously 


436  ALOIN — ACTION    ON    HORSES, 

No  effect  was  observable  on  the  pulse,  temperature,  appetite, 
or  secretion  of  urine ;  the  bowels  were  relaxed  to  a  shght 
extent  in  two  of  the  animals,  when  they  were  exercised 
twenty-four  hours  after  receiving  their  ball ;  whilst  in  two 
of  the  subjects  of  experiment  fulness  and  itching  about  the 
jomts  disappeared,  although  no  sensible  effect  was  observed 
on  the  bowels.  Drachm  doses  of  aloin,  conjoined  with  halt 
an  ounce  each  of  gentian  and  ginger,  proved  serviceable  in 
abating"  febrile  symptoms,  and  removing  heat  and  fulness  of 
the  liml)S  in  hard-worked  or  grossly-fed  horses.  Two  drachms 
of  aloin  given  to  strong  five  and  six  years  old  hunters,  well 
prepared  by  mashes  for  upwards  of  twenty-four  hours,  caused, 
in  thirteen  or  fourteen  hours,  abundant  fluid  evacuations. 
Nothing  notable  was  observed  as  to  the  pulse  or  temperature ; 
there  was  less  dulness  or  loss  of  appetite  than  usually  ac- 
companies the  full  action  of  the  ordinary  aloetic  ball :  there 
was  no  nausea  or  griping;  the  purging  usually  continued 
six  or  eight  hours.  In  these  horses,  which  were  in  the 
country,  it  will  be  noted  that  two  drachms  of  aloin  operated 
several  hours  earlier,  without  impairment  of  appetite  or 
spirits,  and  with  the  certainty  and  effect  usually  following 
six  drachms  of  Barbados  aloes. 

Mr.  Thomas  A.  Dollar,  London,  frequently  prescribes  aloin, 
and  furnishes  the  following  observations  resfardin"'  its 
efficacy: — London  horses,  he  remarks,  are  generally  more 
susceptible  to  the  action  of  physic  than  country  patients.  Five 
carriage  horses,  15^  to  16  hands  high,  prepared  by  mashes 
during  two  days,  received  two  drachms  of  aloin,  made 
up  with  ginger  and  treacle,  and  were  purged  with  less  dul- 
ness, nausea,  and  griping  than  attend  the  administration  of 
full  doses  of  aloes.  In  several  cases  the  purging  came  on 
within  twelve  hours ;  full  and  fluid  evacuations  occurred ; 
but  there  was  less  prostration  or  interference  with  appetite 
than  usually  attends  the  action  of  physic,  and  the  horses 
were  ready  to  return  to  work  a  day  sooner.  Three  heavy 
cart  horses  received  two  and  a  half  drachms  of  aloin,  made 
up  with  ginger  and  treacle,  and  in  eighteen  hours  were 
as  fully  purged  as  if  they  had  got  six  drachms  of  good 
Barbados  aloes.      As  in  the   better-bred  animals,  dulness, 


CATTLE,    AND    DOGS  437 

nausea,  loss  of  appetite,  tenesmus,  and  diuresis  were  looked 
for  in  vain.  From  these  and  other  observations  Mr.  Dollar 
concludes  that,  comparing  aloin  with  the  crude  drug,  a  little 
less  than  half  the  quantity  of  aloin  operates  in  horses  with 
more  certainty  than  aloes  and  with  equal  effect. 

;Majors  Fred.  Smith  and  Charles  Rutherford  of  the  A.Y.D. 
recently  made  several  experiments  with  aloin  on  healthy 
horses.  Five  grains  were  given  hypodermically  to  one 
subject,  and  eight  grains  Avere  injected  into  the  right  jugular 
of  another.  Neither  case  exhibited  any  evidence  of  gastro- 
intestinal disturbance.  In  a  third  case  twelve  grains  were 
injected  hypodermically;  in  three  hours  the  animal  lay 
down,  apparently  pained,  and  the  bowels  were  moved.  Dur- 
ing the  next  four  hours  were  noted  dulness,  uneasiness, 
scraping,  circling  round  the  box,  bowels  repeatedly  moved, 
but  the  droppings  were  hard  and  dark,  and  the  effects 
gradually  wore  off.  A  fourth  case  received  twenty-four  grains 
injected  hypodermically.  In  an  hour  and  a  half  rumbling 
in  the  intestines  was  heard,  and  hard  pellets  were  passed. 
To  these  symptoms  were  shortly  added  dulness,  scraping, 
circling  round  the  box,  pain,  exhaustion,  and  further  passage 
of  hard  faeces.  These  effects  continued  for  nine  hours  from 
the  exhibition  of  the  drug,  but  gradually  passed  away  Avith- 
out  the  bowels  being  notably  relaxed. 

A  strong  shorthorn  cow  received  by  the  mouth  two 
drachms  dissolved  in  hot  water,  with  an  ounce  of  ginger; 
the  bowels  were  only  slightly  relaxed;  but  three  drachms 
operated  tolerably  freely  in  twenty  hours.  Two  drachms,  with 
half  a  pound  Epsom  salt,  acted  as  rapidly  and  effectually  as 
one  and  a  quarter  pounds  Epsom  salt.  English  terriers, 
twenty  pounds  weight,  are  little  affected  by  doses  of  twenty 
grains  given  in  bolus ;  even  drachm  doses  have  scarcely  any 
effect  on  pointers  and  setters ;  but  when  two  or  three  grains 
of  calomel  or  twenty  to  thirty  grains  of  jalap  are  added, 
full  eifects  occur  in  six  or  eight  hours. 

Old  and  knowing  horses,  familiar  with  the  smell  of  aloes, 
and  induced  to  swallow  it  with  diiSculty,  show  much  less 
antipathy  to  the  inodorous  aloin.  Definite  and  uniform  in 
composition,  more  concentrated  in  form,  and  now  offered  by 


438  BUCKTHORNS 

the  discoverers,  Messrs.  Smith,  at  a  reduced  rate,  which 
renders  it  scarcely  more  expensive  than  the  best  qualities  of 
the  crude  drug,  aloin  should  come  into  more  general  use  as 
a  cathartic  for  horses. 

BUCKTHORNS 
The  recently-expressed  juice  of  the  ripe  berries  of  Rhamnus 

catharticus,  or  purging  buckthorn. 
The  dried  bark  of  Rhamnus  frangula  or  Black  Alder.     (Not 

official.) 
The  dried   bark  of   Rhamnus  purshianus  or  sacred   bark 

(B.P.).     Nat.  OrrZ.— Rhamneae. 

The  buckthorns  are  shrubby,  spinous  trees,  eight  or  ten 
feet  high.  The  berried  fruit  and  barks  contain  a  glucosidal 
body,  three  resins,  one  concentrating  the  activity  of  the 
drug,  with  mallic  and  tannic  acids. 

The  berries  of  the  R.  catharticus  are  about  the  size  of 
black  currants,  contain  an  acrid,  nauseous,  bitter  juice,  which 
is  evaporated,  strained,  and  gently  heated  with  sugar,  ginger, 
and  pimento,  forming  a  mild  cathartic  syrup,  of  which 
dogs  take  fgi.  to  f^ij.;  and  cats,  f5iv.  to  fgi.  A  little  senna 
confection,  jalap,  or  castor  oil  renders  this  syrup  more  prompt 
and  certain. 

The  bark  of  Black  Alder,  when  fresh,  acts  as  a  gastro- 
intestinal irritant;  but  when  dried  and  kept  for  twelve 
months,  oxidation  of  the  resinoid  active 'matters  appears  to 
occur,  and  the  thiid  extract  prepared  from  the  bark  may  be 
used  as  a  cholagogue  laxative. 

Cascara  Sagrada,  or  sacred  bark,  brought  from  the  North 
Pacific  coast.  It  has  a  persistent,  nauseous,  bitter  taste; 
contains  cascarin,  a  volatile  oil,  an  acid,  a  glucoside,  and 
several  resins.  It  is  useful  in  habitual  constipation;  it  pro- 
duces peristalsis,  especially  of  the  large  intestines,  but,  unless 
in  very  large  doses,  does  not  materially  increase  the  glandular 
secretions.  It  is  generally  used  as  the  liquid  extract,  which 
American  practitioners  prescribe  for  dogs  as  a  stomachic 
bitter  and  tonic,  in  doses  of  7l[v.  to  TT[x.,  and  as  a  laxative 
in  doses  of  about  f3i.  mixed  with  mucilage  or  syrup.  Cascara 
in  many  respects  resembles  rhubarb. 


CASTOR    OTL  439 

CASTOR   OIL 

Oleum  Ricixi.     The  oil  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  Ricinus 
communis.     (B.P.)     Nat.  Ord. — Euphorbiacese. 

The  castor  oil  plant,  or  Palma  Christi,  is  generallj'-  con- 
sidered to  be  Jonah's  gourd.  Cultivated  in  the  colder  parts 
of  Europe,  it  is  an  annual  shrub,  four  or  five  feet  high ;  in 
Spain  and  Sicily  it  reaches  a  height  of  twenty  feet ;  in  the 
southern  latitudes  of  India,  in  Central  Africa,  and  various 
parts  of  North  and  South  America,  it  becomes  a  large  tree. 
The  natural  order  Euphorbiacese,  besides  the  castor  oil  and 
croton,  includes  a  tall  Brazilian  tree,  the  coco-purgatif,  which 
yields  the  oil  of  Danda,  or  assu  juice,  resembling  castor  oil, 
but  greatly  more  active. 

Of  the  seeds,  which  are  contained  in  capsules,  two  varieties 
are  met  with,  one  the  size  of  beans;  the  other,  and  com- 
moner, somewhat  smaller.  Both  have  the  shining  yellow- 
white  epidermis,  mottled  with  red-brown  streaks  and  spots. 
The  seeds  comprise  upwards  of  25  per  cent,  of  ligneous  husk, 
8  per  cent,  of  moisture,  and  nearly  70  per  cent,  of  kernel, 
containing  about  50  per  cent,  of  oil.  Castor  oil  contains 
glyceryl  ricinoleate,  palmatin,  stearin,  cholesterin ;  an  alka- 
loid, ricmine,  which  is  not  purgative ;  and  a  resin. 

Castor  oil  is  manufactured  in  London,  largely  imported 
from  the  East  Indies  and  America,  and  in  smaller  quantities 
from  Italy,  the  West  Indies,  and  Australia.  Various  modes 
of  extraction  and  purification  are  employed.  In  London 
the  carefully  shelled  seeds  are  crushed  in  a  hydrauHc  press, 
the  oil  purified  by  rest,  filtration,  and  bleaching.  In  the 
East  Indies  mucilage  and  albumin  are  got  rid  of  by  heating 
the  expressed  oil  with  boiling  water,  and  straining  it  through 
flannel.  In  America,  the  seeds,  deprived  of  husk,  are  ex- 
posed to  gentle  heat,  in  order  that  the  oil  may  be  more 
readily  expressed ;  the  crude  oil  is  freed  from  mucilage  and 
albumin  by  boiling  with  water  until  perfectly  transparent 
when  cool;  25  per  cent,  of  best  oil  is  thus  got.  In  Jamaica 
the  bruised  seeds  are  boiled  with  water,  and  the  oil  skimmed 
oflf  as  it  rises  to  the  surface — -a  process  which  yields,  how- 
ever, an  inferior  and  dark-coloured  specimen.     The  Conti- 


440  CASTOR  OIL 

nental  plan  of  extracting  the  oil  by  alcohol  or  carbon 
bisulphide  is  expensive  and  inconvenient. 

Properties. — Oil  obtained  by  these  various  methods  differs 
slightly  in  activity,  but  considerably  in  colour,  flavour,  solu- 
bility, and  keeping  properties.  The  English  castor  oil,  pre- 
pared by  expression  alone,  is  usually  rather  dark ;  the  East 
Indian,  principally  imported  from  Calcutta,  is  of  superior 
quality  and  moderate  price ;  the  American  or  United  States 
oil  is  very  free  of  taste,  but  at  low  temperatures  deposits 
margarin ;  the  Italian  usually  commands  the  highest  price 
(Pereira).  Cold-drawn  castor  oils,  prepared  by  expression 
alone,  or  with  only  a  very  slight  degree  of  heat,  are  generally 
preferred. 

Castor  oil,  when  fresh  and  well  prepared,  is  viscid,  almost 
colourless,  and  of  a  faint  oily  odour  and  taste.  Although 
lighter  than  water,  it  is  one  of  the  heaviest  of  the  fixed  oils, 
its  specific  gravity  being  0950  to  0'970.  Exposed  in  a  thin 
layer  it  thickens,  gets  rancid,  and  after  a  time  entirely  dries 
into  a  varnish-like  film.  Castor  oil  and  alcohol  are  mutual 
solvents ;  the  oil  is  soluble  in  one  volume  of  absolute  alcohol 
and  five  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  and  in  ether;  is  easily 
miscible  with  other  oils;  saponifies  with  alkalies,  yielding 
glycerin,  palmitic,  and  other  fatty  acids,  and  the  special 
ricinoleate.  Such  saponification  caused  by  the  alkaline 
secretions  of  the  bowels  is  believed  to  develop,  as  in  the  case 
of  croton  oil,  the  active  principle. 

Impurities. — Castor  oil  is  adulterated  with  croton  oil  to 
increase  its  activity,  with  lard  and  bland  oils  to  reduce  its 
cost.  Inferior  sorts  are  dark-coloured,  but  become  trans- 
lucent by  exposure  to  sunlight  and  filtration  through  animal 
charcoal;  while  the  disagreeable  acrid  taste  and  odour  may 
in  great  part  be  removed  by  repeated  agitation  with  water 
containing  calcined  magnesia  and  coarse  animal  charcoal. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Castor  oil  seeds  are  irritant  and  pur- 
gative, have  caused  fatal  gastro-enteritis  in  human  patients, 
and,  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  the  purgative  prin- 
ciple, are  more  irritant  than  the  oil  extracted  from  them. 
When  crushed,  they  form  an  Indian  cure  for  mange.  A 
decoction  of  the  leaves  is  applied  by  the  women  of  South 


A   MILD   rURGATIVE  441 

Africa  to  their  breasts  to  increase  the  lacteal  secretion. 
The  oil  is  a  mild  purgative,  closely  resembling  linseed  and 
the  other  fixed  oils. 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  oil,  emulsionised  mainly  by  the 
alkaline  bile,  is  in  part  absorbed  ;  but  the  greater  amount, 
little  changed,  passes  through  the  bowels,  increases  both 
secretion  and  peristalsis,  rarely  causes  griping,  and  imparts 
to  the  dejections  a  glazed  appearance. 

For  horses  it  is  a  mild  cathartic,  prescribed  in  diarrhcea, 
dysentery,  enteritis,  and  peritonitis;  in  hernia,  advanced 
pregnancy,  affections  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder;  in  pur- 
pura and  bilious  influenza,  when  more  drastic  purgatives 
might  unduly  irritate,  or  where  repeated  doses  require  to  be 
given.  It  has  no  cholagogue  action,  nor  is  it  a  vermicide ;  its 
occasional  effect  as  a  vermifuge  depends  upon  its  purgative 
action.  Foals  and  calves,  for  several  days  after  birth,  some- 
times have  no  movement  of  the  bowels,  and  the  removal 
of  obstructing  masses  of  meconium,  and  a  natural  action  of 
the  intestine,  are  best  secured  by  administration  of  castor  oil 
and  enemata. 

In  cattle  practice  it  is  useful  in  diarrhcea  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  digestive  organs,  and,  united  with  Epsom  salt,  in 
doses  of  eight  to  twelve  ounces  of  each,  produces  prompt 
and  certain  effects.  For  young  calves  it  is  the  best  of 
purgatives. 

In  the  dog  it  is  more  active  than  in  man,  and  for  delicate 
subjects  a  mixture  of  equal  quantities  of  castor  and  olive  oils 
is  often  used.  It  occasionally  causes  emesis,  an  effect  which 
results  from  its  nauseous  oleaginous  taste,  and  not  from  any 
specific  emetic  action.  This  may  be  obviated  by  giving  oil 
of  good  quality  and  mixed  with  an  egg,  mucilage,  and  a 
little  ether.  It  proves  a  safe  and  easy  purge  for  pigs,  and 
also  for  poultry. 

The  bruised  seeds  are  much  used  by  native  Indian  farriers 
for  the  cure  of  mange ;  and  the  late  Thomas  Pritchard,  of 
Madras,  informed  me  that  two  or  three  dressings  usually 
suffice  to  remove  the  disease.  For  enemata  it  is  generally 
superseded  by  rape  or  linseed  oil.  As  an  external  demulcent 
it  is  unsuitable  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  become  rancid, 


442  CROTON   OIL 

A  few  drops  applied  to  the  conjunctiva  lessen  irritation  after 
removal  of  a  foreign  body  from  the  eye. 

Doses,  etc. — Castor  oil  seeds  are  occasionally  given  to  the 
dog  or  pig  to  the  number  of  six  or  eight,  triturated  with 
linseed  meal,  made  into  bolus,  or  rolled  in  a  piece  of  meat. 
The  dose  of  oil  for  the  larger  quadrupeds  is  about  a  pint ; 
for  sheep  and  pigs,  fgij.  to  f  §iv. ;  for  dogs,  fgi.  to  f§ij. ;  for 
cats,  about  f§i. ;  for  poultry,  f5ss.  to  f5j.  It  may  be  given 
alone  or  mixed  with  linseed  oil,  with  gruel,  milk,  or  aro- 
matics ;  to  increase  its  activity  it  is  combined  with  a  small 
quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine  or  of  croton ;  to  control  undue 
irritation,  as  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  it  is  prescribed  with 
laudanum,  or  chloroform,  and  warm  starch  gruel.  For  deli- 
cate or  pampered  dogs,  a  palatable  laxative  emulsion  is 
.made  by  shaking  together  equal  parts  of  castor  oil  and 
syrup  of  buckthorn,  with  ten  to  twenty  minims  of  spirit  of 
nitrous  ether. 


CROTON  SEEDS  AND  OIL 

Croton  Seeds.     Semina  Crotonis.      The  seeds  of  Croton 
Tiglium.     (Not  official.) 

Croton  Oil.    Oleum  Crotonis.    Oil  expressed  from  the  seeds 
of  Croton  Tiglium.     (B.P.)    Nat.  Ord. — Euphorbiacea?. 

The  Croton  Tiglium  is  a  tree  growing  on  the  Indian  con- 
tinent, in  Ceylon,  and  in  many  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. Its  oval-shaped  fruit  or  nut  is  somewhat  larger 
than  a  hazel,  and  contains  three  seeds  about  the  size  of 
French  beans,  resembling  castor  oil  seeds,  brown,  but  un- 
mottled,  and  when  shelled  weighing  on  an  average  three 
grains  each.  They  are  odourless,  with  a  taste  at  first  mild 
and  mucilaginous,  but  soon  becoming  hot  and  acrid.  When 
heated  they  yield  irritating  fumes.  The  thin,  brittle,  ex- 
ternal shell  constitutes  fully  one  -  third  of  the  weight  of 
the  seed.  The  seed  kernel  contains  50  to  (JO  per  cent,  of 
fixed  oil. 

The  oil  is  viscid,  of  a  brownish-yellow  colour,  with  a 
peculiar  nauseous  odour  and  a  persistent  acrid  taste.     It  is 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  443 

freely  soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  light  petroleum  spirit, 
and  oils,  fixed  and  volatile.  Specific  gravity,  0940  to  0-960. 
It  contains  crotonolic  acid,  crotonic,  volatile,  and  various 
fatty  acids;  and  a  neutral  glucoside,  which,  when  the  oil 
comes  into  contact  with  the  alkaline  intestinal  secretions 
and  the  bile,  is  saponified,  producing  a  drastic  resinoid.  The 
residual  cake  left  after  expression  of  the  oil,  owing  to  the 
variable  amount  of  oil  it  contains,  is  dangerous,  and  should 
not  be  used. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Croton  irritates  the  living  textures 
with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  The  oil,  undiluted,  and 
in  various  degrees  of  dilution,  is  occasionally  used  as  a 
counter-irritant,  and  when  rubbed  into  the  skin  produces 
an  eruption  which  becomes  pustular.  It  is  a  drastic,  hydra- 
gogue  cathartic.  Full  doses  cause  gastro-enteritis  and  much 
prostration. 

General  Actions. — Croton  oil,  undiluted  and  freely  used, 
seriously  and  deeply  inflames  the  skin,  leaving  sometimes 
permanent  blemishing,  and  causing  besides  pyrexia,  some- 
times purgation.  It  resembles  tartar  emetic  in  its  action 
on  the  skin.  Used  with  an  alkah,  the  irritant  resin  is  more 
readily  developed,  and  its  effects  intensified. 

Purgation  is  produced  when  the  oil  is  freely  applied  to 
the  skin,  or  enters  the  body  by  any  other  channel.  When 
full  doses  are  given,  the  active  resin  is  excreted  not  only  by 
the  bowels,  but  by  the  kidneys,  inducing  diuresis,  with  much 
irritation.  As  a  drastic  and  hydragogue  cathartic,  croton 
resembles  gamboge  and  elateriura — a  sediment  from  the 
juice  of  the  fruit  of  the  squirting  cucumber  (p.  446).  It 
operates  more  speedily  than  aloes,  and  produces  more 
frequent,  full,  and  fluid  dejections.  For  horses,  croton  is, 
however,  too  violent  for  general  use.  For  cattle  it  is  some- 
times valuable,  operating  with  certainty  when  most  other 
purgatives  fail,  and,  if  carefully  used,  is  rarely  attended  with 
evil  consequences.  For  sheep  it  is  too  irritating  and  de- 
pressing to  be  generally  prescribed.  For  dogs  and  pigs  it 
is  an  effectual  drastic  purge,  requiring,  however,  as  in  other 
patients,  to  be  used  with  much  caution.  Professors  Ruther- 
ford and  Vignal  have  shown  that,  althoudi  causinp-  oreat 


444  CROTON    OTL — A    HYDRAGOOUE    CATHARTTC 

dilatation  of  the  vessels  of  the  intestinal  raucous  membrane 
it  has  no  special  cholagogue  action. 

Toxic  Effects. — Forty  seeds  destroyed  a  horse  in  seven 
hours,  with  acute  gastro-enteritis ;  half  that  quantity  usually 
produced  fatal  inflammation  (Hertwig).  Morton  adminis- 
tered twenty  bruised  seeds  to  two  horses  and  observed 
superpurgation,  accelerated  pulse  and  res]3iration,  injected 
mucous  membranes,  collapse,  and  death  in  eighteen  and 
twenty-four  hours.  Medicinal  doses  sometimes  cause,  alike 
in  horses  and  dogs,  unexpected  and  serious  irritation.  In 
India  the  seeds  are  occasionally  used  to  poison  horses.  Orfila 
gave  a  dog  three  drachms,  which  killed  him  in  three  hours ; 
one  drachm  was  also  fatal ;  while  Hertwig  found  that  ten 
or  twelve  grains  induced  violent  purgation,  gastro-enteritis, 
and  death  in  four  to  seven  hours,  if  vomiting  was  prevented 
by  tying  the  cesophagus.  About  the  same  quantity  of  the 
bruised  seed  or  oil,  which  proves  fatal  when  given  internally, 
has  the  like  effect  when  placed  in  the  areolar  tissues,  or 
applied  to  a  wound.  Hertwig  states  that  eight  drops  in- 
jected into  the  jugular  vein  killed  a  horse,  while  two  drops 
killed  a  dog.  Moiroud  records  that  twelve  drops  injected 
into  the  veins  of  a  horse  produced  in  a  few  minutes  alvine 
evacuations,  while  thirty  drops  were  quickly  fatal.  Fifty 
drops  in  alcoholic  solution,  applied  to  the  bell}^  of  a  small 
horse,  induced,  for  two  days,  alvine  evacuations  of  normal 
consistence,  but  three  or  four  times  more  abundant  than 
usual.  Thirty  drops  had  similar  effects  on  sheep,  fifteen  to 
twenty  on  dogs  (Hertwig). 

Post-mortem  discovers  inflammation  of  the  small  and 
large  intestines.  In  horses  poisoned,  the  caecum  and  colon 
are  especially  affected,  usually  exhibiting  much  extravasa- 
tion of  blood,  and  occasionally  patches  of  erosion  ;  sometimes 
the  lungs  are  congested,  and  occasionally  they  are  inflamed 
(Hertwig,  and  Gamgee's  Veterinarian's  Vade  Mecuin). 

Medicinal  Uses. — Croton  is  used  as  an  active  hydragogue 
cathartic  for  cattle  suffering  from  gastric  impaction  and 
other  forms  of  constipation,  and  from  indigestion  associated 
with  phrenitis  or  other  disordered  state  of  the  nervous 
system.    It  is  serviceable  where  bulky  medicines  are  inadmis- 


AND    COUNTER-IRRITANT  445 

sible,  where  animals  are  unmanageable,  or  have  difficulty  in 
swallowing,  where  it  is  requisite  promptly  to  produce  copious 
fluid  evacuations  and  extensive  counter-irritation.  It  is 
contra-indicated  in  young  and  delicate  subjects,  in  all  debili- 
tating complaints,  and  wherever  any  portion  of  the  alimentary 
canal  is  in  an  irritable  or  congested  state.  The  effects  of 
overdoses  are  abated  by  demulcents  and  opium,  given  by 
the  mouth  and  rectum,  by  hot  cloths  to  the  abdomen,  and, 
if  need  be,  by  stimulants  to  counteract  depression. 

As  a  counter-irritant  its  effects  may  be  regulated  by 
dilutinof  it.  When  undiluted  it  is  too  irritant  either  for 
horses  or  dogs ;  but  is  less  apt  either  to  purge  or  blemish 
cattle,  to  which  it  is  occasionally  applied  in  laryngitis,  chronic 
glandular  enlargements,  and  articular  rheumatism. 

Doses,  etc. — Ten  or  twelve  seeds,  which,  allowing  three 
grains  for  each,  weigh  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  grains,  form 
the  dose  for  the  horse,  fifteen  to  twenty  seeds  for  cattle, 
three  or  four  for  sheep,  two  or  three  for  pigs,  and  one  or  two 
for  dogs.  The  dose  of  croton  oil  for  the  horse  is  ll^x.  to  TIj^xx. ; 
for  cattle,  f5ss.  to  f5j. ;  for  sheep  and  swine,  TT^v.  to  TItx. ;  and 
for  the  dog,  niii.  to  tH^iij.  The  bruised  seeds  and  the  oil  are 
administered  made  into  bolus  with  linseed  meal,  or  dissolved 
in  castor  or  linseed  oil  or  mucilage.  They  are  less  irritating 
and  more  certain  and  regular  when  conjoined  with  other 
purgatives.  In  obstinate  constipation  or  torpidity  of  the 
bowels  of  cattle,  half  doses  are  given,  with  twenty  or  thirty 
grains  of  calomel,  a  pound  of  salts,  or  a  pint  of  linseed  oil ; 
and  few  purgative  mixtures  are  more  effectual.  The  oil  is 
sometimes  dropped  on  the  tongue,  but,  unless  freely  diluted, 
is  apt  to  irritate  both  tongue  and  fauces.  For  external  pur- 
poses it  is  dissolved  in  six  or  eight  parts  of  bland  oil  or  soap 
liniment.  Small  quantities  added  to  blistering  ointments 
promote  their  activity,  but  in  horses  also  increase  their 
tendency  to  blemish. 

Linimentum  crotonis  is  made  with  one  ounce  croton 
oil,  3|  ounces  of  oil  of  cajuput,  and  3i  ounces  of  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.).  A  tincture — prepared  with  1|  ounce  of 
bruised  croton-seeds  and  20  ounces  of  rectified  spirits  is 
occasionally  used  as  a  counter-irritant. 


446  GAMBOGE 


ELATERIUM 

Elaterium.  A  sediment  from  the  juice  of  the  fruit  of 
ecballiuiu  elaterium,  the  squirting  cucumber.  Nat. 
Ord. — Cucurbitaceye. 

Elaterin.    C.^oHggOg,  the  active  principle  of  Elaterium.   (B.P.) 

Elaterium  occurs  in  light,  friable,  flat,  or  slightly  curved 
opaque  cakes,  about  one- tenth  of  an  inch  thick,  pale  green 
or  greyish-green  in  colour,  odour  faint,  taste  bitter  and 
acrid.  It  should  contain  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  the 
active  principle  elaterin,  which  is  neutral,  insoluble  in 
water,  soluble  in  115  parts  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  in  220 
of  ether,  and  verv  soluble  in  chloroform. 

Elaterium  is  a  very  active  irritant  on  mucous  membranes, 
large  doses  causing  gastro-enteritis  and  haemorrhage,  ]\Iedi- 
cinally  it  is  a  powerful  drastic,  hydragogue  cathartic,  much 
too  energetic  for  general  use.  Its  action  is  followed  by 
depression.  It  has  been  prescribed  in  the  treatment  of 
abdominal  dropsy  in  dogs.  Its  action  on  horses  or  cattle  has 
not  been  ascertained. 

Doses,  etc. — (Elaterium)  for  dogs,  gr.  -^-^  to  gr.  h ;  (Elaterin) 
gr.  gij-  to  gr.  ^  in  mucilage,  milk,  or  pill  (Kaufmann).  To 
facilitate  dispensing,  the  compound  powder  of  elaterin,  con- 
taining 5  grains  of  the  active  principle  and  195  grains  of 
milk  sugar  may  be  used. 

GAMBOGE 

Cambogia.  a  gum-resin  obtained  from  Garcinia  Hanburii 
(B.P.).     Nat  0/r?.— Guttiferje. 

Gamboge  is  imported  from  Singapore,  Siam,  and  Ceylon,  is 
the  produce  of  a  moderate-sized  dicjocious  tropical  tree,  and  is 
obtained  from  incisions  into  the  middle  layer  of  the  bark,  or 
by  breaking  the  leaves  and  branchlets,  when  the  yellow 
milky  juice  exuding  is  collected  in  leaves,  in  cocoa-nut  shells, 
or  in  joints  of  bamboo,  is  transferred  into  flat  earthen  vessels, 
and  dried  in  the  sun.  It  occurs  in  cylindrical,  solid  or  hollow 
rolls,  four  to  eight  inches  long,  two  to  three  inches  in  dia- 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  447 

meter,  and  in  cakes ;  breaks  easily  with  a  conchoidal  reddish- 
yellow  fracture  ;  powder  bright  yellow  ;  odourless,  taste  very 
acrid.  It  is  feebly  soluble  in  water,  makes  with  it  a  yellow 
emulsion,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  consists 
of  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  soluble  gum,  about  70  of  an  active 
orange-yellow  resin,  gambogic  acid.  It  is  largely  used  as 
a  pigment. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  a  powerful  irritant  and  drastic 
hydragogue  cathartic,  inferior  in  activity  only  to  croton 
and  elaterium.    Slightl}-  diuretic,  it  colours  the  urine  yellow. 

It  undergoes  solution  in  the  alkaline  intestinal  juices,  and 
in  large  doses  causes  gastro-enteritis.  Moiroud  gave  horses 
six  to  twelve  drachms,  and  found  the  dejections  frequent 
and  fluid,  the  pulse  irregular,  the  animal  shivering  and 
anxious.  Two  drachms  killed  a  sheep,  two  ounces  and  a 
half  had  little  effect  upon  a  cow,  but  five  ounces  caused 
dysentery,  which  continued  for  seventeen  days. 

Gamboge  is  too  drastic  and  uncertain  to  be  safely  given 
either  to  horses  or  dogs.  It  causes  profuse  watery  discharges 
and  increased  peristalsis,  and  although  Professor  Ruther- 
ford's experiments  demonstrate  that  it  has  no  special  stimu- 
lant action  on  the  Hver,  like  all  purgatives  acting  on  the 
small  intestines  it  is  a  cholagogue,  in  the  sense  that  it 
promptly  moves  onwards  the  bile  in  the  duodenum,  and 
thus  prevents  its  reabsorption.  It  has  no  direct  vermicide 
effect,  but  produces  diuresis,  especially  when  given  in  small 
doses  dissolved  in  alkalies.  For  ruminants  it  is  safe,  speedy, 
and  manageable  when  in  combination  with  other  purgatives. 
Half  a  pound  each  of  Epsom  and  common  salt  and  an  ounce 
of  gamboge  form  a  prompt  and  effectual  purgative  in 
indigestion,  gastric  impaction,  and  brain  diseases  of  cattle. 
Although  neither  gamboge  nor  aloes  is  particularly  certain 
when  used  alone,  an  ounce  of  each,  rubbed  down  and  given 
in  solution,  constitute  an  effectual  purge  for  ordinary  cattle 
cases.   Applied  to  wounds  it  is  said  to  promote  healing  (Rey). 

Doses,  etc. — For  cattle,  §ss.  to  §j. :  for  sheep,  grs.  xx.  to 
grs.  XXX.,  given  in  combination  with  other  purgatives,  and 
in  solution. 


448  JALAP 

JALAP 

Jalapa.     The  dried  tubercules  of  Ipomcea  Purga  (Hayne). 
(B.P.).     N'at.  Ord. — Convolvulacese. 

Jalaps  Resina.     Jalap  resin,  obtained  from  Jalap  digested 
and  percolated  with  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

Jalap  derives  its  name  from  Xalapa  or  Jalapa,  a  town  in 
Mexico,  whence  it  was  first  obtained.  The  hardy  climbers 
yielding  it  grow  on  the  Andes  6000  feet  above  sea  level,  are 
cultivated  in  Southern  India,  and  in  sheltered  spots  in  this 
country  produce  their  salver-shaped  crimson  or  light-red 
flowers.  The  perennial  root-stock  throws  off  underground 
shoots,  which  at  intervals  send  down  roots,  gradually  thicken- 
ing, becoming  irregularly  oblong  or  ovoid,  ranging  in  size 
from  a  walnut  to  an  orange,  invested  with  a  thin,  brown, 
furrowed,  wrinkled  cuticle,  and  presenting  within  a  dirty 
yellow  colour,  with  dark-brown  concentric  circles.  The  larger 
roots,  or  tubercules,  are  divided  into  halves  or  quarters,  or 
gashed  to  facilitate  drying.  They  are  tough,  and  difficult  to 
reduce  to  powder,  which  has  a  pale-brown  colour,  a  faint, 
disagreeable  odour,  and  a  taste  at  first  sweet  and  mawkish, 
but  afterwards  acrid  and  nauseous.  Water  dissolves  the 
sugar  and  mucilage  without  the  cathartic,  resinous  principle, 
which  is,  however,  readily  soluble  in  rectified  spirit. 

Along  with  starch,  cellulose,  uncrystallisable  sugar,  and 
gum,  jalap  contains  9  to  11  per  cent,  of  the  active  resin, 
consisting  chiefly  of  the  glucoside  convolvulin,  which 
differs  from  the  jalapin  of  scammony  in  being  insoluble  in 
ether.  Jalap  resin  occurs  in  dark-brown  fragments,  readily 
reduced  to  powder,  with  a  sweetish  odour,  and  acrid  taste. 
Soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  but  not  in  water  or  in  oil  of 
turpentine. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Jalap  is  a  hydragogue  cathartic,  a 
vermifuge,  and  cholagogue.  The  ordinary  jalap  closely  re- 
sembles the  larger-rooted  male  jalap,  or  orizaba  root,  the 
smaller  paler  tubercules  of  the  tampico  root,  the  dried  root 
of  Convolvulus  scammonia,  and  the  roots  of  Bryonia  alba  and 
B.  dioica,  as  well  as  the  Kaladana  seeds  used  roasted  as  a 


PODOPHYLLUM  449 

purgative  by  the  nations  of  Hindustan.  It  is  more  active 
than  senna,  the  leaves  of  Cassia  acutifolia,  but  less  powerful 
and  irritant  than  gamboge,  podophyllum,  elaterium,  or 
colocynth. 

Jalap  has  very  gentle  cathartic  action  on  either  horses  or 
cattle.  Two  or  three  ounces  given  to  the  horse  have  slight 
effect  on  the  bowels,  but  increase  the  activity  of  the  kidneys 
(Moiroud).  White  reports  administering  half  a  pound  to 
horses  without  causing  purgation,  I  have  repeatedly  given 
cows  four  ounces  without  perceptible  effect.  Probably  the 
B.P.  jalap  resin  would  be  more  energetic.  For  dogs  and 
pigs  it  is,  however,  a  good  purgative,  although  full  doses 
occasionally  produce  nausea  and  sometimes  vomiting.  It  is 
prescribed  for  most  purgative  purposes,  acts  tolerably  speedily 
and  certainl}',  produces  fuU  watery  discharges,  and  is  speci- 
ally effective  when  given  with  a  grain  or  two  of  calomel. 
Professors  Rutherford  and  Vignal,  experimenting  upon  dogs, 
found  that  jalap  stimulates  secretion  of  bile,  but  still  more 
notably  the  secretions  from  the  intestinal  glands. 

Doses,  etc.,  of  Jalap  powder. — Dogs  take  3i-  to  gij- ;  cats, 
5ss. ;  pigs,  5i-  to  5iv.  It  is  best  given  in  combination  with 
calomel.  Dogs,  if  fasted  for  six  hours,  are  effectively  purged 
in  three  or  four  hours  by  5ss.  to  gi.  of  jalap,  with  two  or 
three  grains  of  calomel,  made  into  bolus  with  any  convenient 
excipient. 


PODOPHYLLUM 

The  dried   rhizome   and   roots   of  Podophyllum  peltatum. 
Nat.  Orel. — Berberidacege. 

The  Podophyllum,  May  apple,  or  mandrake,  is  a  perennial 
herbaceous  plant,  plentiful  in  the  Northern  States  of  America, 
where  its  subacid  fruit  is  eaten  under  the  name  of  wild 
lemons.  The  root  is  imported  in  flattened  cylindrical  pieces 
of  variable  lensrth,  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  an  inch  thick; 
marked  with  irregular  tuberosities  giving  ofi"  brittle  brown 
rootlets.  It  is  reddish-brown  externally,  white  within,  and 
breaks  with  a  short  fracture.    The  powder  has  a  yellow-grey 

2  F 


450  rODOPHYLLUM   AN  UNCERTAIN    CATHARTIC 

colour,  a  narcotic,  disagreeable  odour,  a  bitter,  sub-acrid, 
nauseous  taste. 

Podophyllum  resin,  the  active  principle,  is  prepared  from 
a  strong  tincture,  made  by  exhausting  the  root  with  rectified 
spirit.  It  is  a  pale-brown  amorphous  powder,  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ammonia,  and  consisting  of  an  inert,  fatty, 
resinous  acid,  and  two  amorphous,  bitter,  active  resins — 
podophyllotoxin  and  picropodophyllin,  the  former  being  the 
more  powerful. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Both  root  and  resin  are  topical  irritants 
and  drastic  purgatives.  The  resin  is  dissolved  by  the  alkaline 
secretions  of  the  duodenum  ;  stimulates  glandular  secretion 
and  peristalsis,  in  full  doses  causing  spasm ;  carried  into 
the  liver,  it  increases  secretion  of  bile.  In  dogs  and 
cats,  as  in  human  patients,  it  is  an  emetic.  In  horses 
and  dogs  repeated  doses  reduce  the  force  and  frequency  of 
the  pulse,  even  when  the  bowels  are  only  slightly  affected. 
It  is  eliminated  by  the  bowels,  in  smaller  amount  by  the 
kidneys. 

General  Actions. — The  root  has  long  been  used  by  the 
American  Indians  as  an  emetic  and  anthelmintic.  Its  actions 
being  supposed  to  resemble  those  of  calomel,  it  has  been 
styled  vegetable  mercury.  The  cholagogue  action  of  podo- 
phyllum has  been  investigated  by  Professor  Rutherford, 
Edinburgh.  Moderate  doses  introduced  into  the  duodenum, 
whether  of  fasting  or  recently-fed  dogs,  increase  secretion 
both  of  the  fluid  and  solid  constituents  of  the  bile.  He  be- 
lieves that  it  directly  stimulates  the  hepatic  cells,  but  does 
not  increase  the  blood-supply  of  the  liver.  Excessive  doses 
are  imperfectly  absorbed,  and  do  not  increase  biliary  secre- 
tion. This  special  stimulation  of  the  liver  by  small  but  not 
by  large  doses  has  been  observed  to  follow  the  administration 
of  aloes,  rhubarb,  colchicum,  croton  oil,  and  other  chola- 
gogues.  In  common  with  other  purgatives  acting  upon  the 
small  intestine,  it  sweeps  out  food,  which,  when  absorbed, 
stimulates  the  liver;  while,  moreover,  it  carries  away  bile 
poured  into  the  canal,  and  thus  prevents  its  reabsorption. 

In  the  domestic  animals  the  cathartic  effects  of  podo- 
phyllum are  produced  tardily,  and  moderate  tloscs  are  apt 


AND    CARDIAC    SEDATIVE  451 

to  cause  nausea  and  griping.  The  manner  in  which  the  force 
and  frequency  of  the  pulse  are  reduced  requires  investigation. 
Dr.  F.  G.  Anstie,  experimenting  with  alcoholic  solutions 
containing  one  to  two  grains  podophyllum,  injected  into  the 
peritoneum  of  dogs,  cats,  and  rats,  produced  in  ten  to  fifteen 
hours  vomiting,  bloody  foeces,  hurried  shallow  breathing,  and 
death  from  exhaustion  (Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1863). 

Mr.  D.  B.  Howell,  Reading,  reports  podophyllum  to  be  a 
prompt  and  effectual  purgative  for  dogs,  acting  usually  in 
four  hours.  One  drachm  to  one  drachm  and  a  half,  with 
two  drachms  ginger,  moved  the  bowels  of  horses  in  six  to 
eight  hours.  The  action  was  prompt  and  effective,  and  un- 
attended with  noticeable  griping,  even  when  the  resin  was 
given  without  preparation,  and  water  was  allowed  ad  lihitiim. 
About  a  drachm  is  stated  to  have  purged  a  cow  in  nine  hours 
{Veterinarian,  1865). 

I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  such  marked  results. 
Repeatedly  I  have  given  healthy  horses,  prepared  by  mashes, 
two  drachms  podophyllum  without  perceiving  any  increased 
action  of  the  bowels.  Two  drachms  resin,  with  one  or  two 
drachms  of  aloes,  added  to  determine,  if  possible,  its  action 
on  the  bowels,  produced  little  more  softening  of  the  dis- 
charges than  might  be  expected  from  the  aloes  alone.  To 
three  healthy  shorthorn  cows  I  gave  each  three  drachms, 
and  to  another  cow  half  an  ounce,  without  observing  any 
laxative  effect.  Doses  of  one  grain,  given  in  pill  or  in  meat, 
to  English  terriers  weighing  about  twenty  pounds,  produced 
no  notable  effect  upon  the  bowels ;  while  two  grains  acted  as 
a  gentle  laxative,  but  only  after  six  or  eight  hours. 

Mr.  Thomas  A.  Dollar  has  used  the  drug  frequently  both 
in  horses  and  dogs,  and  has  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal 
his  notes  of  the  following  cases : — 

A  thoroughbred  horse,  well  prepared  by  mashes,  had  two 
drachms  podophyllum  resin  without  its  producing  the 
slightest  purgative  effect.  Two  days  later  he  again  received 
two  drachms,  with  a  drachm  of  aloes,  still  without  any 
noticeable  action  on  the  bowels.  Four  hours  after  the  second 
dose  the  pulse,  however,  was  observed  to  have  fallen  from 
44  to  34.     During  three  days  this  horse  ate  nothing  but 


452  PODOPHYLLUM 

bran ;  getting  tired  of  this,  he  had  for  two  days  hay  and  a 
httle  corn  ;  for  twenty-four  hours  he  was  again  restricted  to 
bran  mashes,  and  then  received  two  drachms  each  of  podo- 
phyUum  resin,  and  aloes,  which,  even  after  this  careful 
preparation,  only  produced  slight  laxative  effects. 

To  a  well-bred  hunter,  nearly  16  hands  high,  under  treat- 
ment for  injury  of  the  psoaB  muscles,  and  fed  for  twenty-four 
hours  on  bran,  Mr.  Dollar  administered  two  drachms  podo- 
phyllum in  a  ball,  and  two  ounces  Epsom  salt  in  solution. 
Scarcely  any  j^erccptible  action  was  observed  on  the  bowels ; 
and  two  days  later  two  drachms  podophyllum  and  one 
drachm  calomel  wore  given,  also  without  purgative  effect, 
but  with  a  reduction  in  the  pulse,  as  in  the  previous  case,  of 
nearly  ten  beats  per  minute. 

A  powerful  cart-horse,  under  treatment  for  sand-crack,  and 
i^reviously  restricted  for  twenty-four  hours  to  a  mash  diet, 
received  four  drachms  podophyllum  resin  in  a  ball.  Although 
no  purgation  followed,  there  was  nausea,  and  in  two  hours 
the  pulse,  soft  and  somewhat  weakened,  fell  from  36  to  24, 
and  did  not  recover  its  natural  force  or  number  until  next 
day.     The  appetite  continued  impaired  for  a  week. 

A  thoroughbred  mare,  14  i  hands,  under  treatment  for 
abscess  from  speedy-cut,  was  placed  on  mash  diet  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  then  received  two  drachms  of  the  resin  in  a 
ball,  but  showed  no  increased  action  of  the  bowels.  For 
four  consecutive  days  the  mashes  were  continued,  and  two 
drachms  of  the  drug  repeated  daily  until  ten  drachms  had 
been  taken,  still  without  purgative  effect.  The  pulse,  how- 
ever, which  at  first  was  44,  had  gradually  fallen  a  few  beats 
daily,  until  on  the  fifth  day  it  was  30.  By  the  end  of  the 
experiment  the  coat  stared,  all  food  was  refused  during 
nearly  two  days,  and  a  fortnight  elapsed  before  the  mare 
recovered  her  usual  appetite  and  appearance. 

A  Scotch  terrier,  eight  months  old,  received  half  a  grain 
of  the  resin  in  a  pill,  without  apparent  effect;  and  on  the 
following  day  a  grain,  which  in  the  course  of  an  hour  caused 
nausea  and  vomiting.  Considerable  dulncss  remained  for 
twenty-four  hours. 

A  bull  terrier  bitch,  thirty-six  pounds  weight,  received  four 


MEDICINAL    USES  453 

grains  in  a  pill,  without  showing  any  notable  symptoms,  and 
on  the  following  day  had  a  further  dose  of  six  grains,  which 
in  twelve  hours  produced  great  uneasiness  and  griping,  and 
gentle  catharsis.  During  the  two  following  days  the  bitch 
refused  food,  and  for  a  week  continued  dull  and  listless. 

A  French  poodle,  suffering  from  mange  and  constipation, 
had  a  pill  containing  two  grains  podophyllum  resin,  half  a 
grain  calomel,  and  twenty  grains  jalap.  No  effect  was  observ- 
able at  the  end  of  twelve  hours,  when  the  dose  was  repeated, 
and  after  eight  hours  the  dog  was  briskly  purged.  Half  the 
above  dose  was  repeated  every  second  day  for  a  fortnight, 
with  the  result  of  gently  moving  the  bowels.  In  all  these 
cases  the  pulse  was  reduced  in  number  and  in  strength,  the 
urinary  secretion  was  unchanged,  and  the  feeces  were  little 
altered  in  colour. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Mr.  Dollar's  experiments  demonstrate 
that  for  veterinary  patients  podophyllum  resin  is  a  tardy 
and  uncertain  purgative,  especially  when  used  alone.  In 
combination,  however,  with  aloes,  jalap,  or  calomel,  it  re- 
lieves torpidity  or  congestion  of  the  liver ;  while  its  nauseant 
and  sedative  eff'ects  may  occasionally  be  used  for  lowering 
cardiac  action  in  acute  lymphangitis,  rheumatism,  and 
other  inflammatory  disorders  in  robust  patients.  Although 
possessed  of  vermifuge  powers,  depending  upon  its  purgative 
effect,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  any  special  vermicide 
action.  For  human  patients  it  is  prescribed,  both  in  this 
country  and  America,  in  habitual  constipation,  hepatic  con- 
gestion, in  some  forms  of  sick  headache,  and,  in  smaller 
doses,  as  an  alterative  in  skin  diseases  and  rheumatism. 
Half  a  grain  to  a  grain  of  the  resin  slowly  empties  the 
bowels. 

Doses,  etc. — For  cholagogue  or  sedative  purposes,  horses 
and  cattle  take  5j-  to  gij-  of  podophyllum  resin,  with  aloes, 
calomel,  nitre,  or  Epsom  salt.  For  dogs,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  ij. ; 
with  calomel,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  ij.,  may  be  conjoined  with  half  a 
dose  of  jalap  or  of  oil.  Nausea  and  griping  are  obviated  by 
admixture  of  ginger  or  other  carminative,  and  of  henbane  or 
cannabis  indica.  The  B.P.  tincture  contains  two  grains  of 
podophyllum  resin  in  each  fluid  drachm. 


454  RHUBARB 

RHUBARB 

Rhei  Radix.  The  erect  rhizome,  or  so-called  root,  deprived 
of  more  or  less  of  its  cortex,  and  dried,  of  Rheum 
Palmatiim,  Rheuin  officinale,  and  probably  other  species. 
Collected  in  China  and  Thibet  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord.— 
Polygonacese. 

The  perennial,  herbaceous  rheums  grow  on  the  hill  ranges 
of  the  interior  of  China  and  Thibet;  the  roots,  after  five 
years'  growth,  are  collected  in  summer,  are  cleaned,  peeled, 
cut  into  round  or  flat  reddish-yellow  pieces,  and  each  piece 
is  usually  bored  with  a  hole,  through  which  a  cord  is  run  in 
order  to  dry  it  hanging  in  the  sun.  The  powder  is  bright 
yellow-brown,  has  a  strong,  peculiar,  aromatic  odour,  with  a 
bitter  astringent  taste,  and  when  chewed  is  gritty,  from  the 
presence  of  calcium  oxalate  crystals.  It  is  dissolved  by 
ether  and  rectified  spirit,  and  less  readily  by  cold  and  hot 
water,  forming  with  the  latter  an  orange-coloured  solution. 
The  East  Indian  rhubarb  is  coarser  and  less  aromatic. 
English  rhubarb,  the  produce  of  R.  raponticum,  generally 
cultivated  for  its  familiar  leaf-stalks,  the  pleasant  acid  taste 
of  which  is  due  to  the  presence  of  malic  and  oxalic  acids,  is 
grown  extensively  for  its  roots  near  Banbury,  and  is  some- 
times mixed  with  or  substituted  for  the  Chinese;  but  it  is 
softer  and  more  mucilaginous,  has  less  aroma  and  grittiness, 
contains  fewer  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  and  is  deficient  in 
purgative  power. 

Rhubarb  contains  (1)  chrysophanic  acid,  in  the  proportion 
of  about  2  per  cent.,  extracted  by  ether  or  alcohol,  in- 
soluble in  water,  and  occurring,  as  its  name  indicates,  in 
brilliant  yellow  crystals.  It  appears  to  have  tonic  proper- 
ties, and  is  one  of  the  most  cft'cctual  remedies  for  ring-worm 
of  the  human  scalp.  (2)  Chrysophan,  a  bitter  soluble  gluco- 
side,  which,  when  boiled  with  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid, 
splits  into  chrysophanic  acid  and  sugar.  (8)  Phseorretin  and 
other  resinous  bodies  appear  to  confer  the  carthartic  pro- 
perties. (4)  Rheotannic  acid  imparts  astringency.  (5) 
Mineral  substances  arc  largely  present,  consisting  chiefly  of 
calcium  oxalate,  35  per  cent. 


STOMACHIC,  TONIC,  LAXATIVE,  AND   CHOLAGOGUE        455 

Actions  and  Uses. — Rhubarb  is  stomachic,  tonic,  astringent, 
mildly  cathartic,  and  cholagogue.  Small  and  repeated  doses 
improve  the  appetite,  correct  slight  gastric  derangement;  in 
virtue  of  their  tannin  diminish  secretion  and  peristalsis ;  by 
their  chrysophanic  acid  impart  to  the  faeces  a  yellow-brown 
hue,  and  may  be  detected  in  the  blood,  urine,  and  occa- 
sionally in  the  milk.  Larger  doses,  in  dogs  and  cats,  as  in 
human  patients,  are  mild  cathartics,  stimulate  the  secretions 
and  movements,  especially  of  the  stomach  and  small  intes- 
tine, and  increase  secretion  of  bile.  Even  small  doses, 
insufficient  to  purge  fasting  dogs,  slightly  increase  all  the 
constituents  of  bile  (Professor  Rutherford).  In  horses  and 
cattle  it  has  scarcely  any  purgative  effect;  a  pound  has 
been  given  to  cattle  without  moving  the  bowels,  while  half 
a  pound  to  a  pound  caused  in  horses  only  slight  laxative 
effects  after  thirty-six  hours  (Moiroud).  On  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces  it  acts  as  a  mild  astringent. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  stomachic,  repeated  several  times  a  day, 
horses  take  §j. ;  cattle,  §ij. ;  sheep,  5j- ;  dogs  and  cats,  grs.  x. 
to  grs.  XX.  As  a  laxative,  dogs  take  5j-  to  ^n].,  usually 
combined  with  one  or  two  grains  of  calomel,  or  with  twenty 
grains  of  jalap.  Rhubarb  is  used  in  powder,  infusion,  syrup, 
and  tincture.  The  compound  powder,  or  Gregory's  mixture, 
prepared  by  mixing  thoroughly  six  parts  magnesia,  one  part 
ginger,  and  two  parts  rhubarb — all  in  fine  powder — is  an 
excellent  stomachic  and  antacid,  and  is  given  in  doses  twice 
as  large  as  those  of  the  simple  rhubarb.  In  diarrhoea  in 
calves  and  foals  it  exerts  carminative,  laxative,  and  subse- 
quently astringent  effects.  When  the  bowels  are  persistently 
relaxed,  two  drachms  each  of  rhubarb  and  magnesia,  with 
half  a  drachm  of  opium,  may  be  given  night  and  morning 
in  well-boiled  wheat-flour  gruel,  with  one  or  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  brandy  or  sweet  spirit  of  nitre.  One-third  to 
one-half  this  quantity  is  prescribed  for  diarrhoea  in  lambs. 

Syrupus  Rhei  is  made  with  two  parts  each  of  rhubarb  and 
coriander,  twenty-four  of  sugar,  eight  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.), 
and  twenty-four  of  water;  and  the  compound  tincture  with  two 
parts  of  rhubarb,  one-fourth  part  each  of  coriander  and  carda- 
moms, two  of  glycerin,  and  eighteen  of  alcohol  (60  per  cent.). 


456  OPIUM 


OPIUM 


The  juice  obtained  by  incision  from  the  unripe  capsules  oC 
Papaver  Somniferum,  inspissated  by  spontaneous  evapo- 
ration (B.P.).     Nat.  Orel. — Papaveracese. 

Morphine.  Morphia.  Morphina.  An  alkaloid  prepared 
from  opium. 

Morphine  Hydrochloride.  Morphinie  Hydrochloridum 
(B.P.). 

Morphine  Acetate.     Morphinge  Acetas  (B.P.). 

Codeine.  Codeina.  An  alkaloid  obtained  from  opium  or 
morphine  (B.P.). 

Apomorphine  Hydrochloride.  Apomorphinse  Hydrochlo- 
ridum (B.P.). 

Opium,  one  of  the  most  ancient  articles  of  the  Materia 
Medica,  derives  its  name  fi'om  the  Greek  word  otto?  (opos), 
signifying  juice.  The  stem,  unripe  capsules,  and  other  suc- 
culent parts  of  any  species  of  popp3^  contain  a  milk-white 
narcotic  juice,  which,  as  it  dries,  becomes  darker  in  colour, 
and  constitutes  opium.  The  fresh  purple  petals  of  the 
Papaver  rhoeas,  or  corn  rose,  which  contains  no  morphine, 
and  only  minute  traces  of  rhosadine,  are  used  as  colouring 
agents,  but  not  medicinally.  The  roots  of  some  species 
contain  a  cathartic  principle.  The  nearly  ripened  poppy 
heads,  or  capsules,  gathered  about  twelve  days  after  the 
petals  fall,  when  digested  in  hot  water  produce  a  nuicilage 
used  for  anodyne  purposes;  when  dried  they  yield  less 
morphine  and  codeine  than  when  green,  and  besides  contain 
the  feebly  alkaline  crystalline  rhreadine.  Within  the  cap- 
sules are  numerous  white  or  brown  reniform  seeds,  devoid  of 
narcotism,  but  yielding  a  bland  drying  oil,  similar  to  that 
of  tlax  or  rape.  The  cake  or  residue  left  after  expression  of 
this  oil  is  used  for  cattle  food. 

The  Papaver  somniferum — the  common  white  or  garden 
poppy — is  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia,  but  it  also 
thrives  in  this  country.  It  floAvers  from  May  to  July,  and 
the  capsules  ripen  about  two  months  later.  It  is  two  to  four 
feet  high  ;  has  a  round,  smooth,  erect  stem,  with  a  few  hairs 
on  the  extremities  and  peduncles;    large,  sessile,  glaucous 


VARIETIES  457 

green  leaves,  with  cut  and  wavy  margins  ;  large  terminal 
white,  red,  or  purple  flowers,  drooping  before  they  open; 
and  globose  capsules  about  the  size  of  a  duck's  egg,  and 
containing  numerous  kidney-shaped  white  or  brown  seeds. 
Of  the  several  varieties  the  white-flowered  have  hitherto 
been  preferred,  but  the  darker-flowered,  especially  the  purple, 
are  now  stated  to  yield  a  larger  quantity  and  better  quality 
of  opium. 

The  several  varieties — of  which  the  most  notable  are 
Turkey,  East  Indian,  Egyptian,  and  European — owe  their 
characteristics  to  difierences  in  soil  and  climate,  and  also 
to  the  time  and  manner  of  collecting  and  making  up  the 
iuice.  Any  suitable  variety  of  opium  may  be  employed  as 
a  source  of  tincture  of  opium  and  extract  of  opium  of  the 
respective  alkaloidal  strengths,  provided  that  when  dry  it 
contains  not  less  than  7|  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  morphine ; 
but  when  otherwise  used  for  officially  recognised  purposes, 
opium  must  be  of  such  a  strength  that,  when  dried  and 
powdered,  it  shall  yield  not  less  than  9'5  to  lOo  per  cent,  of 
morphine  (B.P.). 

Turkey  or  Smyrna  opium,  mostly  of  fine  quality,  and 
highly  prized  in  the  English  market,  is  chiefly  collected  in 
the  north-western  districts  of  Asia  Minor.  It  occurs  in 
round,  flattened  pieces,  usually  weighing  from  half  a  pound 
to  two  pounds,  covered  with  poppy  leaves  and  the  chaffy 
seeds  of  the  rumex.  It  is  soft,  moist,  and  ductile,  and  when 
minutely  examined  is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  small  tears.  Its 
odour  is  pecuhar,  but  not  disagreeable ;  its  taste  bitter ;  its 
recent  fracture  pale  liver-brown.  It  readily  yields  its  active 
principles  to  water,  forming  a  red-brown  solution,  and  to 
alcohol  of-  all  strengths,  forming  darker-coloured  tinctures. 
Good  samples  in  a  fresh  state  contain  an  average  of  10  per 
cent,  of  morphine. 

East  Indian  opium,  a  large  proportion  of  which  is  imported 
to  China,  is  of  uniform  and  good  quality. 

Egyptian  opium,  being  generally  grown  on  moist  soils  and 
collected  before  the  capsules  are  ripe,  is  inferior  to  the  best 
Turkey  opium,  and  contains  on  an  average  about  6  per 
cent,  of  morphine. 


458  OPIUM 

European  opium.  Opium  has  been  cultivated  in  France 
and  Germany,  and  also  in  Great  Britain.  In  1818  Dr.  Young 
grew  poppies  near  Edinburgh,  and  obtained  nearly  six  ounces 
of  excellent  opium  from  a  fall  of  ground,  being  at  the  rate  of 
57|  pounds  per  acre.  A  still  more  extensive  trial  was  made 
in  1823  in  Buckinghamshire,  where  twelve  acres  of  poppies 
were  grown  with  a  return  of  16  pounds  per  acre  of  opium, 
which  realised  the  highest  price  in  the  London  market. 

Characters. — Opium  occurs  in  irregular,  red-brown  or  red- 
black  masses,  which  weigh  from  four  ounces  to  two  pounds, 
when  fresh,  plastic,  and  internally  moist,  coarsely  granular 
or  nearly  smooth,  and  reddish-  or  chestnut- brown,  but  be- 
coming harder  on  keeping,  and  darkening  to  blackish-brown 
(B.P.).  Odour  strong  and  characteristic;  taste  bitter,  per- 
sistent, and  disagreeable.  Turkey  opium,  recently  imported, 
contains  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  water,  and  is  moist  and 
plastic;  when  long  kept,  or  artificially  dried,  it  is  hard, 
and  easily  reduced  to  a  brown  powder,  which  is  apt,  unless 
carefully  preserved,  to  absorb  moisture.  When  heated  it 
softens,  and  at  high  temperatures  burns  with  a  strong, 
peculiar  odour.  Cold  water  dissolves  about  60  per  cent,  of 
a  good  dried  specimen,  and  forms  a  red-brown  solution,  in- 
cluding most  of  the  active  constituents.  Rectified  spirit 
dissolves  about  80  per  cent.,  and  forms  a  dark-brown  tincture, 
which  includes  all  the  active  principles.  Acids,  when  strong, 
disorganise  opium,  but  when  diluted  are  excellent  solvents 
for  it.  The  watery  solution  reddens  litmus,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  meconic  and  other  acids,  and  is  precipitated  by 
vegetable  astringents,  salts  of  calcium,  lead,  copper,  and 
other  metals. 

Impurities. — Inferior  specimens  of  opium  are  distinguished 
by  narrowly  examining  their  consistence,  texture,  colour, 
odour,  and  taste.  They  are  sometimes  dry,  hard,  and  resinous, 
or  oleaginous  and  waxy ;  their  fresh  fracture  devoid  of  the 
characteristic  red  tint  and  agreeable  aromatic  odour;  while 
water  and  alcohol  dissolve  them  imperfectly.  Of  the  several 
substances  used  for  adulterating,  the  most  common  are  starch 
and  molasses,  the  bruised  leaves  and  chips  of  the  poppy,  the 
juice,  pulp,  or  extract  of  the  prickly  pear,  and  opium  from 


Composition  459 

which  the  morphine  has  been  extracted.  Inorganic  matters, 
such  as  sand,  clay,  and  mud,  may  be  detected  by  inspection, 
especially  if  the  specimen  be  dried.  But  the  official  and 
most  certain  test  of  quality  or  purity  is  the  proportion  of 
morphine.  One  hundred  grains  of  good  opium  should  yield 
9-5  to  lO'o  per  cent,  of  anhydrous  morphine;  but  picked 
specimens  have  produced  22  per  cent. 

CoMPOsniON. — Opium  is  a  complex  substance.  Besides  15 
to  25  per  cent,  of  water,  it  contains  50  of  gum,  pectine,  wax, 
and  albumin ;  2  to  6  of  ash ;  traces  of  an  aromatic  volatile 
oil ;  while  combined  with  meconic,  thebolactic,  phosphoric, 
and  sulphuric  acids  are  a  number  of  alkaloids  in  variable 
proportions,  together  amounting  to  20  per  cent.  The  most 
important  are  morphine,  codeine,  narcotine,  and  thebaine. 
There  are  also  two  neutral  bodies,  meconin  and  meconiasin. 

Subjoined  is  a  list  of  these  opium  alkaloids,  arranged 
according  to  their  chemical  composition : — 

Hydroctarnine,      .        .  C^ijHjjNOg  Papaverine, .  CoiH^iNO^ 

Morphine  (12  per  cent.),  C^^H^^NOg  Meconidine, .  C.^iHggNO^ 

Oxymorphine,       .         .  Cj^H^gNO^  Laudanosine,  CoiH^^NO^ 

Codeine,        .         .        .  CigH^iNOg  Cryptopine,  .  C21H23XO5 

Thebaine  (-3  per  cent.), .  C19H21NO3  Narcotine,    .  C.^HjgNO^ 

Laudanine,    .         .         .  C20H25XO4  Lanthoptine,  C23H25NO4 

Protopine,     .        .         .  CgoHjgNO^  Narceine,      .  C23H29NO9 

Some  of  these  alkaloids,  such  as  codeine  and  oxymorphine, 
are  derivatives  of  morphine.  (1)  The  codeine  series  is  pre- 
pared from  morphine  by  the  addition  of  alcohol  radicles; 
others  are  got  by  (2)  oxidation;  (3)  others  by  dehydration. 

Opium  alkaloids  differ  greatly  in  their  action.  Morphine  is 
analgesic,  and  more  or  less  hypnotic.  Thebaine  is  stimulant 
and  convulsant,  and  allied  to  strychnine.  The  best  known 
of  the  others — oxymorphine,  papaverine,  codeine,  and  nar- 
cotine— form  a  series,  in  which  the  first  resembles  the  narcotic 
morphine,  and  the  last  the  tetanising  thebaine. 

Morphine  and  its  salts  are  got  by  macerating  opium  in 
successive  portions  of  water,  which  dissolve  the  morphine 
meconate ;  calcium  chloride  is  added  to  the  solution ;  calcium 
meconate  precipitates,  and  morphine  hydrochloride  remains 


460  MORPHINE    SALTS 

in  solution,  which,  when  concentrated,  the  mor[)hine  salt 
crystallises,  is  suhjectcd  to  pressure  in  flannel  or  stout  calico, 
thus  removing  narcotine  and  colouring  matter,  and  is  redis  • 
solved  in  hot  water,  and  repeatedly  crystallised.  By  the  use 
of  animal  charcoal  colouring  matter  is  removed;  while,  to 
get  rid  of  codeine,  ammonia  is  added  to  the  watery  solution, 
when  pure  morphine  is  precipitated. 

Morphine  crj^stallises  in  minute  transparent  right  rhombic 
prisms,  usually  arranged  in  tufts.  It  has  an  intensely  bitter 
taste  and  an  alkaline  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  ether,  benzol, 
and  chloroform ;  dissolves  in  1000  times  its  weight  of  cold 
water,  in  400  of  boiling  water,  and  still  more  readily  in  oils, 
caustic  alkalies,  and  weak  acids,  with  which  it  forms  crystal- 
lisable  and  usuall}'  soluble  salts. 

Morphine  hydrochloride  (Ci-Hi.^NOg.HCl.SHgO)  is  prefer- 
able to  the  alkaloid  on  account  of  its  solubility,  is  the  salt 
in  common  use,  and  is  prepared  by  diffusing  morphine  in 
hot  distilled  water,  gradually  adding  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
setting  aside  the  solution  to  crystallise.  It  is  a  snow-white 
jDowder,  consisting  of  broken-down  crystals,  which,  when 
entire,  are  needle-like  prisms  clustering  in  radiated  groups. 
It  is  without  odour,  but  has  the  intensely  bitter  taste  of 
morjDhine.  It  is  soluble  in  twenty-four  parts  of  cold  water, 
one  part  of  boiling  water,  eight  parts  or^lycerin,  and  in  fifty 
parts  of  rectified  spirit. 

Morphine  acetate  and  tartrate  are  sometimes  used,  and 
are  prepared  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  hydrochloride.  The 
acetate  is  a  white  powder,  almost  entirely  soluble  in  two  and 
a  half  parts  of  water,  in  five  of  glycerin,  and  in  one  hundred 
of  rectified  spirit.  The  tartrate  is  soluble  in  eleven  parts  of 
cold  water,  but  not  in  alcohol. 

Codeine  is  methyl-morphine.  Mori)liine  =  Ci7HisN02(OH) ;  codeine  = 
(C,7llisv*^'H3)N03H.p).  It  is  present  iu  opium  in  the  proportion  of  J  to  1 
per  cent.  It  is  a  colourless,  bitter  alkaloid,  crystallising  in  triinetric  crystals, 
soluble  in  eighty  parts  cold  water,  in  less  than  two  parts  of  alcohol  and  chloro- 
form, in  ammonia  and  dilute  acids.  Unlike  morphine,  it  is  insoluble  in  cold, 
weak,  caustic  potash,  and  is  nnatl'ecterl  by  ferric  chloride.  Like  the  other 
opium  alkaloids,  it  exhibits  the  twofold  stimulant  and  hypnotic  action, 
but  its  hypnotic  power  is  slight,  and,  like  methyl  compounds  of  the  alkaloids, 
it  notably  stimulates  the  motor  centres,  and  full  doses  cause  tetanic  con- 
vulsions similar  to  those  produced  by  strychnine  or  picrotoxin.  It  lessens 
irritability  of  the  digestive  tract.     When  given  for  several  days  to  dogs, 


OPlUxM    ALKALOIDS  461 

cats,  or  rabbits,  arsenic  or  other  irritants  administered  cause  neither  vomit- 
ing nor  purging.  It  also  diminishes  the  production  of  hepatic  sugar,  and 
is  hence  prescribed  in  diabetes  mellitus  in  human  patients  (Brunton).  It 
is  given  in  man  to  relieve  irritable,  spasmodic  cough.  Professor  Thomas 
Fraser,  as  the  result  of  various  observations,  states,  however,  that  vk'hile  it 
is  more  expensive,  it  is  not  so  effectual  as  morphine.  The  dose  is  twelve 
to  fifteen  times  greater  than  that  of  morphine.  It  is  prescribed  as  the 
phosphate  of  codeine, 

Apomorphine  hydrochloride,  Ci^H^yNO.^.HCl,  is  the  hydro- 
chloride of  an  alkaloid  obtained  by  heating  morphine  hydro- 
chloride or  codeine  hydrochloride  in  sealed  tubes  with 
hydrochloric  acid  (B.P.).  It  occurs  in  small,  greyish-white, 
shining,  acicular  crystals,  soluble  in  lifty  parts  cold  water,  and 
more  soluble  in  rectified  spirit.  It  is  neutral  to  litmus 
solution.  It  is  a  prompt  and  effectual  emetic  in  animals 
that  vomit,  acting  on  the  vomiting  centre.  When  gr.  |, 
dissolved  in  water,  is  swallowed  by  either  men  or  dogs, 
repeated  vomiting  occurs,  but  is  not  followed  by  so  much 
nausea  as  usually  follows  the  usa  of  tartar  emetic.  In  dogs 
and  cats,  freshly  prepared  solutions  have  the  advantage  of 
producing  immediate  emesis,  when  used  hypodermically  in 
doses  of  gr.  i  to  ^V-  It  increases  bronchial,  intestinal,  and 
pancreatic  secretions.  It  appears  to  act  specially  on  the 
basal  ganglia,  cerebellum,  and  corpora  quadrigemina,  first 
stimulating,  and  then  paralysing  them  ;  large  doses  in  cats, 
dogs,  as  well  as  in  rabbits,  producing,  besides  vomiting,  inco- 
ordinate manege  movements,  and  subsequently  difficult 
breathing,  and  muscular  paralysis.  It  does  not,  like  mor- 
phine, affect  sensory  or  motor  nerves  (Brunton).  Friedberger 
states  that  sucking  lambs,  suffering  from  gastric  obstruction 
produced  by  wool,  are  reported  to  have  been  promptly  relieved 
by  1  J-  to  3  grains,  given  hypodermically.  Major  F.  Smith, 
A.  V.  Dep.  states  that  2-grain  doses  given  to  horses  produce 
intense  delirium  and  nervousness,  constant  movement  of 
the  limbs,  sweating,  and  every  appearance  of  approach- 
ing dissolution.  The  B.P.  Injectio  Apomorphinse  Hypo- 
dermica,  contains  1  grain  of  apomorphine  hydrochloride 
in  110  minims.  Dose,  as  an  emetic  for  the  dog,  gr.  Jy  to 
gr.  i  given  subcutaneously. 

Thebaine  or  Paramorphine  is  present  to  the  extent  of  h  per  cent.,  is 
obtained  in  minute,  colourless,  rectangular  prisms,  melting  at  380°  Fahr., 


462  OPIUM — MORPHINE 

has  an  alkaline  taate  and  reaction,  is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  forty-five  parts  of  rectified  spirit,  and  still  more  so  in  ether  and  chloroform. 
With  cold  sulphuric  acid  it  forms  a  blood-red  solution.  It  has  very  slif^ht 
hypnotic  action,  prominently  exhibits  the  excitant  effects  of  opium,  stimu- 
lates the  motor  tract  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  causes,  like  strychnine, 
muscular  rigidity  and  convulsions.  One  to  two  grains,  injected 
hypodeiniically,  produce  fatal  tetanus  in  dogs  (Dr.  J.  Harley). 

Narcotine  exists  in  opium  in  quantities  varying  from  4  to  6  per  cent,, 
and  is  got  by  treating  the  insoluble  residue  left  in  the  preparation  of  mor- 
phine with  diluted  acetic  acid,  precipitating  the  solution  with  ammonia, 
and  purifying  with  hot  alcohol  and  animal  charcoal.  Its  colourless  rhombic 
prisms  melt  at  350'  Fahr.,  have  an  insipid  taste,  and  are  soluble  in  ether, 
alcohol,  and  weak  acids  ;  notably  in  chloroform,  but  not  in  cold  water. 
It  is  a  feeble  base,  and  is  distinguished  from  morphine  by  having  no  Ijitter 
taste,  no  reaction  on  vegetable  colouring  matter,  and  no  efl'ect  on  forric- 
chloride.  Inappropriately  named,  it  is  devoid  of  narcotism  ;  is  tonic  and 
antiperiodic  ;  and  has  been  used  in  India  as  a  substitute  for  quinine  in 
the  treatment  of  malarial  fevers.     Large  doses  are  convulsant. 

Narceine  occurs  as  ;i  light,  colourless,  bitter,  asbestos-like  body,  made 
up  of  soft,  needle  like  crystals,  melting  at  293°  Fahr.,  soluble  in  100  parts 
of  boiling  water,  400  of  cold,  and  rather  more  soluble  in  glycerin  and 
diluted  hydrochloric  acid.  Somewhat  contradictory  opinions  are  expressed 
regarding  its  actions.  In  dogs,  grs.  v.,  subcutaneously  injected,  produce 
calmative  and  hypnotic  effects,  similar,  it  is  said,  to  those  induced  by  a 
grain  of  morphine.  Poisonous  doses  arrest  respiratory  movements,  but  do 
not  cause  convulsions  (Dr.  J.  Harley).  It  resembles  morphine  in  its 
anexosniotic  actions. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Opium  lias  a  complex  and  somewhat 
variable  composition,  and  its  alkaloids  have  different,  and 
some  of  them  opposite,  effects ;  hence  its  actions  are  liable 
to  variation.  Opium,  morphine,  and  its  salts,  temporarily 
stimulate  and  subsequently  paralyse  the  cutaneous  and 
mucous  structures  and  endings  of  sensory  nerves  with  which 
they  are  brought  into  contact,  and  this  twofold  stimulation 
and  paralysis  are  repeated  when  the  drugs  are  absorbed. 
The  effects  differ  in  the  same  individual  according  to  the 
dose,  and  in  man  and  the  lower  animals  according  to  the 
relative  development  of  the  several  parts  of  the  central 
nervous  system.  In  man,  the  higher  brain  centres,  on  which 
the  drug  acts  primarily  and  prominently,  are  paralysed,  and 
the  patient  is  usually  calmed,  sleeps,  and,  where  large  doses 
are  given,  becomes  comatose.  In  the  lower  animals  opiates 
stimulate  the  locomotor  centres  of  the  brain  and  the  reflex 
centres  of  the  cord,  and  instead  of  being  quieted  and  hypno- 
tised, the  subject  at  first  is  excited,  and  exhibits  irregular, 
involuntary  movements,  tetanic  convulsions,  and,  as  death 
approaches,  coma,  from  which,  however,  it  can  be  readily 


GENERAL    ACTIONS  463 

roused.  Opiates  kill  by  respiratory  arrest.  Medicinal  doses 
are  analgesic  and  antispasmodic,  diminish  tlie  several  secre- 
tions, excepting  those  of  the  skin,  and,  in  combination  with 
other  drugs,  are  sometimes  used  as  calmatives  for  horses  and 
dogs.     They  are  applied  locally  to  relieve  irritability  and  pain. 

General  Actions. — Opium,  morphine,  and  its  salts,  applied 
to  thin  or  denuded  skin  surfaces  or  mucous  membranes, 
temporarily  stimulate  or  irritate,  and  subsequently  para- 
lyse, diminishing  sensibility  and  motility.  These  twofold 
actions  of  stimulation  and  depression  characterise  in  greater 
or  less  degree  opium  and  morphine,  howsoever  administered. 
Sensory,  and  to  a  less  extent  motor,  nerves  have  their  irrita- 
bility first  increased  and  then  diminished.  The  in-contact 
paralysant  eflfects,  with  relief  of  irritation  and  pain,  are 
directly  and  quickly  produced  by  hj-podermic  injection 
of  morphine.  When  administered  by  the  mouth,  opiates 
slightly  augment  the  secretion  of  the  salivary  and  gastro- 
intestinal glands  with  which  they  are  brought  into  contact. 
Full  doses  cause  some  amount  of  gastric  irritation,  occa- 
sionally producing  vomiting  in  man  and  dogs,  but  shortly, 
and  more  notably  and  permanently,  they  diminish  gastro- 
intestinal secretion  and  movement. 

After  absorption,  full  doses  induce  primary,  usually  brief, 
stimulation,  followed  by  disorder  and  paresis  of  the  central 
nervous  system.  In  veterinary  patients  the  prominent 
phenomena  are  agitation,  unrest,  inco-ordinate,  generally 
manege,  movements,  diminished  sensibility  to  pain,  indis- 
position for  voluntary  movement,  and,  in  toxic  doses,  con- 
vulsions, coma,  and  death  by  respiratory  arrest.  Moderate 
doses  dilate  the  blood-vessels  and  quicken  heart  action,  and 
this  is  more  notable  in  horses  than  in  man.  But  repeated 
full  doses  slow  heart  action  in  all  animals.  Moderate  doses 
slow  respiration  and  render  it  irregular.  The  rectal  tem- 
perature is  temporarily  raised ;  skin  temperature  from  in- 
creased transpiration  is  reduced ;  but  lethal  doses,  depressing 
the  heat-producing  centres,  eventually  lower  the  general 
temperature.  Opium,  morphine,  and  narceine  diminish  all 
secretions  excepting  those  of  the  skin  and  kidneys,  their 
effect  on  the   latter   organs   being  variable.     By  lessening 


464       OPIUM — EFFECTS    ON    HORSES,    CATTLE,    DOGS 

reflex  activity,  and  paralysing  both  striped  and  unstriped 
muscles,  they  are  notable  antispasmodics.  Full  doses  first 
contract  and  subsequentl3Mlilate  the  pupil,  owing  to  paralysis 
of  the  brain  centres,  but  the  pupil  is  not  affected  by  topical 
applications.  Opiates  are  discoverable  a  few  hours  after 
administration  in  the  secretions  of  the  skin  and  intestines 
and  still  more  notably  in  the  urine,  and  when  full  doses 
have  been  given  they  continue  to  be  excreted  for  several 
days. 

Different  animals  are  somewhat  differently  affected  by 
opiates,  depending  upon  the  relative  development  of  different 
parts  of  their  central  nervous  system.  The  higher  the  de- 
velopment, the  greater  is  the  susceptibility  of  an  organ  to 
the  operation  of  the  drugs  which  act  upon  it.  Compared 
with  the  lower  animals,  the  cerebrum  of  man  is  relatively 
heavier  and  more  highly  organised  than  the  mesencephalon, 
the  cerebellum,  and  the  spinal  cord ;  and  this  explains  why 
opiates  given  to  man  in  relatively  small  doses  quickly  and 
without  marked  sthnulation  paralyse  the  human  cerebral 
centres,  inducing  sleep,  and,  in  large  doses,  coma.  Horses, 
with  less  development  of  these  higher  brain  centres,  have 
relatively  more  development  of  the  locomotor  centres  and  of 
the  reflex  centres  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  upon  these  lower 
centres  opiates  in  equine  subjects  exert  their  primary  stimu- 
lant effects.  Full  doses  produce,  at  first,  restless,  involun- 
tary movements  of  the  head  and  limbs,  pawing,  or  walking 
continuously  round  the  box;  followed  by  sleepiness,  dis- 
inclination to  move,  and  when  moved  staggering.  Excessive 
doses  cause  tetanic  convulsions. 

Ruminants,  like  horses,  are  usually  excited  and  restless. 
Cattle  bellow,  digestion  is  deranged,  and  tympanites  fre- 
quently supervenes.  Sleep  is  not  quickly  or  readily  induced, 
excepting  by  full  and  repeated  doses. 

Dogs  exhibit  eftbcts  intermediate  between  those  observed 
in  man  and  in  horses.  Relatively  to  their  body-weight,  they 
take  eight  or  ten  times  the  doses  prescribed  for  man.  They 
show  more  preliminary  excitement  than  man,  but  less  in- 
voluntary muscular  movement  than  the  horse,  and  during 
drowsiness   and   sleep   muscular   twitchings   occur.     Sleep, 


TOXIC   EFFECTS  465 

however,  is  never  very  profound ;  the  dogs  are  easily 
awakened;  they  dream,  and  have  haUucinations,  and  after 
full  doses  remain  stupid  for  a  day.  Although  the  skin  is 
congested  and  hot,  there  is  no  notable  increase  of  secretion 
such  as  occurs  in  man  and  occasionally  in  horses.  Cats  are 
as  much  excited  as  horses  or  cattle,  more  so  than  dogs,  and 
hypnosis  is  produced  with  difficulty. 

Rabbits  also  have  their  motor  and  spinal  centres  promi- 
nently affected,  and  convulsions  are  more  common  than 
hypnotism.  Mice  receiving  a  fraction  of  a  grain  of  morphine 
are  restless,  have  spasms,  breathe  irregularly,  but  sleep  only 
when  dangerous  doses  are  given.  Birds  are  curiously  in- 
susceptible; relatively  to  their  weight  they  take  three 
hundred  times  the  dose  given  to  man,  do  not  sleep,  or  show 
any  alteration  of  the  pupil.  Pigeons  swallowing  ten  grains, 
or  receiving  hypodermically  three  grains,  are  seized  with 
inco-ordinate  movements,  laboured  breathing,  and  convul- 
sions ;  the  temperature  falls  sometimes  five  or  six  degrees, 
and  they  usually  die.  Mixed  with  the  food  of  poultry, 
opium  retards  digestion,  the  crop  remaining  full  for  three 
times  the  normal  period.  Cold-blooded  animals  are  even 
less  susceptible  than  birds.  In  proportion  to  their  weight, 
frogs  take  with  impunity  a  thousand  times  the  dose  that 
would  poison  a  man,  and  one  or  two  grains  cause  convul- 
sions, paralysis,  and  respiratory  arrest.  Morphine  is  excreted 
in  the  sweat  and  urine. 

Toxic  Effects.  —  Opium  and  its  preparations  annually 
destroy  in  Great  Britain  upwards  of  one  hundred  human 
lives,  three-fourths  being  children  under  five  years.  In  the 
domesticated  animals  accidental  poisoning  with  opiates 
occurs  occasionally,  intentional  poisoning  very  rarely. 

Horses  with  impunity  take  by  the  mouth  about  one 
hundred  times  as  much  opium  as  would  poison  a  man. 
Hertwig  mentions  that  two  to  four  drachms  produce  slight 
stimulation,  and  that  an  ounce  in  solution  caused  first  in- 
creased liveliness,  and,  after  two  hours,  dulness,  diminished 
sensibility,  slower  circulation,  less  frequent  evacuations,  and 
stupor — symptoms  which  continued  for  twelve  hours,  but 
entirely  disappeared  the  following  day.     Two  ounces  and  a 

2g 


4G6  OPIUM — MORPHINE 

half  induced  similar  effects,  with  convulsions  and  death  in 
about  twenty  hours.  Four  drachms  powdered  opium  caused 
little  effect  for  seven  hours,  and  then  only  acceleration  of 
the  pulse.  Even  four  ounces  of  laudanum  are  stated  to  have 
had  little  effect  {Old  Vegetable  Neurotics). 

I  gave  a  strong,  healthy  cart-horse  one  ounce  powdered 
opium  dissolved  in  water ;  the  pulse  in  eight  minutes  fell 
from  44  to  34  beats  per  minute ;  the  superficial  muscles 
were  relaxed,  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  blanched,  and 
the  animal  was  dull  and  dejected.  After  half  an  hour  four 
drachms  were  given,  increasing  the  dulness  and  lowering 
the  pulse  to  32.  Half  an  hour  later  the  animal,  continuing 
in  the  same  state,  was  destroyed  by  cutting  the  carotid 
artery.  A  mare,  aged  and  rather  feeble,  had  drachm  doses 
in  solution  thrice  a  day.  She  exhibited  dulness,  loss  of 
appetite,  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  diminished  force  of  the 
pulse,  and  died  on  the  fourth  day,  having  received  nine 
doses.  One  drachm,  given  thrice  a  day  to  a  healthy 
donkey,  induced  after  the  sixth  dose  acceleration  of  the 
pulse  to  88,  restlessness,  vertigo,  nausea,  champing  of  the 
teeth,  and  death  on  the  third  day. 

In  horses,  Dr.  Harley  and  Messrs.  Mavor  hypodermically  in- 
jected four  grains  of  morphine  acetate,  and  recorded  marked 
acceleration  of  the  pulse,  increase  alike  of  its  force  and 
volume,  restlessness,  pawing,  augmented  moisture  of  mouth 
and  skin,  elevation  of  temperature,  and  slight  dilatation  of 
the  pupils.  Twelve  grains,  dissolved  in  three  drachms  of 
water,  injected  by  three  punctures,  produced  light  drowsi- 
ness, followed  after  three  hours  by  excitement,  restlessness, 
and  slight  delirium,  continuing  about  six  hours.  Thirty-six 
grains,  in  seven  drachms  of  water,  introduced  by  three 
punctures  into  a  seven-year-old  hunter  in  good  condition, 
caused  drowsiness  and  stupor,  coming  on  in  fifteen  minutes, 
and  continuing  for  three  hours,  slight  muscular  tremors, 
awkward,  staggering  gait,  leaning  against  the  sides  of  his 
box,  dilated  and  fixed  pupils,  blindness  and  insensibility  to 
light ;  the  respiration,  at  first  slow  and  sighing,  gradually 
became  accelerated.  The  dilatation  of  the  pupil  is  opposed 
to  the  contraction  so  constantly  seen  in  man.     After  the 


TOXIC  EFFECTS  467 

tliircl  hour  restlessness  and  delirium  set  in,  continuing  for 
seven  hours;  he  walked  rapidly,  and  even  ran  round  his 
box;  his  pulse  was  96,  full  and  thrilling;  the  skin  damp 
with  perspiration;  the  membranes  of  the  eyes,  nose,  and 
mouth  intensely  injected.  For  twenty-four  hours  the  effects 
continued ;  the  secretions  were,  however,  unaffected,  but  the 
horse  was  left  exhausted. 

Mr.  F.  Mavor,  experimenting  with  a  well-bred  three-year- 
old  colt,  injected  subcutaneously  four  grains  morphine  ;  in 
two  hours  the  pulse  had  risen  from  36  to  64 ;  the  tempera- 
ture advanced  fully  one  degree ;  two  hours  later  the  pulse 
was  57,  the  temperature  remained  the  same,  the  pupils  were 
dilated,  the  patient  restless,  the  tongue  moist ;  the  effects 
gradually  abated,  and  disappeared  in  twenty-four  hours 
{Veterinarian,  1874). 

Mr.  A.  E.  Macgillivray,  who  has  used  morphine  hydro- 
chloride hypodermically  for  years,  states  that  in  susceptible 
horses  he  has  repeatedly  found  four  to  five  grains  induce 
staring  eyes,  restlessness,  prancing  round  the  box,  increased 
rapidity  and  threadiness  of  the  pulse — symptoms  which 
sometimes  continue  three  to  five  hours  {Veterinariam., 
1881). 

Majors  Fred.  Smith  and  C.  Rutherford,  of  the  A.V.D., 
made  a  series  of  experiments  with  alkaloids  at  Aldershot, 
and  obligingly  furnish  me  with  the  following  notes : — A  bay 
gelding  had  three  grains  morphine  injected  hypodermically, 
and  in  fifteen  minutes  had  shaking  of  the  head,  which 
continued  more  or  less  for  a  couple  of  hours ;  but  there  were 
no  other  appreciable  symptoms.  A  bay  gelding,  fed  on  hay 
and  grass,  in  October  1887 — during  warm  weather — with  a 
pulse  of  38,  respirations  12,  and  pupil  half  an  inch  vertical 
diameter,  had  five  grains  morphine  injected.  In  forty 
minutes  the  pulse  was  42,  respiration  and  pupils  unchanged. 
He  walked  occasionally  round  his  box,  threw  back  his  ears ; 
a  patch  of  perspiration  appeared  on  the  breast,  around  the 
seat  of  injection;  the  head  was  frequently  shaken;  the 
animal  was  easily  startled.  The  effects  wore  off  in  about  an 
hour  and  a  half 

In  experiments  with  morphine   and   atropine   injected 


468  OPIUM — MORPHINE 

together,  Major  Rutherford  records  that  the  horses  were 
more  readily  excited  than  when  morphine  was  given 
alone.  They  moved  ahnost  constantly  round  the  box,  had 
rhythmical  movements  of  the  head,  and  dilated  pupils. 
Morphine  five  grains,  injected  with  fifteen  minims  atropine 
solution,  caused,  in  fifteen  minutes,  uneasiness,  walking  round 
the  box,  throwing  up  and  shaking  of  the  head,  slight 
pawing,  dilated  pupils,  nervousness,  and  excitability.  These 
symptoms  continued  for  one  and  a  half  hour,  when  they 
gradually  abated ;  but  the  animal  for  six  hours  still  remained 
easily  excited,  and  a  '  little  on  the  move.' 

Twelve  grains  morphine  acetate,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of 
water  and  swallowed  b}^  a  horse,  had  no  effect  beyond 
increasing  the  pulsations  eight  beats.  One  hundred  grains 
acetate,  swallowed  in  solution,  caused  convulsions  and  killed 
the  horse  in  three  hours  (Wood's  Treatise  on  Therapeutics). 
Kaufmann  states  that  forty-five  to  seventy-five  grains  of 
the  hydrochloride,  given  hypodermically,  poison  horses. 

Ruminants  are  not  so  susceptible,  especially  to  opiates 
given  by  the  mouth.  Cows  and  sheep,  to  which  I  gave  re- 
spectively, an  ounce  and  four  drachms  of  opium,  exhibited 
dryness  of  the  mouth,  occasional  nausea  and  restlessness, 
acceleration,  and  subsequently  slight  slowing  of  the  pulse. 
Frohner  hypodermically  injected  a  cow  with  fifteen  grains 
morphine  hydrochloride ;  she  lowed  hoarsely,  became  excited, 
and  tympanitic  ;  but  the  effects  passed  off  in  an  hour.  Kauf- 
mann gives  one  to  two  drachms  as  the  toxic  dose  for  cattle, 
and  fifteen  to  thirty  grains  for  sheep  and  goats.  Swine, 
receiving  one  or  two  drachms  of  opium,  become  first  lively 
and  then  dull  and  sleepy,  with  hot  skin  and  constipated 
bowels. 

Dogs,  swallowing  moderate  doses,  usually  become  stupid 
and  drowsy,  but  occasionally  are  rendered  delirious,  espe- 
cially by  large  doses.  The  pupil  is  not  dilated,  as  is  frequent 
in  the  horse  and  cat,  nor  continuously  contracted,  as  in  man, 
but  is  contracted  while  the  dog  is  asleep  or  narcotised. 
Two  to  three  drachms  of  opium  cause,  within  a  few  minutes, 
increased  force  and  frequency  of  the  circulation ;  followed  by 
nausea,  a  staggering,  unsteady  gait,  twitching  of  the  limbs, 


ANTIDOTES  469 

clonic  spasms,  stertorous  breathing,  drowsiness,  stupor,  and 
sometimes  death.  The  symptoms  continue  from  three  to 
fifteen  hours,  and  most  animals  surviving  the  latter  period 
recover.  Dr.  Harley  injected  twenty  minims  laudanum 
under  the  skin  of  a  bitch  about  25  lbs.  weight ;  she  was 
nauseated ;  in  fifteen  minutes  she  vomited ;  had  spasms  of 
the  diaphragm,  the  bowels  acted,  mucus  ran  from  the 
mouth ;  within  an  hour  the  pulse  had  fallen  from  120  to  78, 
and  w^as  irregular ;  the  animal  lay  quiet,  but  did  not  sleep  or 
show  narcotism.  Twenty  minims  more  Avere  injected ;  the 
pulse  fell  to  72,  and  was  regular;  respirations  16,  and 
regular ;  half  an  hour  later  she  closed  her  eyes  and  was 
drowsy,  continued  so  for  an  hour,  but  did  not  actually  sleep. 

Morphine  acetate,  half  a  grain,  subcutaneously  injected  by 
Dr.  Harley  into  a  bitch  weighing  25  lbs.,  in  a  few  minutes 
caused  vomiting  and  urination.  She  lay  motionless,  her 
nose  on  the  rug,  her  fore  and  hind  limbs  fully  extended. 
For  upwards  of  three  hours  she  was  so  completely  narcotised 
that  the  eyes  were  insensible  to  light,  the  pupils  much 
contracted;  the  pulse  fell  from  120  to  50,  and  became 
irregular ;  the  respirations  went  down  from  20  to  14,  and 
were  shallow ;  the  muscles  were  flaccid.  Two  to  three 
grains,  subcutaneously  injected,  killed  dogs  of  12  lbs.  to 
16  lbs.  in  ten  or  twelve  hours ;  doses  insufficient  to  kill 
develop  in  most  dogs  excitant  instead  of  soporific  effects. 
The  spinal  cord  is  more  notably  affected  than  the  brain ; 
vomiting,  nausea,  restlessness,  and  delirium  are  the  usual 
symptoms. 

Post-mortem  discovers  the  results  of  asphyxia.  The 
blood  is  fluid  and  dark-coloured,  but  it  does  not  yield  on 
analysis  any  indications  of  the  poison.  There  is  general 
venous  engorgement ;  the  lungs  and  brain  are  markedly 
congested.  The  ventricles  of  the  brain  and  subarachnoid 
spaces  contain  more  fluid  than  usual. 

Antidotes. — Opium  is  not  very  quickly  absorbed  ;  when  a 
poisonous  dose  has  been  swallowed,  the  stomach  should  be 
emptied  as  soon  as  possible,  preferably  by  the  stomach 
pump,  and  washed  with  solution  of  potassium  permanganate. 
Administration  of  nitrites,  and  of  small  doses  of  atropine, 


470  OPIUM — MORPHINE 

hypodermically,  maintain  cardiac  action ;  but  the  atropine 
must  be  used  cautiously,  as  full  doses  are  apt  to  intensify 
paralysis  both  of  the  heart  and  cord.  The  lethal  tendency 
is  further  combated  by  strychnine,  used  hypodermically,  and 
by  artificial  respiration.  Coma  is  prevented  by  giving  strong 
coffee  and  stimulant  enomata,  and  keeping  the  patient 
moving.  Tincture  of  galls  and  other  chemical  antidotes  are 
of  little  avail. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Opium  and  morphine  are  used  to  relieve 
symptoms  rather  than  to  remove  the  conditions  on  which 
they  depend.  Small  doses  are  nerve  stimulants,  and  retard 
digestion  and  metabolism.  The  Cutch  horsemen  share  their 
opium  with  their  jaded  steeds,  and  increased  capability  of 
endurance  is  observed  alike  in  man  and  beast.  In  the  lower 
animals,  as  already  indicated,  they  do  not  produce  the  general 
calmative  and  hypnotic  effects  which  characterise  their  use 
in  man,  but  applied  topically  they  effectually  allay  pain  and 
spasm.  In  human  patients  opiates  cause  notable  vascular 
dilatation,  and  hence  relieve  congestion  and  inflammation. 
(Brunton).  But  in  the  lower  animals  vascular  dilatation 
occurs  only  when  toxic  doses  are  used  (Frohner),  and  accord- 
ingly the  antipyretic  and  anti-inflammatory  power  of  opiates 
must  be  considerably  less  than  in  man.  Moreover,  owing  to 
the  greater  excitant  action  in  veterinary  patients,  the  admini- 
stration of  opium  does  not  blunt  the  perception  of  pain  as 
effectually  as  it  does  in  human  patients.  When,  however, 
a  morphine  salt  is  injected  hypodermically,  fifteen  to  thirty 
minutes  previous  to  the  inhalation  of  chloroform  or  ether, 
anaesthesia  is  intensified  and  -prolonged,  and  the  ana3Sthetic 
is  economised. 

•In  gastritis  and  gastro-enteritis,  whether  produced  by 
disease  or  by  swallowing  acrid  poisons,  opiates  are  anodyne, 
astringent,  and  hii3mostatic.  Obstinate  chronic  vomiting', 
in  either  dogs  or  pigs,  whether  depending  upon  irritation  of 
the  stomach  or  of  the  vomiting  centre,  is  generally  relieved 
by  a  few  grains  of  opium,  given  with  chloroform  or  chloral 
hydrate.  In  gastric  irritability  it  is  sometimes  prescribed 
with  bismuth.  When,  in  weakly,  young,  growing  animals, 
food   is   hurried   too   rapidly  through  the  digestive  canal, 


MEDICINAL   USES  471 

opium  checks  excessive  secretion  and  peristalsis,  and,  con- 
joined with  mineral  acids  or  arsenic,  should  be  given  shortly 
before  feeding. 

Diarrhoea,  whether  occurring  from  congestion  of  the 
alimentary  mucous  membrane,  or  as  a  symptom  of  other 
ailments,  is  often  checked  by  a  laxative,  which  carries 
away  offending  matters.  Occasionally,  however,  the  bowels 
continue  irritable  and  relaxed ;  opium  in  such  cases  abates 
irritability,  diminishes  excessive  secretion,  and  is  administered 
with  well-boiled  starch  gruel,  sometimes  conjoined  Avith  an 
antacid,  sometimes  with  acids,  bitters,  or  vegetable  astrin- 
gents. For  such  purposes  the  following  recipes  are  used, 
alike  in  horses  and  cattle : — A  drachm  each  of  powdered 
opium,  kino,  gentian,  and  sodium  carbonate ;  or  a  drachm 
of  opium,  a  drachm  of  catechu,  or  half  a  drachm  of  tannin, 
with  half  an  ounce  of  chalk.  These  drugs  may  be  made 
into  bolus  with  treacle  or  meal  and  water,  or  dissolved  in 
ale  or  gruel,  and  given  twice  daily,  or  as  required.  An  ounce 
of  laudanum,  thirty  drops  sulphuric  acid,  two  drachms 
powdered  catechu,  with  an  ounce  of  ginger,  aniseed,  or  fenu- 
greek, make  an  astringent  anodyne  drench  for  diarrhoea  in 
cattle,  and  may  be  given  in  gruel,  ale,  or  spirits  and  water. 
Another  useful  prescription  for  relaxed  bowels  consists  of  an 
ounce  each  of  laudanum,  decoction  of  oak  bark,  sfingfer,  and 
sodium  carbonate,  given  several  times  daily  in  starch  gruel. 
One-third  of  this  dose  suffices  for  calves  of  six  months.  For 
dogs,  Stonehenge  advises  three  to  eight  drachms  laudanum, 
two  to  three  drachms  chalk,  one  drachm  aromatic  confection, 
and  two  drachms  gum  acacia,  dissolved  in  seven  ounces  of 
water,  and  of  this  mixture  prescribes  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls 
every  time  the  bowels  are  relaxed. 

In  dysentery,  whether  in  horses,  cattle,  or  dogs,  opium  is 
of  service  in  allaying  pain  and  straining,  and  may  usually  be 
freely  given,  along  with  antiseptics,  both  by  the  mouth  and 
rectum.  A  drachm  each  of  opium  and  tannin,  with  half 
a  drachm  powdered  copper  sulphate,  may  be  repeated  twice 
a  day,  for  either  horses  or  cattle.  Whilst  febrile  symptoms 
continue,  any  such  opium  mixture  must  be  used  cautiously. 
In  gastro-intestinal  cases,  opium  is  generally  contra- indicated 


472  OPIUM — MORPHINE 

when  secretion  is  impaired,  or  the  Hver  and  kidneys  act 
imperfectly. 

In  enteritis  in  horses,  Professor  Robertson  used  half  a 
drachm  each  of  powdered  opium  and  camphor,  with  live 
minims  Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite,  in  a  pint  of  gruel, 
with  or  without  a  dose  of  oil.  In  the  rapidly  fatal  muco- 
enteritis  amongst  the  heavier  breeds  of  hard- worked  horses, 
opium  and  calomel  were  prescribed  in  the  earlier  stages,  and 
opium,  belladonna,  chloral  hydrate,  and  ether  in  the  second 
stages ;  but  more  prompt  measures  are  needful  to  avert  the 
deadly  passive  haemorrhage,  and  morphine  and  atropine, 
sometimes  used  with  ergotin,  are  hypodermically  injected, 
and  repeated  every  two  hours. 

In  peritonitis,  and  hernia,  to  arrest  intestinal  movements, 
full  doses  of  opium  are  administered,  and  liniment  of  opium 
and  camphor  is  rubbed  into  the  abdominal  walls.  Obstruction 
of  the  bowels  by  concretions,  strangulation  of  the  intestine, 
or  intussusception,  is  usually  hopeless,  but  the  most  pro- 
mising treatment  consists  in  full  doses  of  opiates,  which 
combat  spasm,  irritation,  and  pain,  and  in  displacement  of 
the  bowels  may  facilitate  return  of  the  parts  to  their  normal 
position. 

Antagonising  muscular  spasm,  opium  and  morphine  are 
valuable  in  spasmodic  colic  in  horses,  being  usually  con- 
joined with  ether,  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  chloral  hydrate, 
chloroform,  spirit  of  ammonia,  or  oil  of  turpentine,  and  with 
laxatives  as  aloes,  and  linseed  or  castor  oil.  For  general 
service  four  or  five  drachms  of  aloes  are  rubbed  down  in 
a  quart  of  tepid  water,  and,  when  the  solution  is  nearly  cold, 
an  ounce  each  of  laudanum  and  ether  is  added;  while  in 
large  horses  the  dose  of  the  anodyne  and  stimulant  may  be 
doubled.  If  more  convenient,  the  aloes  may  be  given  in 
bolus,  the  laudanum  and  ether  in  draught. 

As  an  antispasmodic  for  the  dog,  Stonehenge  advises 
half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  each  of  laudanum  and  ether,  given 
in  an  ounce  of  camphor  mixture.  Major  Fred.  Smith,  A.V.D., 
informs  me  of  the  following  case,  illustrating  the  powerful 
antispasmodic  effect  of  morphine  on  the  dog: — A  collie 
poisoned  with  strychnine,  and  so  convulsed  that  recovery 


ALLAY    IRRITABILITY,  PAIX,  AND  SPASM  473 

seemed  impossible,  liad  five  grains  morphine  injected  bypo- 
dermically ;  the  muscular  spasms  ceased,  he  slept  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  recovered. 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,  with  shallow,  embar- 
rassed breathing,  are  unsuitable  cases  for  full  doses  of  either 
opium  or  morphine,  which  are  apt  still  further  to  depress 
respiratory  function,  and  lead  to  death  by  apnoea.  Pleurisy, 
however,  may  be  treated  by  larger  and  more  frequently 
repeated  doses  than  bronchitis  or  pneumonia.  Besides 
topical  analgesic  effects  produced  when  slowly  swallowed, 
opiates,  when  absorbed,  diminish  excitability  of  the  respiratory 
centre,  and  thus  relieve  cough,  and  pain  of  the  throat  and 
chest.  Belladonna  and  opium,  although  in  large  doses  op- 
posed in  their  effects  on  the  respiratory  centre — the  former 
acting  as  an  excitant,  the  latter  as  a  depressant — in  medicinal 
doses  are  sometimes  advantageously  conjoined  in  allaying 
bronchial  irritability.  In  the  catarrhal  epizootics  of  horses, 
after  a  few  doses  of  salines,  half  a  drachm  each  of  opium 
and  belladonna  extract,  conjoined  with  an  ounce  of  spirit 
of  chloroform,  ether,  or  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  and  repeated 
two  or  three  times  daily,  frequently  abates  vascular  conges- 
tion and  cough.  A  similar  prescription  answers  in  asthma 
— a  common  complaint  in  dogs ;  but  in  this,  as  in  other 
diseases,  more  prompt  and  certain  effects  are  obtained  by 
the  hvpodermic  injection  of  morphine  and  atropine. 

Rheumatism  is  sometimes  advantageously  treated  with 
opium,  prescribed  in  the  earher  and  more  acute  stages  with 
calomel  and  salines ;  and  in  more  chronic  cases  used  both 
locally  and  generally,  and  along  with  turpentine  and  other 
stimulants,  smart  friction  and  warm  clothing.  Neuralgic 
pains  occurring  in  horses,  and  causing  puzzling — sometimes 
frequently  shifting — lameness,  are  relieved,  and  occasionally 
cured,  b}'  morphine  injected  deeply  into  the  atfected  muscles. 

American  practitioners  prescribe  opium  and  also  morphine, 
by  the  mouth  and  hypodermically,  in  combating  the  rigidity 
and  pain  of  spinal  meningitis.  Tetanus,  occurring  in  young 
animals,  is  sometimes  successfully  treated  by  opium,  especially 
when  conjoined  with  antiseptics  and  chloral  or  conium ; 
while  in  the  more  serious  cases  amongst  adults,  spasms  and 


474  OPIUM — MORPHINE 

morbidly  acute  sensibility  have  been  removed  for  several 
hours  by  the  hypodermic  injection  of  morphine,  deeply 
inserted  into  the  tetanised  muscles.  In  hysteria  it  is 
prescribed  with  potassium  bromide  and  camphor. 

Opiates  are  of  service  alike  in  mares,  cows,  and  bitches,  in 
allaying  post-partum  irritability,  straining,  and  bleeding, 
for  which  they  are  sometimes  conjoined  with  chloral  or 
chloroform.  Morphine,  given  either  by  the  mouth  or  hypo- 
dermically,  alone,  or,  better  still,  conjoined  with  atropine, 
is  often  effectual  in  arresting  premature  labour  pains. 
Some  practitioners  recommend  opiates  in  epilepsy  and 
chorea,  but  they  are  of  little  use  in  either.  They  were 
formerly  used  in  polyuria  of  horses,  but  are  not  so  effectual 
as  iodine.  Although  powerless  to  arrest  tuberculosis,  they 
are  often  serviceable  in  relieving  the  accompanying  cough 
and  diarrhoea. 

Opiates  are  contra-indicated  in  acute  fever,  in  congestive 
and  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  brain  or  kidneys,  in 
obstinate  constipation,  and  in  patients  in  an  excitable 
state.  Full  doses,  depressing  respiratory  functions,  prove 
injurious  when  there  is  a  tendency  to  death  by  suffocation. 

Externally,  opium  is  used  to  relieve  the  pain  of  wounds, 
bruises,  boils,  blistered  and  cauterised  surfaces,  and  super- 
ficial inflammation  of  the  eye,  skin,  or  joints.  For  such 
purposes  five  to  ten  drops  each  of  the  tincture  (or  aqueous 
solution),  and  Goulard's  extract,  may  be  mixed  with  an 
ounce  of  water.  As  a  topical  anodyne  its  efficacy  is  often 
increased  by  combination  with  belladonna,  chloral  hydrate, 
or  aconite.  A  dressing  of  soap  liniment,  mixed  with  opium 
tincture,  often  allays  irritability  and  pain  in  bronchitis, 
pleurisy,  and  arthritis ;  or  in  such  cases  a  flannel,  wrung  out 
of  hot  water  and  moistened  with  the  anodyne  solution  may 
be  applied.  Along  with  borax  or  alkaline  carbonate,  it  is  use- 
ful in  abating  the  irritation  of  prurigo  and  acute  eczema. 
Boils  and  carbuncles  may  sometimes  be  rendered  less  painful 
by  freely  saturating  them  with  a  strong  opiate  solution  or 
liniment,  covering  Avitli  a  piece  of  oiled  silk,  and  applying 
a  bandage..  For  haemorrhoids,  opium  is  conjoined  with 
gall  ointment.     It  is  the  anodyne  chiefly  relied  on  for  injcc- 


DOSES    AND    ADMINISTRATION  475 

tions  and  suppositories  in  enteritis  and  dysentery,  as  well  as 
in  irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  kidneys, 
bladder,  and  rectum.  The  uterus,  vai^ina,  and  urinary 
bladder,  when  everted,  should  be  washed  with  tepid  water, 
moistened  with  a  solution  of  opium  and  belladonna,  care- 
.  fully  returned,  and  retained  in  position  by  appropriate 
measures.  As  a  clyster,  opium  is  used  in  about  the  same 
quantities  as  are  given  by  the  mouth.  When  the  skin  is 
tender  or  abraded,  especially  in  small  and  young  animals, 
opiates  must  be  applied  cautiously,  lest  they  become 
absorbed,  and  produce  undue  constitutional  effects. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  opium,  horses  take  5ss.  to  5ij-  5  cattle, 
5ij.  to  5iv. ;  sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  Ix. ;  pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx. ; 
dogs,  gr,  i.  to  grs.  vj. ;  cats,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij.  Of  morphine 
salts,  horses  and  cattle  take  grs.  iii.  to  grs.  x. ;  sheep  gr.  ss. 
to  grs.  ii. ;  pigs,  gr.  -jL  to  gr.  ss. ;  dogs,  gr.  -^  to  gr.  I,  given 
in  pill  or  dissolved  in  diluted  spirit,  slightl}-  acidulated  either 
with  hydrochloric  or  acetic  acid.  In  canine  practice  lozenges 
containing  gr.  -^  opium,  or  gr.  -^  morphine  hydrochloride, 
will  be  found  convenient.  For  hypodermic  and  intra- 
tracheal injections,  the  B.P.  Injectio  Morphinae  Hypoder- 
mica,  containing  5  grains  morphine  tartrate  in  110 
minims,  should  be  used.  Stronger  solutions  of  the  acetate 
and  hydrochloride  are  also  prepared.  Tablets,  lamels, 
pellets,  and  discs,  containing  from  gr.  \  to  several  grains 
of  a  morphine  salt  are  very  convenient,  especially  for 
hypodermic  use. 

Tolerance  alike  of  opium  and  morphine  is  as  quickly 
acquired  in  the  lower  animals  as  in  man.  It  is  increased 
not  only  by  frequent  use  but  by  acute  pain.  Special  suscep- 
tibility is  observable  in  young  animals,  in  which,  accordingly, 
reduced  doses  must  be  used.  Although  oj^ium  and  morphine 
resemble  each  other,  the  crude  drug  is  more  apt  to  cause 
gastric  disturbance  and  constipation,  while  the  alkaloid 
is  more  effectual  in  arresting  pain,  esjDCcially  when  applied 
directly  to  the  affected  part,  or  used  hypodermically  or 
intratracheally. 

The  several  actions  are  altered,  intensified,  or  repressed 
by  combination  with  other  drugs.     Hypnosis  and  quieting 


476  OPIUM    PREPARATIONS 

of  nervous  excitability  are  determined  by  combining  tlie 
opiate  with  cannabis  indica,  chloral  hydrate,  and  bromides ; 
antispasmodic  eft'ects,  by  conjunction  with  ethers  or  volatile 
oils;  the  checking  of  intestinal  secretion,  by  prescription 
with  lead  acetate,  tannic  or  sulphuric  acid ;  sudorific  action 
is  promoted  by  ipecacuanha,  pilocarpine,  ammonium  acetate, 
solution,  diluents,  and  Avarm  clothing;  anodyne  properties 
are  increased  by  combination  with  atropine,  and  occasionally 
with  aconite  or  prussic  acid;  while  in  malarial  fevers, 
Indian  and  American  practitioners  prescribe  opiates  with 
quinine. 

Veterinarians  do  not  use  so  many  preparations  as  are 
employed  in  human  medicine.  Crude  opium  is  given  to 
horses  and  dogs  made  into  bolus  or  pill,  and  no  other  solid 
form  is  necessary.  To  reduce  it  to  powder,  it  is  first  dried 
in  a  vapour  bath,  and  its  trituration  is  facilitated  by  mixture 
with  potassium  sulphate,  or  other  hard  salt.  The  extract, 
containing  20  per  cent,  of  morphine,  though  somewhat  less 
bulky  than  crude  opium,  is  seldom  prescribed.  Dover's 
powder,  the  pulvis  ipecacuanha?  compositus,  consists  of  one 
part  each  of  powdered  opium  and  ipecacuanha,  and  eight 
parts  potassium  sulphate,  added  to  facilitate  trituration  and 
intermixture  of  the  vegetable  matters.  It  contains  10  per 
cent,  of  opium,  and  is  given  to  dogs  in  doses  of  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  XV.  A  watery  solution,  made  by  rubbing  down  opium 
in  hot  water,  and  giving  both  dissolved  matters  and  residue, 
has  the  merit  of  being  cheaper  than  the  tincture,  and  is 
more  prompt  and  effectual  than  the  solid  drug. 

The  B.P.  tincture  of  opium,  popularly  known  as 
laudanum,  is  made  with  three  ounces  of  opium  and  equal 
parts  of  distilled  water  and  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  It  is  now 
standardised  to  contain  075  per  cent,  of  anhydrous 
morphine.  An  ounce  contains  the  soluble  matter  of 
nearly  33  grains  of  opium,  or  about  one  grain  in  15 
minims.  For  immediate  effects  laudanum  is  usually  prefer- 
able to  solid  opium.  The  dose  for  horses  and  cattle  is 
fgj.  to  f§iij.;  for  sheep  and  pigs,  fgij.  to  f5vj. ;  for  dogs, 
TT[xv.  to  TIl^xl.  The  vinegar  and  wine  of  opium  are  seldom 
used  in  veterinary  practice  ;  but  the  Ammoniated  tincture. 


BELLADONNA  477 

known  as  Scotch  paregoric,  containing  one  grain  of 
opium  in  96  minims  is  sometimes  given.  Tinctura  cam- 
phorae  composita  or  English  paregoric,  made  with  tinc- 
ture of  opium,  benzoic  acid,  camphor,  oil  of  anise,  and 
alcohol  (60  per  cent.),  contams  I  grain  opium  in  each  fluid 
drachm.  The  liquid  extract  of  opium  contains  gr.  f  of 
morphine  in  110  minims ;  or  gr.  i.  of  opium  in  15  minims. 
Equal  parts  of  laudanum  and  soap  liniment  make  an  excel- 
lent anodyne,  much  used  externally. 

BELLADONNA 

Belladonna  Folia.     Belladonna  Leaves.     The  fresh  leaves 

and  branches  of  Atropa  Belladonna,  collected  when  the 

plant  is  in  flower.     Deadly  Nightshade.     Nat.  Ord. — 

Atropacese. 

Belladonn.^    Radix.     The    root    of   Atropa    Belladonna, 

collected  in  the  autumn  and  dried. 
Atropina.      Atropine.     An  alkaloid   obtained   from  bella- 
donna leaves  or  root.     Cj^HggNOg. 
Homatropina  Hydrobromidum.     Homatropine  Hydrobro- 
mide.       CjgHgiNOg.HBr.       The    hydrobromide    of    an 
alkaloid  prepared  from  tropine  (B.P.). 
Belladonna  grows  wild  in  most  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
especially  about  old  walls,  edges  of  plantations,  and  shady 
places  ;  but  the  great  demand  for  its  preparations  has  led  to 
its  extensive  cultivation.     It  has  a  fleshy,  wrinkled,  branch- 
ing,  perennial   root,   a    round,    branched,   reddish,   downy, 
annual  stem,  three  to  five  feet  high;  broadly  ovate,  acute, 
entire,  smooth  leaves,  supported  on  short  leaf-stalks  of  a 
sombre-green  colour,  and  having  a  faint  bitter  taste ;  pendu- 
lous, dark-purple,  bell-shaped  flowers,  appearing  in  June  or 
July  ;  a  round,  violet,  berried,  mawkish-tasted  fruit,  the  size 
of  a  small  cherry,  and  containing  numerous  kidney-shaped 
seeds.     The  plant  has  greatest  activity  towards  the  end  of 
June  and  throughout  July,  when  flowering  is  over,  and  before 
the  fruit  and  seeds  are  ripe. 

The  active  alkaloid  atropine  occurs  in  the   plant  as  a 


•178  BELLADONNA 

bimalate.  The  leaves  contain  046  per  cent.,  the  younger 
roots  as  much  as  060  per  cent.  It  is  prepared  from  a  strong 
tincture.  It  occurs  in  colourless  acicular  crystals,  is  volatile, 
has  a  bitter  taste,  is  soluble  in  800  parts  water,  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  in  chloroform.  The 
more  soluble  sulphate,  obtained  by  neutralising  atropine 
with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  is  used  in  preference  to  the 
alkaloid.  It  gives  a  citron-yellow  precipitate  with  gold 
perchloride.  An  alcohol  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  added 
to  a  crystal  or  strong  solution  of  atropine  causes  a  precipi- 
tate, which  becomes  red  on  standing  or  when  boiled.  It 
powerfully  dilates  the  pupil. 

Atropine  can  be  split  up  into  tropic  acid  and  tropine,  and 
this  base,  reunited  with  other  acids,  forms  tropeines.  When 
combined  with  oxytoluylic  acid,  the  crystalline  homatropine 
is  produced,  and  is  used  as  the  soluble  hydrobromide.  It  is 
a  weak  atropine,  and  the  solution  is  preferred  by  oculists,  as 
its  effects,  although  as  promptly  and  effectually  produced,  are 
not  so  inconveniently  jDersistent  as  those  of  atropine  sulphate. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Belladonna  and  atropine,  combined 
with  glycerin,  alcohol  or  chloroform,  which  promote  pene- 
tration, and,  applied  topically,  paralyse  sensory  nerves,  and 
hence  relieve  irritability  and  pain.  Mainly  by  paralysing 
the  terminals  of  the  third  nerve,  they  dilate  the  pupil,  and 
are  serviceable  in  relieving  congestion  and  inflammation  of 
the  eye,  and  in  facilitating  its  examination.  Atropine  is 
readily  absorbed  by  mucous  surfaces,  and  exerts  its  physio- 
logical effects  on  the  organs  with  which  it  is  brought  into 
contact.  Toxic  doses,  after  stimulating,  paralyse  the  spinal 
cord,  brain,  and  medullary  centres,  causing  irregular  move- 
ments and  delirium,  with  coma  from  impaired  respiration, 
and  kill  by  asphyxia.  Medicinal  doses  stimulate  respiratory 
and  cardiac  action,  and  hence  combat  collapse,  respiratory 
depression,  and  poisoning  by  ptomaines.  They  antagonise 
spasm,  are  used  both  topically  and  internally  in  cases  of 
intestinal  and  urinary  colic  and  in  constipation.  They 
diminish  the  secretion  of  the  salivary,  sweat,  mucous  and 
mammary  glands,  but  not  of  the  kidneys,  by  which 
atropine  is  quickly  excreted  unchanged. 


ATROPINE  479 

General  Actions. — Atropine  depresses  the  functions  of 
sensory  nerves,  and  hence  allays  irritability  and  pain  when 
applied  to  the  itching,  erythematous  or  erysipelatous  skin, 
when  injected  subcutaneously  into  a  tender  muscle,  or  into 
the  neighbourhood  of  an  irritated  nerve,  and  also  when 
carried  in  large  doses  to  internal  organs.  Moderate  or  large 
doses  increase  heart  action,  probably  in  two  ways — (1)  by 
paralysis  of  the  vagus  centrally  and  peripherally,  and  (2)  by 
stimulation  of  the  accelerator  nerves.  They  powerfully 
stimulate  the  respiratory  centre.  These  cardiac  and  respi- 
ratory actions  explain  the  value  of  atropine  in  the  treatment 
of  collapse,  difficult  or  impaired  breathing,  and  weakness 
from  ptomaines  and  other  sedative  poisons. 

Paralysing  the  special  secretory  ganglia  and  nerves  of 
glands,  atropine  is  a  powerful  antisecretory,  diminishing  or 
arresting  secretion,  and  exerting  this  effect  in  whatever  way 
it  is  used.  Although  devoid  of  action  on  voluntary  muscles, 
moderate  and  large  doses  paralyse  involuntary  muscles,  and 
thus  relax  spasm  of  the  hollow  organs.  In  almost  all  animals 
atropine  dilates  the  pupil,  renders  the  eye  bright,  dry,  and 
injected,  paralyses  the  power  of  accommodation,  and  increases 
intraocular  tension.  These  effects  result  alike  from  the  local 
and  internal  use  of  atropine,  and  depend  upon  its  paralysing 
the  third  nerve,  and  perhaps  stimulating  the  sympathetic. 
Dilatation  of  the  pupil  reaches  its  maximum  in  dogs  in 
twenty  to  twenty-live  minutes,  in  herbivora  in  thirty-five  to 
forty-five  minutes.  The  effects  of  full  doses  of  atropine 
last  several  days,  but  those  of  homatropine,  although  as 
quickly  produced,  pass  off  more  rapidly. 

Full  doses  cause  dryness  of  the  mouth,  quickened  pulse, 
delirium,  with  a  tendency  to  irregular  movements.  The 
brain  centres  are  stimulated,  but  the  ends  of  motor  nerves 
are  paralysed,  and  hence  result  the  concurrence  of  delirium, 
irregular  movements,  and  lassitude.  Like  alcohol,  atrof)ine 
exerts  primary  stimulant  and  secondary  paralysant  action. 
It  stimulates,  then  depresses  the  respiratory  centre  and  the 
motor  nerves,  supplying  the  muscles  of  respiration,  and 
death  results  chiefly  from  paralysis  of  respiration.  Small 
doses   stimulate,   but    large   paralyse   the    centres    of    the 


480  BELLADONNA 

medulla.  The  vaso-motor  medullary  centres,  as  well  as  the 
peripheral  vaso-motor  ganglia,  are  stimulated  by  small,  but 
paralysed  by  large  doses.  Small  doses  consequently  raise 
blood-pressure  and  temperature.  Continued  use  does  not 
confer  any  tolerance  as  occurs  with  opium  or  arsenic. 

Belladonna  resembles  hyoscyamus  and  stramonium,  but 
is  more  active.  It  is  allied  to  opium  in  its  antispasmodic 
and  anodyne  effects ;  but  the  distinctions  between  the  two 
are  marked  and  various.  Large  but  not  lethal  doses  of 
belladonna  or  atropine  paralyse  the  centres  of  the  medulla 
and  cord,  and  produce  delirium,  restlessness,  and  continued 
movements ;  while  similar  doses  of  opium  or  morphine 
paralyse  more  particularly  the  brain  centres  and  cause 
coma.  Belladonna  paralyses  the  vagus  and  inhibitory 
ganglia  of  the  heart,  and  hence  accelerates  the  pulse,  while 
opium  slows  it.  Atropine  stimulates,  while  morphine  de- 
presses the  respiratory  centre.  Atropine  dilates,  morphine 
contracts  the  pupil.  The  secondary  effects  of  belladonna 
ally  it  to  hemlock,  which  it  also  resembles  in  dilating  the 
pupil,  and  paralysing  the  ends  of  sensory  nerves.  Atropine 
has  no  direct  physiological  antagonist,  but  morphine, 
caffeine,  Calabar  bean,  prussic  acid,  and  pilocarpine  oppose 
some  of  its  actions.  Methyl  and  ethyl  atropine,  although 
paralysing  the  ends  of  motor  nerves  and  retaining  the 
specific  effects  of  atropine  on  the  eye,  heart,  and  respiratory 
centre,  have  no  tendency  to  tetanise. 

Toxic  Effects.— Horses  were  subjected  to  experiment  by 
Hertwig.  Twenty  received  four  to  six  ounces  of  the  dry 
pulverised  herb,  with  meal  and  water,  in  four  separate  doses, 
at  intervals  varying  from  four  to  eight  hours.  In  four  or 
five  hours,  and  on  the  succeeding  day,  he  observed  dulness, 
languor,  uneasiness,  dilated  pupils,  and  a  feverish  mouth ; 
inappetence,  impaired  digestion,  gas  abundantly  evolved 
from  the  stomach  and  intestines.  The  pulse  about  90,  was 
small,  hard,  and  scarcely  perceptible ;  breathing  was  short, 
quick,  and  accompanied  by  flapping  of  the  nostrils ;  sensi- 
bility slightly  diminished,  but  no  drowsiness.  Some  of  the 
cases  exhibited  abdominal  pain ;  others  imperfect  power  in 
the  hind  extremities  ;  others  terminated  fatally  in  thirty  to 


TOXIC  EFFECTS  481 

fifty  hours  after  receiving  the  first  dose ;  but  in  most  the 
syruptoms  gradually  subsided,  and  in  thirty-six  to  forty-eight 
hours  the  animals  were  perfectly  well.  Two  to  three  ounces 
of  the  dried  root  acted  on  horses  in  a  similar  manner,  and 
six  ounces  usually  proved  fatal  (Arzneimittellehre). 

With  atropine  sulphate,  subcutaneously  injected,  Dr.  John 
Harley  and  Messrs  Mavor,  London,  made  an  extended  series 
of  experiments  on  a  healthy  six-year-old  horse  and  a  weakly 
two-year-old  thoroughbred.  One-twelfth  of  a  grain  dis- 
solved in  water  caused  in  about  half  an  hour  acceleration  of 
the  pulse  from  32  to  42  beats ;  half  an  hour  later  a  further 
rise  of  ten  beats  was  noted.  The  tongue  and  mouth  were 
dry,  and  the  temperature  increased.  The  pupils  began 
dilating  after  thirty-five  minutes,  and  reached  their  maxi- 
mum in  an  hour,  when  the  iris  was  scarcely  visible.  The 
symptoms  gradually  receded,  and  in  two  to  three  hours  had 
disappeared. 

One-sixth  of  a  grain  caused  restlessness  and  dryness  of 
the  mouth,  and  in  thirty-five  minutes  an  increase  of  34  beats 
in  the  pulse,  which  was  full,  soft,  and  compressible,  and  only 
fell  to  its  original  number  after  six  hours ;  the  dilated  pupils 
returned  to  their  normal  state  after  three  hours ;  the  secre- 
tions were  unaffected. 

One-fourth  of  a  grain  in  twelve  minutes  increased  the 
pulsations  from  38  to  56,  producing  also  slight  ii-regularity ; 
the  pupils  gradually  dilated,  and  in  an  hour  reached  their 
fullest  expansion.  These  effects  on  the  pulse  and  pupil,  with 
dryness  of  the  mouth  and  lips,  continued  unabated  during 
three  hours.  For  eighteen  hours  the  animal  remained  dull 
and  quiet. 

Half  a  grain  in  twelve  minutes  fully  dilated  the  pupils ; 
the  pulse  rose  to  68 ;  the  mouth,  tongue,  and  lips  became 
dry ;  the  horse  gaped  occasionally,  and  stood  perfectly 
quiet ;  after  three  hours  he  showed  considerable  nervous- 
ness, and  was  restless  when  disturbed ;  for  six  hours  the 
pulse  continued  weak  and  compressible,  but  the  effects 
gradually  declined. 

Two  grains,  given  subcutaneously,  after  fifteen  minutes 
raised  the   pulse   35   beats,  and  weakened  it,   and  caused 

2  H 


482  BELLADONNA    AND   ATROPINE 

dryness  of  the  mouth,  yawning,  restlessness,  and  nervous- 
ness. The  animal  was  confused,  misjudged  distances,  and 
appeared  under  the  influence  of  illusions ;  the  membrane  of 
the  eye  was  injected.  Occasional  hiccough,  tremulousness, 
and  twitching  of  the  superficial  muscles  continued  for  four- 
teen hours,  when  the  symptoms  gradually  declined  ;  but  the 
pupils  remained  dilated  for  twent3^-four  hours.  Urine  was 
frequently  voided,  and  in  increased  amount ;  the  mucus 
of  the  bowels  and  the  bile  were  slightly  augmented,  the 
skin  and  the  respiratory  functions  were  not  disturbed.  (Old 
Vegetable  Neurotics,  1869.) 

These  and  other  experiments  by  Dr.  Harley  demonstrate 
that  the  maximum  stimulation  of  the  heart  results  from 
doses  insufficient  to  produce  nervous  excitement.  Medicinal 
doses  seem  to  dull  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system,  but 
over-doses  cause  increased  sensibility  to  external  impres- 
sions, wakefulness,  and,  in  extreme  cases,  delirium. 

Majors  Fred.  Smith  and  Charles  Rutherford,  of  the  A.V.D., 
experimenting  on  healthy  horses  with  liquor  atropinse  sul- 
phatis,  containing  one  grain  of  the  alkaloid  to  100  of  water, 
injected  into  the  chest  quantities  ranging  from  15  to  30 
minims  without  producing  any  notable  effects.  Injections 
of  30  to  60  minims  reduced  the  pulse  two  or  three  beats, 
but  had  scarcely  any  effect  on  the  pupil.  Injections  of  120 
to  180  minims  slightly  slowed  the  pulse  and  rendered  it 
softer,  and  increased  the  size  of  the  pupil.  Most  of  the  sub- 
jects were  quiet,  some  slightly  sleepy,  but  all  easily  roused. 
Two  experiments  were  made  by  introducing  intratracheally 
^  grain  of  atropine  sulphate,  which  caused  immediately 
a  gulp  and  cough  ;  but  the  only  further  effects  were,  dryness 
of  the  mouth  and  slightly  increased  fulness  and  quickening 
of  the  pulse,  which  continued  for  about  three-quarters  of  an 
hour. 

Cattle,  according  to  Hertwig,  are  as  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  belladonna  as  horses.  He  states  that  two  to  four 
ounces  of  the  root  caused  in  cows  violent  symptoms,  lasting 
forty-eight  hours,  and  that  large  doses  arc  dangerous. 

Dogs  receiving  full  doses  of  belladonna  exhibit  less  marked 
cerebral,  but  more  pronounced  and  prolonged  cardiac  effects 


EXPERIMENTS  483 

than  horses.  This  apparently  depends  upon  the  heart  in 
dogs  being  more  under  the  regulating  influence  of  the  vagi 
and  inhibitory  ganglia,  which  the  drug  specially  paralyses. 
Dr.  John  Harley  found  that  while  -^  grain  of  atropine  sul- 
phate doubled  the  pulse-rate  in  horses,  ^  grain  trebled 
it  in  dogs.  Doses  of  -^  to  :|  grain  raised  the  dog's  pulse 
in  a  few  minutes  from  120  to  400,  the  beats  continu- 
ing strong  and  regular ;  the  pupils  Avere  so  fully  dilated 
that  vision  was  confused ;  the  mouth  and  nose  were  dry 
and  hot.  The  larger  doses  further  caused  slowness  and 
unsteadiness  of  movement,  but  no  loss  of  sense  or  intelli- 
gence, 

A  Scotch  terrier  weighing  16  lbs.  received  Jg.  grain  atro- 
pine sulphate,  injected  under  the  skin  ;  in  four  minutes  the 
pulse  rose  from  IIS  to  280 ;  the  respirations  advanced  from 
19  to  30 ;  the  pupils  dilated  to  their  full  extent,  the  mucous 
membranes  were  dry,  the  animal  excited  and  whining ; 
these  effects  continued  four  hours.  Dogs  weighing  1,5  lbs. 
and  16  lbs.  were  killed  in  three  hours  by  f  grain,  with 
symptoms  of  prostration,  rapid  and  feeble  pulse,  irregular 
and  shallow  respiration,  muscular  twitchings,  and  paralysed 
sphincters,  death  occurring  in  convulsions  {The  Old  Vegetable 
Neurotics). 

Hertwig  found  that  30  to  50  grains  of  the  dried  herb  or 
root,  given  to  dogs,  in  thirty  minutes  dilated  the  pupil,  so  that 
the  iris  was  out  of  view,  and  rendered  the  eye  insensible  to 
bright  light.  Yomiting  sometimes  occurred,  the  nose  became 
dry  and  hot,  and  the  gait  tottering  from  inability  to  move 
the  hind  extremities.  In  one  to  three  hours  the  symptoms 
began  to  abate,  but  diminished  irritability  of  the  iris  re- 
mained even  after  twenty-four  hours.  Orfila  poisoned  dogs 
with  15  grains  of  extract.  Christison  records  that  half  an 
ounce  of  the  watery  extract  given  by  the  mouth  killed  dogs 
in  about  thirty  hours,  half  that  quantity  introduced  into  a 
wound  killed  in  twenty-four  hours,  while  even  smaller 
doses  were  more  speedily  fatal  when  injected  into  the 
jugular  vein  {On  Poisons). 

Rodents,  such  as  rabbits,  guinea-pigs,  and  rats,  as  well  as 
pigeons,  do  not  exhibit  the  marked  acceleration  of  the  pulse 


484  BELLADONNA    AND    ATROPINE 

SO  remarkable  in  dogs  and  cats.  Rabbits  require  15  grains 
of  green  extract  to  poison  them,  pigeons  2  grains.  The 
mydriatic  action  is  much  less  marked  in  rabbits  than  in 
dogs  or  cats,  and  is  scarcely  noticeable  in  birds. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  are  those  of  asphyxia.  The 
blood  is  dark- coloured,  and  coagulates  slowly  ;  the  ventricles 
are  generally  empty  and  firmly  contracted. 

The  antidotes  consist  of  the  administration  of  alcohol, 
ammonia,  strong  coffee,  and  morphine  or  pilocarpine.  Sub- 
cutaneous injection  of  caffeine  is  recommended  for  human 
patients,  with  the  cautious  use  of  eserine,  and  artificial 
respiration  (Brunton).  Stupor,  if  impending,  is  combated 
by  moving  the  animal  about,  or  by  the  galvanic  battery.  As 
atropine  is  rapidly  eliminated  in  the  urine,  recovery  usually 
results  if  dangerous  symptoms  can  be  relieved,  and  life  pre- 
served for  a  few  hours.  Where  urination  is  difficult,  the 
catheter  should  be  used. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Stimulating  the  respiratory  centre, 
abating  excessive  mucous  secretion,  combating  spasm  of 
involuntary  muscles,  and  soothing  irritability,  belladonna 
and  atropine  are  serviceable  in  catarrh,  pharyngitis,  laryn- 
gitis, and  bronchitis  in  all  patients,  and  are  used  in  the 
several  forms  of  inhalation,  spray,  electuary,  and  hypodermic 
injection.  In  influenza  in  horses,  they  besides  beneficially 
stimulate  the  weakened  heart.  Professor  Robertson  pre- 
scribed belladonna,  with  small  doses  of  aconite,  in  the  acute 
stages  of  respiratory  diseases  in  horses;  but  it  is  chiefly 
indicated  in  the  second  stages,  when  secretion  is  over- 
abundant, swallowing  difficult,  and  the  throat  irritable. 

The  noisy  respiration  accompanying  some  cases  of  catarrh, 
and  the  loud,  prolonged,  spasmodic  cough  of  laryngitis,  are 
usually  relieved  by  its  use.  Along  with  ether  or  ammonium 
carbonate,  belladonna  abates  the  distressed  breathing  and 
cough  occurring  in  bronchitis,  as  well  as  in  distemper  of 
dogs. 

Paralysing  involuntary  muscles,  belladonna  and  atropine 
control  palpitation,  especially  when  depending  upon  cardiac 
strain,  and  in  such  cases  are  given  internally,  while  bella- 
donna plaster  is  applied  externally.    In  cardiac  syncope  they 


MEDICINAL   trSES  485 

are  also  useful.  Professor  Robertson  prescribed  for  spas- 
modic colic  in  horses  half  a  drachm  of  belladonna  extract 
in  four  ounces  of  liquor  aramonii  acetatis,  sometimes 
adding  4  to  6  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite.  In 
colic  cases,  as  well  as  in  enteritis,  belladonna  is  conjoined 
with  opium,  and  is  stated  to  be  specially  indicated  when  the 
glandular  structures  of  the  bowels  are  implicated  (Equine 
Medicine).  No  antispasmodic  or  anodyne  is  more  effectual 
in  such  cases  than  atropine  and  morphine  used  hypoder- 
mically.  Belladonna  is  given  in  obstinate  constipation  and 
obstruction  of  the  bowels,  with  the  view  of  relieving  griping, 
and  aiding  the  action  of  laxatives ;  and  in  irritable,  spas- 
modic conditions  of  the  rectum  it  is  used  in  the  form  of 
suppository.  For  controlling  the  symptoms  of  tetanus  in 
horses.  Professor  Robertson  regarded  it  as  the  best  agent, 
and  prescribed  3^-  to  5iij-  of  extract,  placed  within  the 
teeth,  several  times  a  day.  In  cerebro-spinal  meningitis, 
Professor  Williams  prescribes  belladonna  or  atropine,  with 
ergotin  and  the  use  of  the  spinal  ice-bag;  while  Professor 
Robertson,  after  the  application  of  rugs  wrung  out  of  hot 
water,  applied  a  belladonna  plaster  to  the  spine.  Neither 
the  crude  drug  nor  the  alkaloid  confers  permanent  benefit 
in  epilepsy  or  chorea. 

Whether  prescribed  internally,  or  as  an  injection,  bella- 
donna allays  irritation  of  the  bladder,  rectum,  and  uterus. 
The  extract  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  neck  of  the  uterus 
to  promote  dilatation  in  cases  of  delayed  parturition.  In 
mammitis  belladonna  given  internally,  and  applied  locally,  is 
a  serviceable  anodyne.  By  diminishing  the  activity  of  the 
secretory  nerves,  it  checks  the  flow  of  milk,  and  alla3s  con- 
gestion and  inflammation.  For  such  cases  hypodermic 
injection  of  atropine  is  specially  useful  on  account  of  its 
stimulating  the  heart  and  respiratory  centre.  Belladonna 
and  atropine  are  antidotes  in  poisoning  by  opium,  Calabar 
bean,  pilocarpine,  and  anaesthetics. 

In  examinations  and  diseases  of  the  eye  atropine  sul- 
phate or  homatropiue  hydrobromide  is  used  for  dilating  the 
pupil,  assisting  in  the  detection  of  cataract,  and  testing  the 
condition  of  the  refracting  media.     For  ophthalmic  purposes 


486  BELLADONNA    AND   ATROPINE 

solutions  containing  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  iv.  to  the  ounce  of  distilled 
water  are  employed,  and  are  sometimes  conjoined  with  cocaine. 
They  prevent  prolapse  of  the  iris,  or  restore  it  to  its  normal 
position  in  lesions  of  the  cornea,  or  in  perforating  ulcer, 
which  is  frequent  in  dogs.  In  iritis  mydriatics  relieve  conges- 
tion, and  prevent  or  break  down  adhesions  between  the  iris 
and  the  capsule  of  the  lens,  in  such  cases  being  generally 
alternated  with  myotics. 

External  topical  applications  often  increase  the  effects 
produced  by  internal  administration,  belladonna  plasters 
being  applied  to  the  spine  in  tetanus,  to  the  loins  in 
irritation  of  the  kidneys  or  bladder,  and  to  the  throat  in 
spasmodic  cough.  Belladonna  and  atropine  diminish  con- 
gestion, irritability,  and  pain  in  wounds,  glandular  swellings, 
and  injuries  of  the  oesophagus,  in  rheumatism,  and  in  those 
hyper-sensitive  conditions  of  the  skin  and  muscles  which 
sometimes  occur  in  horses  and  hounds  from  severe  exertion. 
To  secure  these  results  active  preparations  should  be  applied 
or  deeply  injected,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  painful  spot. 
For  the  removal  of  rheumatic  and  neuralgic  pains  and  old- 
standing  neuroses,  in  addition  to  local  applications,  one  or 
two  full  doses  are  administered,  and  the  occurrence  of 
restlessness,  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  or  other  slight  symptoms 
of  poisoning  should  cause  no  alarm.  In  many  of  these  cases 
belladonna  is  conjoined  with  opium  or  chloral,  occasionally 
with  aconite.  In  cases  of  emergency  atropine  sulphate, 
administered  hypodermically,  is  preferable  to  any  belladonna 
preparation. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  dried  leaves  horses  and  cattle  take 
5iv.  to  §j. ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x.  The  plant  is  seldom, 
however,  used  in  the  crude  form. 

An  active  green  extract  is  made  by  the  B.P.  process,  by 
which  100  lbs.  fresh  leaves  and  young  branches  yield  6  to 
7  lbs.  of  extract.  The  dose  for  horses  is  5j-  to  5ij- ;  for  cattle, 
5ij.  to  5iv. ;  for  sheep,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  for  dogs,  gr.  i.  to 
grs.  V.  In  catarrhal  and  influenza  cases  the  extract  is 
frequently  prescribed  with  alcohol,  ether  or  camphor.  A 
convenient  electuary  is  made  with  liquor  ammonii  acetatis, 
camphor,  and  treacle.   Professor  Robertson  used  an  electuary 


PREPARATIONS  487 

containing  belladonna,  camphor,  njyrrh,  nitre,  liquorice, 
and  treacle. 

The  liquid  extract,  made  with  belladonna  root  and 
rectified  spirit,  contains  -f  grain  of  alkaloids  in  110  minims. 
The  tincture  is  made  with  2  ounces  of  liquid  extract  and 
suthcient  alcohol  (60  per  cent.)  to  form  30  ounces.  The  B.P. 
tincture  is  now  standardised  to  contain  005  per  cent,  of  alka- 
loids. The  succus  is  obtained  by  bruising  the  fresh  leaves 
and  young  branches  of  belladonna,  pressing  out  the  juice,  and 
adding  to  every  three  Yolumes  of  juice  one  of  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.).  An  ounce  is  the  dose  for  the  larger  animals,  TT[v.  to 
TIl^xv.  for  the  smaller.     The  tincture  is  given  in  similar  doses. 

The  linimentum  belladonnse,  prepared  with  liquid  extract 
10,  rectified  spirit  7,  camphor  1,  and  water  2,  contains  0'37 
per  cent,  of  alkaloids.  Veterinarians  frequently  extemporise 
an  ointment  by  melting  over  a  water  bath  one  part  of 
extract  and  four  of  vaseline,  and  adding,  as  the  mixture 
cools,  half  a  part  of  camphor. 

;Mr.  Clark,  Coupar- Angus,  recommends  for  external 
application,  equal  parts  of  belladonna  extract  and  glycerin. 
It  mixes  readily  with  water.  Mr.  Squire  has  introduced  a 
soothing  preparation,  which  is  made  by  mixing  with  the  lini- 
ment one-seventh  part  of  chloroform  of  belladonna.  The 
plaster  is  made  by  evaporating  four  ounces  of  the  liquid 
extract  until  it  is  reduced  in  weight  to  one  ounce,  and  add- 
ing five  ounces  of  resin  plaster  previously  melted  (B.P.). 

Atropine,  being  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  the  sulphate 
is  generally  used,  and  is  about  fifty  times  the  strength  of 
the  green  extract.  The  B.P.  liquor  atropinse  sulphatis  in 
general  use,  consists  of  grs.  17i  of  atropine  sulphate,  grs.  2  of 
salicylic  acid,  and  §iv.  of  distilled  water,  and  contains  one  grain 
of  the  salt  in  110  minims.  For  horses  and  cattle  the  dose  is 
f3i.  to  f5iij. ;  for  dogs,  TT^i.  to  TT^v.  When  used  hypodermically, 
the  minimum  or  still  smaller  doses  should  be  prescribed. 
Injectio  atropinse  hypodermica  contains  grs.  jv.  of  atropine 
sulphate  in  ^.  of  water.  Specially  prompt  and  marked 
antispasmodic  and  anodyne  effects  are  secured,  as  stated,  by 
conjoining  about  equal  proportions  of  atropine  and  morphine 
solutions.    For  ophthalmic  and  other  purposes,  tissue  papers 


488  CAFFEINE 

containing  ^4^,  and  lamellae  containing  y^-^^  and  ^-^-g-  grain 
atropine  sulphate  are  convenient.  The  ointment  is  composed 
of  atropine,  grs.  10,  oleic  acid,  grs.  40,  and  lard,  grs.  450. 

Homatropine  hydrobromide,  as  already  indicated,  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  atropine  sulphate  for  internal 
administration,  and  still  more  frequently  for  eye  cases.  To 
dilate  the  pupil,  a  solution,  containing  grs,  iv.  homatropine 
hydrobromide,  to  the  ounce  of  water  or  castor  oil,  is  employed. 

CAFFEINE 
Caffeina.     An  alkaloid   usually  obtained   from    the  dried 
leaves  of  tea.  Camellia  thea,  or  the  dried  seeds  of  Coff'ea 
arabica.    C,HioN,0.,  H,0.    (B.P.)    Nat  Ord— Ternstro- 
miaceae  or  Rubiacese. 

Caffeine  and  theine  are  now  considered  identical,  and  the 
same  alkaloid  is  also  got  from  the  seeds  of  the  Guarana 
or  Paullinia  Sorbilis,  the  leaves  of  Ilex  paraguayensis,  as  well 
as  from  the  Kola  nut.  Caffeine  is  homologous  with  theo- 
bromine, which  is  obtained  from  the  nibs  of  the  Theobroma 
cacao,  and  chemically  is  methyl- theobromine.  Caffeine 
occurs  in  colourless,  inodorous,  acicular  crystals,  soluble  in 
seventy  parts  cold  water,  in  one  of  boiling  water,  seven  of 
chloroform,  and  in  forty  of  alcohol.  Treated  with  a  crystal  of 
potassium  chlorate,  and  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  the  mixture  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  porcelain  dish, 
a  reddish  residue  results,  which  becomes  purple  when 
moistened  with  ammonia. 

Caffeine  citrate,  obtained  by  adding  caffeine  to  a  hot 
solution  of  citric  acid,  is  a  white,  inodorous  powder,  with  an 
acid  taste  and  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  thirty-two  parts 
of  water,  and  in  twenty-tAvo  of  alcohol. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Caffeine  stimulates  and  subsequently 
paralyses  the  nerve-centres  of  the  cerebrum,  cord,  and 
medulla.  In  dogs,  cats,  rabbits,  and  rats,  full  doses,  hypo- 
dermically  injected,  do  not,  as  in  man,  act  prominently  on 
the  brain,  but  chiefly  affect  the  spinal  cord,  exah  reflex 
excitability,  and  cause  muscular  rigidity,  convulsions 
and   tetanus  (Phi  lips).     Large   doses   swallowed   by   dogs, 


CANNABIS   INDICA  489 

moreover,  sometimes  cause  vomiting,  and  gastro-intestinal 
irritation. 

Like  theobromine,  it  exerts  a  restorative  effect  on  both 
vohintary  and  invohintary  muscles,  enabhng  them  to  perform 
increased  work.  On  account  of  its  stimulating  the  medulla 
and  cardiac  centres,  moderate  doses  increase  respiration 
and  pulse  rate,  and  raise  blood-pressure,  and,  resembling 
strychnine  and  veratrine,  antagonise  heart  and  lung  inability 
and  paresis.  They  hence  steady  and  strengthen  the  quick 
action  of  the  weak  heart  in  exhausting  diseases,  thus  acting 
like  digitalis,  but  more  promptly  and  with  more  notable 
diuresis.  As  a  nerve  stimulant,  caffeine  has  been  given  in 
indigestion  in  horses,  milk-fever  in  cows,  and  to  dogs 
prostrated  with  distemper.  It  is  excreted  in  the  urine, 
increasing  alike  the  amount  of  the  urinary  solids  and  fluids. 
It  is  prescribed  by  German  practitioners  in  cardiac,  hepatic, 
and  renal  dropsies.  It  is  used  as  an  antidote  for  the  cadaver 
alkaloids  and  ptomaines,  for  the  paralysis  of  curare,  and  the 
neuroses  of  morphine,  chloroform,  and  alcohol.  Topically 
applied,  it  paralyses  the  peripheral  endings  of  nerves.  Coffee 
is  not  identical  in  action  with  caffeine,  for  besides  0'50  of  the 
alkaloid,  it  contains  aromatic  oils  and  tannic  acid.  Tea,  well 
diluted  with  milk,  is  sometimes  serviceable  for  horses,  and 
still  more  so  for  foals,  calves,and  dogs  reduced  by  acute  disease. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses  and  cattle,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x. ;  for 
dogs,  according  to  size,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij.  When  swallowed, 
caffeine  is  liable  to  produce  gastro-intestinal  irritation,  and 
hence  should  be  given  hypodermically  in  the  minimum  doses 
mentioned,  dissolved  in  water  containing  half  a  grain  of 
sodium  benzoate  or  salicylate  to  each  grain  of  caffeine. 

CANNABIS   INDICA 

Indian  Hemp.  The  dried,  flowering,  or  fruiting  tops  of  the 
female  plant  of  Cannabis  sativa,  grown  in  India,  from 
which  the  resin  has  not  been  removed.  (B.P.)  Nat. 
Ord. — Cannabinese. 

The  Cannabis  sativa  cultivated  in  India,  and  also  in  the 
southern  states  of  America,  attains  a  height  of  four  to  tea 


490  CANNABIS   INDICA 

feet.  The  stalks,  leaves,  female  tops,  fruit,  and  exuding  resin 
are  used  in  making  the  extract,  the  preparation  generally 
prescribed.  The  most  active  extract  is  stated  to  be  obtained 
from  the  resinous  juice,  cannabin  or  churrus,  which, 
although  exuding  from  various  parts  of  the  plant,  appears 
to  be  more  potent  when  got  from  the  female  flowering  tops. 
Churrus,  mixed  with  tobacco  and  treacle,  is  smoked  in  the 
East  as  an  intoxicant,  producing  dreamy  narcosis.  The 
larger  leaves  and  fruit,  with  adhering  resin,  constitute  bhang", 
which  is  sometimes  given  to  horses  on  long  journeys 
Gunjah  consists  of  the  leaf-stalks,  with  adhering  brown 
leaves,  dried,  flowering,  and  fruiting  tops  and  resinous 
exudate.  Haschisch  is  an  Arabian  preparation  obtained 
from  the  tops  of  the  female  plants  after  flowering.  In  India, 
bhang  and  gunjah  are  given  to  vicious  horses  when  being 
shod,  or  when  undergoing  surgical  operations. 

Indian  hemp,  for  pharmaceutical  use,  occurs  in  compressed, 
rough,  dusky  green  masses,  consisting  of  the  branched 
upper  part  of  the  stem  bearing  the  leaves  and  pistillate 
flowers  or  fruits,  matted  together  by  a  resinous  secretion. 
The  upper  leaves  are  simple,  alternate,  1-3-partite,  the 
lower  are  opposite,  and  digitate.  The  fruit  is  one-seeded, 
and  supported  by  an  ovate-lanceolate  bract  (B.P.).  The 
composition  of  cannabis  indica  is  still  uncertain,  but  the 
following  constituents  have  been  obtained : — 

Cannabin,  a  glucoside ;  cannabinol,  an  oil  which  is  said  to 
be  the  active  principle ;  cannabene,  a  volatile  oil ;  tetano- 
cannabine,  and  a  resinous  body  cannabinon,  insoluble  in 
water,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  fats,  and  volatile 
oils. 

The  extract  is  directed  to  be  prepared  by  exhausting 
Indian  hemp  in  coarse  powder,  with  alcohol  (90  per  cent.), 
by  percolation,  and  evaporating  the  percolate  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  soft  extract  (B.P.). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Indian  hemp  is  a  deliriant-narcotic, 
hypnotic,  anodyne,  and  antispasmodic.  Bhang  is  used  in 
India  by  all  classes  as  a  pick-me-up,  and  in  larger  amount  to 
induce  pleasing,  dreamy  narcosis.  Similar  effects  are  stated 
to  be  produced  in  horses ;  the  flagging  appetite  is  improved. 


ACTIONS  AND  USES  491 

cajDacity  for  exertion  increased,  exhaustion  and  restlessness 
are  overcome.  Gimjah  is  a  more  active  anodyne  and 
narcotic.  It  has  long  been  used  in  India  to  dull  sensibility 
during  surgical  operations.  Sir  Robert  Christison  stated 
that  for  energy,  certainty,  and  convenience,  Indian  hemp  is 
the  next  anodyne  to  opium,  and  often  equals  it.  Mr, 
Rutherford,  Edinburgh,  for  several  years  in  India  used  gunjah 
largely  in  the  treatment  of  equine  colic,  and  he  informed 
me  that  it  relieves  spasm  and  pain  as  quickly  as  opium,  and 
without  arresting  the  action  of  the  bowels  or  producing 
delirium.  American  practitioners  sometimes  prescribe  it  in 
diarrhoea,  occasionally  conjoining  it  with  chloroform  and 
aromatic  ammonia.  Veterinary- Major  Smith  prescribed  the 
extract,  in  the  treatment  of  colic,  enteritis,  laminitis,  and 
other  painful  affections,  with  excellent  results.  In  India 
Veterinary- Major  Rutherford  administered  the  extract  in 
graduated  doses  of  one  drachm  to  an  ounce,  in  bolus,  to 
twenty-six  geldings  and  mares  of  various  stamps  and 
temperaments.  Eight  animals  received  one  drachm ;  in 
about  one  to  two  hours,  usually  after  a  little  preliminary 
excitement,  they  became  sleepy,  but  were  readily  roused; 
there  was  no  uniform  eflect  on  the  pulse  or  breathing.  The 
appetite  was  not  affected.  In  geldings  the  penis  was  drawn. 
A  prominent  feature  was  excitement  when  trotted,  most 
moving  as  if  drunk.  Usually  within  six  or  eight  hours  the 
effects  passed  off. 

Two  drachms  administered  caused  no  preliminary  excite- 
ment. The  temperature  usually  receded  about  one  degree, 
the  pulse  fell  in  one  subject  8  beats  per  minute,  respira- 
tions were  reduced  about  two  movements.  Food  was 
neglected,  trotting  was  very  unsteady.  Two  hours  later 
drowsiness  appeared,  the  eyes  were  heavy,  the  lower  lip 
pendulous,  the  penis  drawn  sometimes  as  much  as  four 
inches.     The  effects  continued  ten  or  twelve  hours. 

Several  animals  receiving  three  drachms  of  cannabis 
extract,  and  others  six  drachms,  manifested  very  similar 
symptoms.  The  dulness  and  sleepiness,  however,  came  on 
more  quickly,  and  were  more  marked,  than  when  smaller 
doses  had  been  given.     When  moved,  the  subjects  showed 


492  CANNABIS   iNDlCA 

Unsteadiness  on  the  fore-limbs,  staggering,  inability  to  trot 
straight,  the  penis  protruding.  The  faeces  were  discharged  at 
unduly  long  intervals,  and  in  reduced  amount.  The  etiects 
continued  from  twenty  to  twenty-six  hours.  Eight  drachms 
in  bolus  with  linseed  meal  were  given  to  a  nervous,  kicking 
five-year-old.  For  two  hours  he  tossed  his  head  incessantly, 
subsequently  stood  very  quiet,  but  when  touched  became 
excited,  ate  grass  slowly,  but  left  portions  between  the  lips. 
By  the  seventh  hour  he  became  very  sleepy,  took  no  notice 
of  any  one,  he  Avas  unsteady  on  his  fore-legs,  the  body  swayed 
backwards  and  forwards,  the  muscles  about  the  elboAv  and 
flank  quivered,  the  penis  was  drawn  about  nine  inches. 
There  was  no  movement  of  the  bowels  for  sixteen  hours. 
By  the  twenty-fifth  hour  he  brightened  up ;  and  in  thirty 
hours  was  again  normal.  A  second  horse  received  eight 
drachms  cannabis  extract;  in  three  and  a  half  hours  he 
became  sleepy,  with  penis  drawn  three  to  four  inches.  An 
hour  later  the  head  was  down,  the  eyelids  almost  closed,  the 
lower  lip  pendulous.  He  was  unsteady  on  his  legs,  swayed 
backwards  and  forwards,  took  no  notice  of  flies  on  face  or 
body,  Avhen  trotted,  did  so  sideways  and  very  unsteadily,  the 
pulse  and  respiration  were  lowered.  For  six  hours  he 
remained  in  the  same  quiescent  sleepy  state,  noticing 
nothing,  and  did  not  lie  down  during  the  night.  By  the 
twenty-fourth  hour  he  got  brighter,  but  was  still  unsteady 
on  his  limbs.  No  dung  was  passed  for  thirty  hours,  when 
some  dry,  small  pellets  were  discharged.  Although  continu- 
ing quiet,  he  gradually  became  lively,  and  in  thirty-five 
hours  was  perfectly  recovered.  Professor  Hobday  states 
that  doses  of  ten  grains  to  two  drachms  of  extract,  adminis- 
tered to  dogs,  although  quickly  causing  stupor,  with 
paralysis  of  the  hind-limbs — which  might  continue  one  or 
two  days — had  never  proved  fatal,  these  effects  gradually 
passed  off,  and  their  removal  was  expedited  by  cocaine. 

Indian  hemp  has  proved  serviceable  in  abating  the 
delirium  occurring  in  some  cases  of  parturient  apoplexy, 
and  in  tranquillising  the  involuntary  spasms  of  chorea  in 
dogs.  In  the  form  of  suppository  it  is  sometimes  substituted 
for  opium  in  the  treatment  of  irritable  or  painful  conditions 


NUX-VOMICA  493 

of  the  rectum  and  urino-genital  organs.  Major  Smith  and 
other  practitioners  bear  evidence  to  the  narcotic  and 
analgesic  effects  of  the  thick,  treacle-like,  semi-solid  extract 
obtainable  in  India.  An  ounce,  it  is  stated,  very  shortly 
renders  the  horse  so  sleepy  that  he  can  be  roused  with 
difficulty,  and  may  be  severely  pricked  with  a  needle 
Avithout  wincing.  The  Indian  extract  is  devoid  of  the 
excitant  effects  which  opium  exerts  on  many  horses. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  extract,  horses  and  cattle  take  5j-  to 
5iv. ;  dogs,  gr.  j.  to  grs.  iij.  in  bolus  or  pill.  Larger  doses 
may  be  given  without  danger.  Veterinary-Major  Smith 
prescribed  one  ounce,  sometimes  two,  three,  or  more  ounces 
of  the  extract,  for  horses  affected  with  colic,  enteritis,  or 
larainitis.  It  is  often  advantageously  conjoined  with  chloral 
hydrate.  The  B.P.  tincture  is  made  with  one  ounce  of  the 
extract  and  a  pint  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  It  contains  one 
grain  of  extract  in  twenty-two  minims.  The  tincture  is 
inconvenient  to  use,  as  water  precipitates  the  resin.  It  may 
be  given  to  horses  in  doses  of  §j.  to  §iv.,  or  more,  mixed  with 
mucilage,  a  drachm  to  the  ounce  of  tincture,  before  adding 
water  or  other  vehicle. 


NUX-VOMICA 

Nux-VoMiCA.      The   dried   ripe   seeds   of   Strychnos   Nux- 

Vomica.     Nat.  Ord. — Loganiacese. 
Strychnine.     Strychnina.     An  alkaloid  obtained  from  the 

dried  ripe  seeds  of  Strychnos  Nux-Vomica,  and  other 

species  of  strychnos.     (B.P.) 

The  Strychnos  nux-vomica  grows  on  the  southern  coasts 
of  India,  in  many  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Australia.  It  is  a  moderate-sized  tree, 
with  crooked  stem,  irregular  branches,  tough  white  wood, 
known  in  commerce  as  snake-wood;  grey  or  yellow  bark — 
the  poisonous,  false  Angustura  bark ;  a  globular  berry,  about 
the  size  of  an  apple,  containing,  amid  soft  gelatinous  pulp 
(which  birds  are  said  to  eat  with  impunity),  five  round,  disc- 
shaped,  ash-grey  seeds,  about  an  inch   in  diameter.     The 


494  NUX- VOMICA,  STRYCHNINE,  AND    BRUCINE 

seeds  have  a  central  scar  or  hilum  on  one  surface,  are 
covered  with  short  satiny  hairs,  have  an  intensely  bitter 
taste,  and  are  tough  and  horny.  Nux-voniica  contains  two 
poisonous  alkaloids — strychnine  and  brucine — each  present 
to  the  amount  of  about  one  per  cent. ;  the  soluble,  amorphous 
strychnic  or  igasuric  acid,  which  is  allied  to  malic  acid; 
sugar,  fat,  loganin,  and  igasurine. 

Strychnine  (C21H22O.2N2)  is  prepared  by  splitting  the  nux- 
vomica  seeds,  steaming  and  reducing  them  to  powder,  which 
is  digested  with  spirit  and  water.  The  spirit  is  recovered 
by  distillation.  To  the  watery  extract  lead  acetate  is  added, 
which  precipitates  acid  and  colouring  matters.  The  filtered 
solution  is  treated  with  ammonia,  Avhich  precipitates  the 
alkaloids. 

Strychnine  occurs  in  trimetric  prisms,  is  colourless  and 
inodorous;  it  requires  for  solution  5760  parts  of  cold  water 
and  2500  parts  of  hot  water,  but  its  intensely  bitter  taste  is 
appreciable  even  when  diluted  with  30,000  parts  of  water. 
It  is  soluble  in  150  parts  of  spirit,  and  in  6  parts  of  chloro- 
form, and  nearly  insoluble  in  ether.  It  is  not  coloured 
by  nitric  acid,  and  leaves  no  ash  when  burned  with  free 
access  of  air.  It  forms  crystalline,  colourless,  intensely  bitter 
salts,  of  which  the  hydrochloride  is  official. 

It  is  readily  recognised.  On  a  white  plate  a  crystal  is 
dissolved  in  pure  sulphuric  acid  without  change  of  colour, 
but  when  the  dissolved  alkaloid  is  made  to  mingle  with  a 
drop  or  two  of  an  oxidising  solution,  such  as  that  of  potas- 
sium permanganate,  there  is  produced  a  characteristic  violet 
coloration.  Its  extreme  bitterness,  and  the  tetanic  spasms 
produced  in  frogs  and  other  small  animals  by  solutions  con- 
taining the  5  ^(,  (,  th  part  of  a  grain  are  valuable  corroborative 
tests. 

Brucine  or  Brucia  (C23H.2gN2O4.4H2O)  is  associated  with 
strychnine  in  the  seeds.  It  occurs  in  colourless  prismatic 
crystals;  is  almost  as  bitter  as  strychnine,  but  is  more 
soluble  in  water.  It  is  reddened  by  nitric  acid  and  chlorine. 
Strong  sulphuric  acid  colours  brucine  a  rich  rose,  but  on 
adding  potassium  permanganate,  the  play  of  colours  observed 
with  strychnine  is  not  produced. 


STIMULANTS    OF  MOTOR   CENTRES  495 

Actions  and  Uses. — Nux-vomica,  strychnine,  and  brucine 
are  stimulants  of  tho  motor  centres  of  the  spinal  cord,  and 
of  other  motor  centres.  Full  doses  produce  tetanic  convul- 
sions, which  cause  death  from  asphyxia,  or  from  subsequent 
paralysis  and  exhaustion.  Medicinal  doses  are  antiseptic, 
gastric,  vascular,  and  nerve  tonics,  and  anti-paralysants. 
They  destroy  enzymes  and  other  vegetable  and  animal 
organisms. 

General  Actions. — The  alkaloids  differ  from  each  other 
and  from  nux-vomica  mainly  in  the  degree  of  their  action. 
Strychnine  is  fully  fifty  times  as  active  as  the  powdered 
nux,  and  nearly  fifteen  times  as  active  as  brucine.  The  St. 
Ignatius'  bean  yielded  by  the  Strychnos  Ignatia — a  tree 
grown  in  the  Philippine  Islands — contains  strychnine  and 
brucine.  Akazga,  the  ordeal  plant  of  the  West  Coast  of 
Africa,  belongs  to  this  order,  and  yields  akazgine,  which  is 
analogous  to  strychnine.  Other  trees  of  the  order  also  yield 
tetanising  poisons.  Allied  to  this  group  are  thebaine  and 
some  other  opium  alkaloids ;  gelsemine,  the  alkaloid  obtained 
from  the  rhizome  and  rootlets  of  yellow  jasmine;  and  pic- 
rotoxin,  a  neutral  principle  prepared  from  the  seeds  of 
Anamirta  paniculata  (Cocculus  indicus).  The  methyl  com- 
pounds of  strychnine  and  brucine,  instead  of  stimulating 
spinal  and  motor  centres,  and  producing  convulsions,  re- 
semble curare,  and  paralyse  the  ends  of  motor  nerves. 

Strychnine  lessens  oxidation  of  protoplasm  and  of  blood, 
and  checks  fermentation,  but  not  nearly  so  effectually  as 
quinine.  Low  organisms,  wetted  with  weak  watery  solutions, 
have  their  activity  increased ;  wetted  with  strong  solutions, 
their  activity  is  diminished  and  they  are  destroyed.  It 
stimulates  the  grey  matter  of  the  spinal  cord,  exalting  its 
reflex  excitability,  and  also  stimulates  other  reflex  nerve 
centres  (Brunton).  Small  to  moderate  doses  promote  secre- 
tion of  saliva,  improve  appetite,  stimulate  the  intestinal 
muscular  coat  and  increase  peristalsis,  and  hence  assist  in 
overcoming  constipation.  They  stimulate  the  respiratory, 
cardiac,  and  vaso-motor  centres,  and  hence  increase  the 
rapidity  and  depth  of  the  respirations,  the  number  and  force 
of  the  pulsations  and  raise  blood-pressure.      Larger  doses 


496  NUX-VOMICA    AND    STRYCHNINE 

cause  muscular  twitching,  hyperjBsthesia,  greater  acuteness 
of  the  special  senses,  and  clonic  convulsions.  The  extensor 
muscles  usually  overcome  the  flexor  nuisclcs,  producing 
opisthotonos.  Death  results  from  asphyxia,  occurring 
during  a  spasm,  or  from  paralysis  and  collapse,  occurring 
(luring  a  period  of  relaxation.  Strychnine  is  absorbed 
rapidly  from  the  small  intestine  and  rectum,  and  still  more 
rapidly  from  the  bronchi  and  cellular  tissues.  It  has  been 
detected  in  the  spinal  cord,  brain,  liver,  spleen,  and  blood. 
It  is  tardily  excreted  unchanged,  or  as  strychnic  acid, 
in  the  urine,  in  which  it  has  been  found  an  hour  after  ad- 
ministration, and  has  also  been  detected  forty-eight  hours 
later.  Owing  to  its  slow  elimination  strychnine  should  be 
regarded  as  a  cumulative  medicine. 

Toxic  Actions. — Poisonous  doses  within  a  few  minutes 
produce  in  all  animals  trembling  and  twitching  of  voluntary 
and  also  of  involuntary  muscles,  and  violent  spasms,  usually 
lasting  one  to  two  minutes,  gradually  becoming  more  frequent 
and  severe ;  and  from  their  involving  the  glottis,  diaphragm, 
and  other  muscles  of  respiration,  cause  death,  usually  by 
asphyxia.  The  symptoms  (and  mode  of  death)  resemble 
those  of  tetanus,  but  are  suddenly  developed,  intermittent, 
and  more  raj^idly  fatal.  The  temperature  is  raised  some- 
times two  degrees. 

The  several  classes  of  animals  differ  in  their  susceptibility 
to  the  actions  of  strychnine.  Horses  and  cattle  arc  not  so 
readily  aflfected  as  men  and  dogs.  Poultry  are  said  to  be 
less  easily  affected  than  other  birds ;  while  guinea-pigs  and 
some  monkeys  seem  quite  insusceptible  to  its  action,  at 
least  so  long  as  it  is  given  by  the  mouth  (Dr.  H.  C.  Wood, 
Treatise  on  Therapeutics). 

Horses  after  swallowing  six  grains  of  strychnine  had  twitch- 
ing of  the  muscles,  and  were  poisoned  by  twelve  grains  in 
about  twelve  minutes  (Tabourin).  Five  grains  in  bolus  pro- 
duced, after  six  hours,  abdominal  pain,  laboured  breathing, 
acceleration  of  the  pulse  from  42  to  GO,  excitement  when 
touched,  and  tetanic  spasms.  Twelve  hours  later  the  pulse  was 
96,  and  subsequently  rose  to  120.  Blood-letting  and  fomen- 
tations gave  no  relief,  and  in  a  convulsive  paroxysm  the  horse 


TETANISING    POISONS  497 

died.  The  membranes  of  the  brain  and  cord  were  injected, 
the  lungs  engorged  (Veterinarian,  1856).  Given  hypoder- 
mically,  the  toxic  dose  is  stated  by  Frohner  and  Kaiifmann 
to  be  three  to  six  grains.  Half  a  grain,  given  hypodermically, 
induced  in  half  an  hour  general  muscular  rigidity.  Ten 
drachms  of  nux-vomica  in  powder  caused  muscular  tremors 
but  in  solution  proved  fatal  in  ten  hours  (Hertwig).  Pro- 
fessor Coleman  gave  a  mare  two  ounces  in  a  drench ;  within 
an  hour,  and  after  the  animal  had  drunk  some  water,  she 
had  violent  tetanic  symptoms,  and  died  half  an  hour  later. 
Ounce  doses,  given  a  glandered  horse,  caused  tetanic  spasms, 
but  were  not  fatal.  Moiroud  states  that  the  fatal  dose  for 
a  horse  is  one  to  two  ounces. 

Cattle  withstand  larger  doses  than  do  horses  when  the 
poison  is  given  by  the  mouth,  whether  in  solution  or  bolus. 
Mr.  Macgillivray,  gave  an  old  cow^  thirty  grains  strychnine, 
and,  shortly  after,  sixty  grains,  both  doses  in  solution,  with 
the  result  of  a  few  spasmodic  tremors,  which  continued  for 
about  twenty  minutes  {Vete7'inarian,  1870).  I  gave  a  small 
red  cow,  affected  with  pleuro- pneumonia,  grs.  xv.  strychnine, 
suspended  in  two  ounces  of  oil,  at  12  o'clock.  At  12.30 
the  pulse  had  risen  from  70  to  78,  regurgitation  was  ob- 
servable in  the  jugular  veins,  quivering  and  twitching 
affected  the  facial  muscles,  particularly  during  inspiration. 
At  12.45  the  pulse  numbered  84,  and  the  symptoms  were 
aggravated.  Grs.  ij.  were  given,  dissolved  in  diluted  acetic 
acid ;  and  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  the  animal  was  very  un- 
easy, and  attempted  to  vomit;  the  pulse  was  94,  full  and 
strong;  the  pupils  much  dilated.  At  1.30  the  nausea  and 
efforts  to  vomit  were  much  increased,  the  breathing  more 
laboured ;  the  animal  lay  down,  and  the  pulse  shortly  fell 
to  58.  At  2.15  the  nausea  was  diminished,  and  the  pulse  92. 
Grs.  XXX.  were  then  given  in  acetic  acid  and  water.  At  2.20 
the  pulse  was  100,  sharp  and  distinct.  The  muscles  were 
affected  by  frequent  spasms.  At  2.25  the  pulse  was  140, 
and  the  animal  very  sensitive  to  light,  sound,  and  external 
impressions.  It  reeled  and  fell.  At  2.30  the  pulse  had  risen 
to  160,  the  limbs  were  very  rigid,  the  eyes  protruding, 
involuntary   spasms    more    general,   frequent,   and    severe. 

2  I 


498  NUX-VOMICA    AND    STRYCHNINE 

Two  minutes  later  she  died  quietly.  Much  smaller  doses 
are  fatal  when  strychnine  is  quickly  absorbed.  When 
given  hypodcrmically,  Kanfmann  states  that  the  toxic  dose 
for  cattle  is  five  or  six  grains.  Tabourin  records  the  death 
of  a  cow  in  twenty  minutes  from  four  grains  placed  in  the 
areolar  tissues. 

Sheep  are  destroyed  by  half  an  ounce  nux-vomica  in 
about  thirty  minutes,  but  goats  appear  to  be  less  susceptible. 
Pigs  were  violently  convulsed  by  fifty  grains  of  nux-vomica 
(Tabourin),  and  poisoned  by  ^  to  |  grain  of  strychnine 
(Kaufmann). 

Dogs  are  destroyed  in  two  minutes  by  gr.  ^  strychnine, 
and  in  twelve  minutes  by  gr.  ^  (Christison).  An  English 
terrier  was  poisoned  in  twenty-four  minutes  by  gr.  i ;  a 
greyhound  in  one  hour  and  a  half  by  grs.  iij. ;  another 
greyhound  in  thirty-three  minutes  by  gr.  ss,  (Dr  S. 
Macadam).  Kaufmann  fixes  the  toxic  dose  at  ^  to  ^ 
grain.  Dogs  have  been  poisoned  with  grs.  viij.  of  nux- 
vomica,  and  cats  with  grs.  v.  Dogs  moan  and  Avhinc,  are 
uneasy,  nauseated,  sometimes  vomit,  tremble,  have  muscular 
twitchings  and  general  spasms,  during  which  the  head  is 
drawn  upwards  and  backwards,  and  the  rectal  temperature 
is  raised  2°  to  4°  Falir.  The  tetanic  convulsions  continue 
one  to  two  minutes,  cease  for  several  minutes,  but  recur  with 
increased  force  until  death  results. 

Post-mortem  appearances  vary  Avith  the  severity  and  dura- 
tion of  the  case.  Asphyxia  renders  the  blood  dark-coloured 
and  unusually  fluid ;  there  is  venous  engorgement ;  congestion 
of  the  lungs  and  of  the  cerebral  and  spinal  meninges  ;  dila- 
tation of  the  vessels  of  the  medulla,  and  sanguineous 
extravasation  into  the  grey  matter.  When  the  patient  has 
survived  for  several  hours,  the  intestines  occasionally  present 
patches  of  redness  and  congestion.  Where  spasms  have 
been  severe  and  rapidly  fatal,  the  left  side  of  the  heart  is 
firmly  contracted,  and  contains  little,  if  any,  blood.  The 
tetanised  muscles  quickly  undergo  rigor'  mortis,  which 
sometimes  continues  longer  than  usual.  In  dogs  destroyed 
with  \  grain  of  strychnine,  I  found  the  buccal  mucous 
membrane  blanched ;    the  left  auricle,  and  also  the  intes- 


GASTRIC,  VASCULAR,  AND    NERVE   TONICS         499 

tines,  continued  to  contract  for  nearly  an  hour  after 
death,  while  the  cerebral  and  intestinal  vessels  were  con- 
gested with  dark  venous  blood. 

Antidotes. — The  stomach  should  be  emptied  with  as  little 
delay  as  possible ;  if  convulsions  have  begun,  the  patient 
should  be  ana3sthetised,  the  stomach  well  washed  out,  and 
chloral  hydrate  given.  Professor  Hughes  Bennett  first 
shelved  the  antidotal  power  of  chloral  hydrate.  He  found 
that  the  minimum  fatal  dose  of  strychnine  for  rabbits  was 
■irl-ath  gr.  per  pound  of  body-weight.  Twenty  rabbits  received 
more  than  this  poisonous  dose ;  fifteen  of  these,  to  whom 
chloral  was  given,  recovered.  But  a  few  days  later,  on  re- 
ceiving the  dose  previously  given,  without  the  chloral,  all 
died.  French  authorities  advise  the  chloral  to  be  given 
intravenously.  Strychnine  tetanus  is  also  antagonised  by 
tobacco,  and,  less  effectually,  by  such  motor  paralysers  as 
curare,  conium,  opium,  and  calabar  bean. 

Medicinal  Uses. — As  bitter  tonics,  nux-vomica  and  strych- 
nine are  prescribed  in  atonic  dyspepsia.  Their  good  effects 
probably  depend  upon  their  checking  irregular  fermentation, 
diminishing  excessive  secretion,  as  in  catarrhal  conditions, 
and  perfecting  co-ordination  between  the  several  functions 
of  digestion  and  assimilation  (Brunton).  It  is  probably 
mainly  in  this  way  that  they  relieve  many  cases  of  broken- 
wind. 

Small  doses,  especially  when  combined  with  acids,  are 
often  effectual  in  checking  chronic  relaxed  and  hyper- 
secreting  conditions  of  the  bowels,  where  these  are  not 
complicated  with  irritation.  Larger  doses,  increasing  peri- 
stalsis, overcome  chronic  constipation,  whether  connected 
with  acute  indigestion,  inflammation,  or  febrile  attacks,  and 
are  usually  prescribed  with  aloes  or  salines.  They  are  bene- 
ficial in  weak,  dilated  conditions  of  the  heart ;  during  their 
excretion  they  stimulate  the  urinary  organs,  while  aphro- 
disias  is  occasionally  produced.  In  convalescence  from  acute 
disease  they  improve  appetite  and  general  tone.  Strychnine, 
subcutaneously  injected,  is  sometimes  serviceable  in  main- 
taining activity  of  the  respiratory  and  heart  centres  in 
collapse  and  narcotic  poisoning. 


500  NUX-VOMICA    AND    STRYCHNINE 

Nux- vomica  and  strychnine  are  prescribed  in  paralysis, 
whether  of  the  limbs,  intestines,  or  bladder.  They  are  most 
beneficial  in  chronic  motor  paralysis,  caused  by  irritation  or 
congestion,  but  are  unsuitable  in  cases  accompanied  by 
luemorrhage  and  compression.  They  frequently  relieve 
paresis  resulting  from  falls  or  other  injuries,  from  lead- 
poisoning,  influenza,  acute  indigestion,  or  rheumatism.  It 
has  been  stated  that  paraplegia,  even  when  depending  upon 
softening  or  wasting  of  nervous  textures,  may  sometimes  be 
arrested  by  strychnine  dilating  the  capillaries,  determining 
a  fuller  stream  of  blood,  and  promoting  nutrition.  Strych- 
nine, subcutaneously  injected,  has  been  recommended  for 
roaring.     French  veterinarians  prescribe  it  in  amaurosis. 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  probably  from  climatic  pecu- 
liarities, is  greatly  more  common  in  America  than  in  Great 
Britain.  Often  it  occurs  as  an  epizootic.  Mr.  Alex.  Lockhart, 
New  York,  informed  me  that  he  has  seen  two  hundred 
horses  almost  simultaneously  affected  in  one  tram-car  stud, 
and  has  had  eighty  patients  in  slings  at  one  time.  It  attacks 
horses  of  all  sorts,  and  under  every  description  of  manage- 
ment. Blood-letting  and  physic,  he  believes,  hasten  and 
increase  mortality ;  under  such  reducing  treatment  half  the 
cases  die.  It  is  unsafe  to  give  more  than  half  a  dose  of 
physic ;  oil  is  preferred  to  aloes.  Although  the  cerebral 
form  is  very  hopeless,  Mr.  Lockhart  assures  me  that  95  per 
cent,  of  the  patients  able  to  stand  recover  if  at  once  treated 
with  a  grain  of  strychnine,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  a  day. 
In  these  cases  Professor  Robertson  recommended  Eastons 
syrup. 

In  cattle  practice,  nux- vomica  and  its  alkaloids  are  used, 
in  indigestion  and  in  chronic  paralysis.  Mr.  David  Aitken, 
Loughborough,  who  prescribed  them  with  success,  informed 
me  of  several  typical  cases.  Two  bullocks  suffered  from 
chronic  paralysis,  one  had  to  be  carted  home  from  the  grass 
field.  lie  was  dull ;  his  pulse  55,  and  rather  weak ;  his  hind 
extremities  and  tail  had  lost  their  power  of  movement,  their 
sensation  was  impaired;  the  sphincter  ani  was  relaxed,  and 
both  faeces  and  urine  were  passed  involuntarily.  Purgative 
medicine  was  given,  and  operated  next  day,  without,  how- 


ANTT-PARALYSANTS  501 

ever,  any  abatement  of  the  paralysis.  Two  drachms  nux- 
vomica  Avere  prescribed  night  and  morning  for  ten  days ; 
but  little  improvement  being  notable,  the  dose  was  increased 
to  three  drachms  thrice  a  day.  This  treatment  being  con- 
tinued for  ten  days,  the  patient  was  able  to  walk  round 
the  house  in  which  he  was  confined,  and  rapidly  re- 
covered. The  other  bullock  exhibited  similar  symptoms, 
was  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  like  satisfactory 
results. 

A  week  or  two  before  parturition,  cows,  especially  if  in  low 
condition,  occasionally  lose  the  power  of  their  hind  limbs, 
and  are  unable  to  stand.  Little  can  then  be  done  besides 
propping  the  patient  in  a  suitable  position,  turning  her 
several  times  daily,  and  allowing  laxative,  nutritive  diet. 
Within  two  or  three  days  after  parturition,  most  of  these 
cases  orraduallv  regain  the  use  of  their  limbs :  but  when 
defective  nervous  power  continues,  nux-vomica  or  strych- 
nine is  used  with  success.  The  pathology  of  milk  fever  is 
still  uncertain,  but  death  appears  to  result  from  respiratory 
or  cardiac  failure,  which  might  be  warded  off  by  subcutaneous 
injections  of  strychnine. 

In  canine  practice,  strychnine  is  a  valuable  tonic  in  atonic 
indigestion,  in  some  cases  of  asthma  and  chronic  bronchitis, 
in  convalescence  from  exhausting  disease,  in  chorea,  and  in 
paralysis  resulting  from  distemper  or  other  causes.  It  is 
frequently  conjoined  or  alternated  with  iron  salts,  or  pre- 
scribed in  the  form  of  Easton's  Syrup,  or  syrup  of  phos- 
phate of  iron,  with  quinine  and  strychnine:  one  drachm 
of  which  contains  1  gr.  ferrous  phosphate,  4  gr.  of  quinine 
sulphate,  and  -^  gr.  of  strychnine. 

Strychnine  is  used  for  the  destruction  of  rats,  mice,  and 
other  vermin,  and  for  the  poisoning  of  wolves  and  other  wild 
animals.  It  constitutes  the  active  ingredient  of  various 
"infallible  "  insect  and  vermin  destroyers,  which  are  usually 
made  up  with  starch,  sugar,  and  about  ten  per  cent,  of 
strychnine. 

Doses,  &c. — Of  the  powdered  nux  vomica,  horses  take  gss. 
to  5j. ;  cattle,  3i.  to  5ij. ;  sheep,  grs.  x  to  grs.  xl. ;  pigs,  grs.  x. 
to  grs.  XX. ;  dogs,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij.     The  powder  has  the  dis- 


502  CALABAR   BEAN 

advantage  of  not  being  very  soluble.  The  extract,  contain- 
ing 5  per  cent,  of  strychnine,  is  six  to  eight  times  as  active  as 
the  powder.  The  B.P.  standardised  tincture  is  sometimes 
used.     It  contains  |  gr.  strychnine  in  110  minims. 

Strychnine  is  greatly  more  uniform  and  more  readily 
absorbed  than  the  crude  drug,  and  is  fift}'  times  more  power- 
ful. The  hydrochloride,  on  account  of  its  solubility,  in  .35 
of  water  or  GO  of  alcohol,  is  preferable  to  the  alkaloid.  The 
dose  for  the  horse,  except  in  special  cases — when  much 
more  may  be  given — is  gr.  i.  to  grs.  ij. ;  for  cattle,  grs.  ij.  to 
grs.  v. ;  for  sheep,  gr.  i  to  gr,  i. ;  for  dogs,  gr.  -^  to  gr.  ■^^. 
The  B.P.  Liquor  Strychninae  hydrochloridi  contains  one 
grain  of  strychnine  hjdrochloridc  in  110  minims. 

Strychnine,  although  conveniently  given  b}-  the  mouth,  is 
more  prompt  and  active  when  administered  hypodermically, 
and  when  thus  used  the  minimum  doses,  dissolved  in  about 
100  parts  of  a  mixture  of  distilled  water  and  alcohol,  should 
first  be  tried.  Nux-vomica  and  strychnine  are  generally 
given  twice  a  day,  and  as  anti-paralysants  the  doses  may  be 
cautiously  and  gradually  increased,  until  slight  muscular 
twitchings  are  produced.  Tablets  and  lamels  containing  -^th 
and  T^th  gr.  of  strychnine  sulphate  are  convenient  for  hypo- 
dermic injections.  Strychnine  arsenite  has  been  recom- 
mended in  some  of  the  Continental  veterinary  schools  for 
the  treatment  of  persistent  nasal  discharges. 


CALABAR   BEAN 

Physostigmatis  Semina. — The  ripe  seeds  of  Ph3'sostigma 
Venenosum.     Nat.  Ord. — Leguminosa3. 

Physostigmik^.  Sulphas.  —  (Ci5H2iN30.2)o,  H._,SO^,  rrH.p. 
Eserine  Sulphate.  The  sulphate  of  an  alkaloid  obtained 
from  Calabar  bean.     Western  Africa  (B.P.). 

Calabar  bean  is  a  large  reddish-brown,  oblong,  reniform 
seed,  usually  about  an  inch  long,  three-quarter  inch  broad, 
and  half-an-inch  thick.  The  testa,  hard,  thick,  and  rough, 
encloses  two  cotyledons,  between  which  there  is  a  large 
cavity.      The    bean   has    no    characteristic   taste,   and    no 


GENERAL    ACTIONS  503 

odour  (B.P.).  Tts  activity  depends  upon  the  presence  of 
two  alkaloids— (1)  Physostigmine  or  Eserine,  occuring  in 
colourless  crystals,  soluble  in  alcohol,  benzol,  chloroform, 
and  diluted  acids,  and  partially  in  water.  It  paralyses 
nerve  centres,  and  stimulates  muscular  fibre.  (2)  Cala- 
barine,  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  not  in  ether.  It 
causes  strychnine-like  convulsions. 

Eserine  Sulphate  occurs  in  yellowish- white  minute  crystals, 
becoming  red  by  exposure  to  air  and  light,  having  a  bitter 
taste,  highly  deliquescent,  very  soluble  in  water  and  in 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  The  aqueous  solution  is  neutral  to 
litmus,  and,  applied  to  the  eye,  causes  contraction  of  the 
pupil.  -  Eserine  sulphate  contains  about  70  per  cent,  of  the 
alkaloid.  Solutions  keep  better  when  mixed  with  a  grain 
or  two  of  salicylic  acid. 

General  Actions. — Calabar  bean  and  its  chief  alkaloid 
stimulate  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles  and  paral3'Se 
nerve  centres.  Eserine  exerts  no  topical  action  on  the  skin  or 
mucous  membranes.  It  relieves  obstruction  by  stimulating 
the  muscular  coat  of  the  stomach  and  intestines.  Given  by 
the  mouth,  or  applied  locally,  it  contracts  the  pupil  and 
diminishes  intraocular  pressure — effects  due  to  irritation  of 
the  third  nerve,  or  of  the  circular  fibres  of  the  iris,  or  of 
both.  This  myosis  results  in  horses  in  twenty-five  to  thirty 
minutes ;  and  in  less  than  half  that  time  in  carnivora ;  but 
is  not  produced,  even  by  conjunctival  injection,  in  birds, 
frosts,  and  fishes. 

Excessive  doses  paralyse  muscular  fibre,  especially  the 
unstriped  variety,  and  also  sensory  and,  later,  motor  nerves. 
Moderate  doses  have  little  effect  on  voluntary  muscles,  but 
full  doses  induce  local  twitching,  best  marked  at  the  elbow 
and  stifle,  followed  by  general  trembling  and  spasmodic 
contractions ;  at  the  same  time  the  animal  sweats,  salivates, 
blows,,  strains,  and  discharges  fa3ces  and  urine,  and  all  his 
organs  provided  with  unstriated  muscle  participate  more  or 
less  in  the  clonic  convulsions.  Its  stimulant  effect  on 
unstriped  muscle  in  part  explains  its  action  on  the  circu- 
lation. Small  to  moderate  doses  contract  minute  blood- 
vessels, and  reduce  the  force  and  frequency  of  the  heart 


504  CALABAR   BEAN 

movements.  Kaufinann  mentions  that  a  single  full  dose 
reduces  the  pulse  of  the  dog  from  100  to  40  beais  per  minute. 
Professor  Thomas  Fraser  believes  that  its  action  on  the 
heart  is  threefold — (1)  it  stimulates  peripherally  the  cardio- 
inhibitory  branches  of  the  vagus  ;  (2)  it  depresses  the  cardiac 
motor  ganglia ;  and  (3),  in  large  doses,  it  paralyses  the  car- 
diac muscular  fibres.  Respiration  is  temporarily  quickened, 
apparently  from  stimulation  of  the  vagi  in  the  lungs,  but  in 
fuller  doses  is  slowed  from  paresis  of  the  medullary  respira- 
tory centre.  Moderate  doses  stimulate  the  liver,  the  invol- 
untary muscles  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  uterus,  and  bladder, 
and  increase  gastric  and  intestinal  peristalsis,  quickly 
causing  free  and  fluid  evacuations  from  the  bowels,  and 
besides,  inducing  in  man  and  carnivora  retching  and  vomit- 
ing.    The  secretion  of  saliva,  sweat,  and  mucus  is  increased. 

Poisonous  doses  disturb  voluntary  motility  and  paralyse 
the  spinal  cord,  the  posterior  column  being  affected  earlier 
and  more  fully  than  the  anterior.  Hence  results  the  char- 
acteristic curare-like  paralysis  affecting  motor  and  reflex 
functions,  which,  involving  the  medulla,  kills  by  respiratory 
arrest  (Brunton).  According  to  Professor  Fraser,  death 
sometimes  results  from  cardiac  paralysis,  the  heart  stopping 
in  diastole.  Convulsions  occasionally  occurring  from  the 
use  of  the  bean  and  commercial  physostigmine  are  due  to 
the  presence  of  calabarine.  The  brain  in  most  animals 
appears  to  be  irritated,  cats  and  guinea-pigs  poisoned 
exhibiting  cerebral  excitement,  becoming  timid,  and  run- 
ning wildly  about.  It  is  rapidly  absorbed  and  quickly 
excreted  mainly  in  the  bile,  saliva,  and  gastro-intestinal 
fluids. 

Between  physostigmine  and  its  analogues  interesting 
points  of  contrast  are  noted.  It  resembles  pilocarpine  in 
its  action  on  the  heart,  eye,  and  glandular  secretions,  but  it 
does  not  cause  such  profuse  flow  from  either  the  salivary 
bronchial,  skin,  or  intestinal  glands.  Physostigmine  pro- 
bably induces  secretion  by  acting  on  the  secreting  cells, 
Avhile  pilocarpine,  and  also  muscarine  and  nicotine,  stimulate 
the  peripheral  endings  of  secretory  nerves.  While  physo- 
stigmine causes  intestinal  movements  by  contracting  the 


STIMULATES    INTESTINAL    MUSCULAR    FIBRES        505 

muscular  fibres,  muscarine  does  so  b}^  stimulating  the  nerves. 
Atropine  is  its  physiological  antagonist,  paralysing  muscles, 
stimulating  the  respiratory  and  cardiac  medullary  centres, 
and  dilating  the  pupil. 

Ph3'sostigmine,  in  virtue  of  its  promptly  and  effectually 
stimulating  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  intestines,  is  of 
great  value  in  the  treatment  of  obstruction  and  obstinate 
constipation.  This  was  first  pointed  out  by  Dieckerhoft",  and 
has  been  fully  demonstrated  by  Majors  Fred.  Smith  and 
Charles  Rutherford,  of  the  Army  Veterinary  Department, 
■who  made  an  important  series  of  observations  on  horses, 
using  physostigmine  freed  from  the  convulsant  calabarine. 
From  the  Veterinary  Journal  1888,  the  following  observa- 
tions are  extracted  : — 


'  The  earliest  indications  we  hare  of  the  action  of  the  drug  are  loud 
intestinal  murmurs,  passage  of  flatus,  vrith.  slight  colicky  pain  ;  shortly 
this  is  followed  by  evacuation  of  the  contents  of  the  rectum,  and  the 
motions  then  pass  at  intervals  of  a  few  minutes,  each  becoming  gradually 
softer,  more  watery,  less  formed  in  balls,  until  we  reach  the  stage  when 
the  evacuations  are  moist  and  fluid,  exactly  representing  cows'  fieces.  All 
this  time  the  abdominal  disturbance  has  become  greater,  the  anim;il  lies 
down,  but  seldom  rolls,  the  intestinal  murmurs  are  louder,  the  passage  of 
flatus  almost  continuous,  straning  marked,  fceces  are  voided  icith  great 
rapidity,  often  ejected  with  force,  and  several  ounces  of  a  brown-coloured 
fluid  will  at  this  time  accompany  each  motion.  About  two  to  two  and  a 
half  hours  from  the  time  of  injection  the  efi'ects  are  commencing  to  pass 
off,  and  during  this  short  time  an  almost  incredible  amount  of  faeces  will 
have  been  excreted.  Details  on  this  point  will  be  given  below.  Those 
who  have  had  no  previous  experience  of  the  drug,  and  the  results  obtained, 
will  regard  it  as  magical  and  marvellous 

'  A  horse  received  Ih  grains  of  eserine  (physostigmine),  subcutaneously  ; 
it  acted  in  twenty-five  minutes,  and  produced  in  the  first  hour  seven 
evacuations,  in  the  second  hour  seven,  the  eflfect  passing  off  in  two  hours 
and  ten  minutes. 

'A  horse  received  1^  grains  of  eserine,  hypodermically,  which  took 
twelve  minutes  to  act,  producing  seven  evacuations  in  the  first  hour,  and 
then  terminating. 

'  Another  horse  received  1^  grains  of  salicylate  of  eserine,  hypodermi- 
cally, producing  a  free  action  of  the  bowels  in  one  hour.  This  case  ter- 
minated fatally  from  ruptured  stomach  ;  and  thus  it  was  demonstrated 
that  eserine  could  act  upon  the  large  intestines,  in  spite  of  the  shock  to 
the  abdominal  nervous  system  which  a  ruptured  stomach  causes. 

'  A  pony  received  1  grain  of  eserine,  hypodermically  ;  three  evacuations 
were  produced  in  fifty  minutes,  and  in  eighty  minutes  from  the  time  of 
injection  eight  evacuations  had  occurred.  The  case  was  a  fatal  one,  the 
cause  of  obstruction  being  due  to  a  small  diaphragmatic  hernia.  Had  the 
gut  not  been  nipped  so  tightly,  there  is  reason  to  believe  the  increased 
peristalsis  might  have  withdrawn  it. 

'A  horse  received  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  eserine  into  the  con- 


50G  CALABAR   BEAN    SERVICEABLE    IN 

junctival  sac;  it  shortly  pi'oduced  contraction  of  the  pupil,  which  lasted 
fully  two  days. 

'A  horse  received  ih  grains  of  eserine  liy  injection  into  the  trachea;  it 
took  seventeen  minutes  to  act,  and  produced  in  the  first  hour  twelve 
evacuations,  weighinj^  11  lb.  13  oz.,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  flatus. 
The  action  then  passed  oft'. 

'  A  horse  received  1  grain  of  eserine,  hypodermically  ;  it  took  forty-two 
minutes  to  act,  and  ])rodiiced  only  one  evacuation  in  one  hour,  accompanied 
hy  a  considerable  quantity  of  flatus. 

'The  saM)e  horse  received  1  grain  of  eserine  and  3  grains  of  pilocarpine 
by  inje'-tion  into  the  trachea  ;  it  took  twenty-one  minutes  to  act.  In  the 
first  hour,  counting  from  time  of  injection,  it  produced  fourteen  evacua- 
tions, weighing  30  lbs.  G  oz.  ;  in  the  second  hour  four  evacuations,  weighing 
7  lbs.  6j  oz.  ;  and  in  the  third  hour  two  evacuations,  weighing  2  lbs. 
13^  oz.  ;  in  three  hours  a  total  of  40  lbs.  10  oz.  of  ingest  a. 

'In  comparing  these  two  cases,  the  value  of  pilocarpine  as  an  addition 
to  eserine  is  clearly  demonstrated. 

'  A  horse  received  \h  grains  of  eserine  by  the  trachea  ;  it  acted  in  forty- 
one  minutes,  and  produced  in  the  hour  five  evacuations  ;  during  the  second 
hour  four  evacuations.  The  weight  was  unfortunately  not  obtained,  but 
the  quantity  of  ingesta  comjjletely  filled  a  stable  bucket.  The  case  was 
one  of  most  obstinate  constipation,  and  had  previously  received  6  drachms 
of  aloes,  which  acted  at  the  expiration  of  the  usual  time. 

'  Another  horse  received  by  the  trachea  1  grain  of  eserine  with  3  grains  of 
pilocarpine,  and  this  combination  acted  in  one  and  a  half  hours,  producing, 
in  two  and  a  half  hours  from  time  of  injection,  eight  evacuations,  weighing 
26  lbs.,  exclusive  of  loss.  The  pilocarpine  produced  its  salivating  eff"ects 
in  four  minutes  from  the  time  of  injection.' 

Mr.  R,  Rutherford,  Edinburgh,  gave  a  horse,  weighing 
about  950  lbs.,  5  grains  commercial  eserine,  which  within 
half-an-hour  caused  profuse  perspiration,  convulsive  breath- 
ing, with  violent  action  of  the  diaphragm.  About  two  hours 
later,  when  the  symptoms  were  abating,  he  gave  3  grains 
more,  and  death  followed  in  half-an-hour. 

Kaufmann  records  that  on  opening  the  abdomen  of  a 
horse  which  had  received  a  full  dose  of  physostigmine, 
energetic  contractions  of  the  large  intestine  were  seen. 
Animals  poisoned  exhibit  pallor,  contraction,  and  hardness 
of  the  large  intestine ;  the  urinary  bladder  is  empty  and 
contracted,  and  the  uterus  also  contracted. 

Antidotes. — As  the  bean  is  not  very  soluble,  the  stomach 
should  be  evacuated  either  by  an  emetic  or  the  stomach- 
pump.  Ipecacuanha  has  been  recommended  as  an  antidote. 
Physostigmine  is  antagonised  by  moderate  doses  of  atroj^ine. 
Professor  Fraser  found  that  rabbits,  receiving  one  and  a  half 
the  lethal  dose,  recovered,  if  atropine  was  given,  simultane- 
ously in  doses  of  gr.  -^  to  gr.  i.     While  small  doses  act  as 


INTESTINAL    TORPIDITY    AND    IMPACTION  507 

antidotes,  larger  hasten  a  fatal  result.  The  atropine  specially 
counteracts  the  cardiac  paralysis.  To  a  less  extent  physo- 
stigmine  antagonises  the  poisonous  action  of  atropine ; 
chloral  also  somewhat  opposes  physostigmine. 

Medicinal  Uses.  —  Physostigmine  is  myotic,  anodyne, 
expectorant,  and  a  gastro-intestinal  stimulant.  The  observa- 
tions of  Majors  Smith  and  Rutherford  testify  to  its  value  in 
combating  intestinal  torpidity  and  impaction.  They  ad- 
minister physostigmine  hypodermically  and  intratracheally, 
preferring  the  latter  method  on  account  of  its  enabling  more 
fluid  to  be  introduced,  occasioning  less  loss  of  the  drug,  and 
causing  less  inconvenience  to  the  patient.  Cases  of  intestinal 
obstruction  in  all  animals  may  be  safely  treated  by  eserine, 
conjoined  with  pilocarpine  and  anodynes,  by  enemata,  and 
abstention  from  solid  food.  French  and  German  practitioners 
have  arrived  at  similar  conclusions.  Dieckerhoif,  Nocard, 
and  Kaufmann,  recommend  physostigmine  as  an  '  intestinal 
ansemiant '  in  congestion,  atony,  colic,  and  torpidity  of  the 
digestive  tract,  especially  of  the  large  intestine,  and  also 
for  the  expulsion  of  concretions  and  foreign  bodies.  They 
further  note  its  use  to  determine  contraction  of  the  uterus. 
Eserine  has  been  given,  subcutaneously  and  intravenously, 
to  cattle  affected  with  gastric  impaction,  but  although 
causing  considerable,  sometimes  painful,  disturbance  of  the 
bowels,  it  does  not  produce  copious  evacuations.  It  has 
been  tried  in  tetanus,  but  the  relief  afforded  is  merely 
transient.  Recoveries  attributed  to  the  use  of  eserine  should 
only  be  accepted  with  reserve. 

The  extract  and  eserine  sulphate  or  salicylate  have  been 
prescribed  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  other  spasmodic  nervous 
affections,  and,  as  an  antidote,  in  poisoning  by  strychnine 
and  atropine.  They  should  not,  however,  be  given  to 
pregnant  animals,  in  which  untimely  stimulation  of  the 
uterus  may  lead  to  premature  expulsion  of  its  contents.  In 
solution  eserine  is  applied  as  a  myotic  to  relieve  congestion 
and  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva  and  cornea,  and, 
alternated  with  atropine,  to  prevent  or  break  down  ad- 
hesions caused  by  iritis.  In  chronic  dropsical  conditions 
of  the  joints   and  bursas   of  tendons   in  the  horse,  after 


508  HEMLOCK 

evacuation  of  the  fluid  by  an  aspirator,  or  a  trocar  and  canula, 
Stottraeister,  instead  of  the  iodine  solutions  frequently  used, 
recommends  injection  of  a  grain  to  a  grain  and  a  half  physo- 
stigmine  dissolved  in  TT[80  to  TTI^  160  of  distilled  water,  apply- 
ing subsequently,  f'"  two  or  three  days,  ice  or  refrigerant 
lotions  to  abate  inflammation  {Jour,  of  Co^nip.  Patli.  and 
Thernp.,  1889). 

Doses,  etc. — The  bean  is  given  to  horses  and  cattle  in 
doses  of  grs.  xv.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  to  dogs,  gr.  \  to  gr.  ^.  As 
already  indicated,  the  diverse  character  of  the  two  alkaloids 
present  in  the  extract,  as  well  as  in  the  bean,  renders  it 
desirable  to  use  physostigmine,  which  is  conveniently 
employed  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  of  which  the  dose  per 
oreDi  for  horses  is  grs.  ii.  to  grs,  iii.,  and  for  dogs,  gr.  -n^  to 
gr.  ■^.  Intratracheally,  gr.  ss.,  in  m^  1  to  'n[  Ix  of  water ; 
and  subcutaneously,  gr.  j.  to  gr.  jss.,  in  711,  Ix  to  HI,  Ixxx  of  water. 
In  intestinal  obstruction  more  prompt  and  certain  eftects 
are  obtained  by  addition  of  2  to  3  grains  of  pilocarpine.  The 
hydrobromide  and  salicylate  of  eserine  are  sometimes  used. 
An  anaesthetic  collyrium  may  be  made  with  cocaine  hydro- 
chloride grs.  iv.,  eserine  sulphate  grs.  ii.,  and  distilled  water  §j. 

Eseridine  (Cj5Ho3N'303),  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  Calabar 
bean,  has  similar  properties  to  physostigmine,  but  only  one- 
sixth  its  activity. 

HEMLOCK 

Hemlock  Leaves.  Conii  Folia.  The  fresh  leaves  and 
young  branches  of  Conium  maculatum,  collected  when 
the  fruit  begins  to  form  (B.P.).  Nat.  Ord. — IJmbelli- 
ferse. 

Hemlock  Fruit.  Conii  Fructus.  The  dried,  full-grown, 
unripe  fruits  of  Conium  maculatum  (B.P.). 

Hemlock  grows  wild  in  hedges  and  waste  places  in  most 
parts  of  Europe.  The  flowering  stem  is  two  to  five  feet  high, 
round,  hollow,  jointed,  smooth,  branching  towards  the  top, 
and  covered  with  purple  spots.  The  large  bi-  or  tri-pinnate 
leaves  are  glabrous  and  dark-green,  have  clasping  petioles  of 
varying    length,   a  nauseous,   bitter   taste,   and    a    strong, 


CONINE  509 

peculiar  odour,  which  is  characteristic  of  all  parts  of  the 
plant,  and  aptly  compared  to  that  of  mice  or  of  cats'  urine. 
The  fruit  resembles  that  of  anise,  is  of  a  brown  colour,  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  broadly  ovate,  the  two 
mericarps,  generally  separated,  each  marked  with  five  ribs. 
Nine  pounds  of  fruit  produce  an  ounce  of  conine,  which, 
with  a  bitter  oleo-resin  and  a  non-poisonous  volatile  oil,  is 
found  stored  chiefly  in  cubical  cells  in  the  endocarp. 

The  leaves  gathered  in  June,  when  the  fruit  begins  to 
form,  are  rapidly  dried  in  stoves  at  about  120°  Fahr., 
and  preserved  in  tins,  bottles,  or  jars,  excluded  from  light. 
By  drying,  they  lose  three-fourths  of  their  weight,  and  one- 
half  of  their  volatile  principle,  of  which  scarcely  a  trace 
remains  after  they  are  kept  twelve  months  (Royle's  Materia 
Medico).  Long  keeping  of  the  fruit  and  leaves,  and  their 
exposure  to  temperatures  exceeding  120°  Fahr.,  account  for 
the  inertness  of  many  hemlock  preparations. 

In  addition  to  the  active  principle,  conine,  hemlock 
contains  varying  proportions  of  methyl-conine,  which  acts 
on  the  spinal  cord,  paralysing  reflex  action,  conhydrine, 
which  is  said  to  be  inert,  and  coniic  acid. 

Pure  conine  (CgH^gHN)  may  be  obtained  from  the  fruit  or 
leaves  by  distillation  with  caustic  potash.  It  is  a  yellowish, 
oily  liquid,  with  an  intense  odour  of  mice,  and  a  peculiar 
acrid  taste.  Specific  gravity  -885.  Soluble  in  100  parts 
of  water ;  and  readily  dissolved  by  alcohol  or  ether.  Nitric 
acid  dropped  on  conine  produces  a  blood-red  colour,  sul- 
phuric acid  a  purple-red,  passing  to  olive-green.  Its  chief 
salt  is  the  hydrobromide,  which  contains  about  60  per 
cent,  of  the  alkaloid.  It  is  soluble  in  two  parts  of  water 
and  in  three  of  rectified  spirit  (Squire).  Pure  conine,  like 
curare,  paralyses  the  endings  of  motor  nerves  and  of  the 
vagus,  and,  later,  the  motor  centres  of  the  brain  and  cord. 

The  leaves  and  fruit  of  hemlock  are  distinguished  by  their 
appearance,  and,  if  triturated  with  diluted  caustic  potash 
solution,  evolve  the  characteristic  odour  of  mice.  Fool's 
parsley  (^Ethusa  cynapium),  water  hemlock  or  cowbane 
(Cicuta  virosa),  the  fine-leaved  water  hemlock  (Phellandrium 
aquaticum),    the    water    parsnip    (Q^nanthe    crocata),    are 


510  HEMLOCK — CONINE 

Umbelliferai  with  physiological  actions  similar  to  those  of 
couiuin  maciilatum,  and  when  freely  eaten  have  poisoned 
many  of  the  domestic  animals.  Of  wholesome  dietetic 
Umbellifera3,  parsley,  parsnip,  and  celery  are  illustrations. 
The  natural  family  is  rich  in  aromatic  carminative  seeds. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Hemlock  and  its  alkaloids,  applied  to 
mucous  or  denuded  skin  surfaces,  diminish  sensibility,  and 
are  analgesic.  When  absorbed  they  paralyse  the  endings  of 
motor  nerves  and  of  the  vagus,  and  are  sometimes  prescribed 
to  quiet  motor  irritability. 

General  Actions. — Hemlock  was  the  state  poison  of  the 
Athenians,  the  death-potion  of  Socrates.  It  has  paralysant 
eifect  on  sensory  nerves,  as  exhibited  when  applied  to 
mucous  and  delicate  skin  membranes,  and  when  absorbed 
paralyses  (without  the  preliminary  stimulation  exerted  by 
nicotine  or  pilocarpine)  the  extremities  of  motor  nerves,  and 
those  vagus  endings  which  inhibit  the  heart  and  lungs.  It 
increases  the  secretion  of  the  sweat,  bronchial,  and  intestinal 
glands.  Full  doses  paralyse  the  motor  centres  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  and  cause  a  weak  and  staggering  gait,  the 
hind  extremities  being  first  affected.  Convulsions  occasion- 
ally occur  in  warm-blooded  animals,  depending  upon  the 
presence  of  methyl-conine,  which,  as  indicated,  acts  upon 
the  spinal  cord  and  paralyses  reflex  action.  Death  results 
from  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  respiration.  It  is  excreted 
mainly  by  the  kidneys,  possibly  in  part  by  the  lungs,  it 
acts  more  powerfully  on  man  and  carnivora  than  on 
grarainivora  or  herbivora.  Goats  with  impunity  eat  con- 
siderable quantities  of  the  fresh  leaves  (Kaufraann).  Its 
physiological  antagonists  are  nux-vomica,  strychnine,  and 
other  tetanisers. 

Toxic  Actions. — Dr.  John  Harley  and  Mr.  Frederick  Mavor 
gave  a  two-year-old  thoroughbred  colt  six,  eight,  and  twelve 
ounces  of  succus  conii  without  appreciable  effect.  Sixteen 
ounces  produced  in  twenty-five  minutes  dulncss  and  stu- 
pidity, drooping  and  swollen  eyelids,  but  no  change  in  the 
pulse  or  pupils.  A  few  minutes  later  the  colt  went  down 
upon  his  knees,  appeared  to  require  special  eflbrts  to  keep 
himself  on  his  legs,  stumbled,  and  walked  slowly  when  led ; 


TOXIC    EFFECTS  511 

but  in  two  hours  the  symptoms  had  entirely  disappeared 
(Old  Vegetable  Neurotics,  1869).  Moiroud  poisoned  a  horse 
with  half  a  pound  of  the  dried  leaves  given  as  a  decoction, 
and  observed  nausea,  spasmodic  twitching  of  the  muscles  of 
the  extremities,  cold  sweats,  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  and 
dulness.  In  Italy  asses  eating  hemlock  have  sometimes  been 
so  thoroughly  paralysed  that,  supposing  them  to  be  dead, 
the  peasants  have  begun  to  remove  the  skin  (Matthiolus). 

Cattle  poisoned  lie  as  if  lifeless,  with  slow,  feeble  pulse, 
cold  extremities,  and  dilated  pupils  {Veterinarian's  Vade 
Meciim).  Sheep  become  giddy,  listless,  and  sometimes  die. 
When  other  food  is  scarce  lambs  will  crop  hemlock  with 
fatal  results,  as  noted  in  the  Veterinary  Record  for  July 
1893.  Fifteen  grains  of  the  succus  injected  into  the  blood- 
vessels of  a  full-grown  mouse  produced,  in  half  an  hour, 
paralysis,  continuing  for  five  hours.  Christison  found  that 
an  ounce  of  the  extract  swallowed  by  dogs  proved  fatal  in 
forty-five  minutes  ;  ninety  grains  applied  to  a  wound  had 
the  same  effect  in  an  hour  and  a  half;  while  tAventy-eight 
grains  caused  death  in  two  minutes,  when  injected  into  the 
veins  {On  Poisons). 

Gerrard,  of  Market  Deeping,  records  (Veterinarian,  1873) 
the  poisoning  of  pigs  which  strayed  into  an  orchard  and  ate 
growing  hemlock.  They  lay  prostrate  and  unable  to  rise, 
pulse  imperceptible,  the  body  cold,  the  eyes  amaurotic,  and 
when  left  alone  they  lapsed  into  a  comatose  state.  There 
were  no  convulsions,  and  no  pain  was  apparent  when  they 
were  pricked  with  a  pin.  In  fifteen  hours  two  died,  and  two 
a  few  hours  later.  Examination  discovered  the  blood 
throughout  the  body,  and  especially  in  the  large  organs, 
dark-coloured  and  fluid,  the  result  of  the  fatal  asphyxia; 
the  intestines  distended  with  gas;  the  mucous  coat  of  the 
stomach,  particularly  its  cardiac  portion,  much  congested, 
while  similar  spots  of  congestion  were  observed  throughout 
the  intestines. 

Conine  is  generally  used  in  the  form  of  hydrobromide. 
One  drop  applied  to  the  eye  of  a  rabbit  arrested  respiration 
in  nine  minutes ;  three  drops  in  the  eye  of  a  cat  killed  it  in 
a  minute  and  a  half;   five  drops  swallowed   by  small  dogs 


512  HEMLOCK — CONINE 

began  to  operate  in  thirty  seconds,  and  proved  fatal  in  one 
minute.  Still  smaller  quantities  injected  into,  the  veins 
poisoned  with  even  greater  rapidity  (Christison  On  Poisons). 

The  antidotes  are  tannic  acid,  the  cautious  administration 
of  coffee,  and  other  stimulants,  ammonia  to  the  nostrils, 
stimulating  enemata,  enforced  exercise,  and  artificial 
respiration. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Hemlock  is  occasionally  given  to  relieve 
the  muscular  spasm  of  chorea.  It  is  of  no  avail  in  tetanus 
in  horses,  nor,  as  demonstrated  by  experiment,  in  strychnine 
poisoning.  Spasmodic  cough  connected  with  muscular  irri- 
tability, such  as  occasionally  occurs  in  epizootic  sore-throat 
and  bronchitis  in  horses,  is  sometimes  relieved  by  inhalation 
of  steam  medicated  with  hemlock,  or  by  swallowing  slowly 
an  electuary  of  succus  conii,  glycerin,  and  ammonium  acetate. 
Injections  and  suppositories  are  applied  in  irritable,  painful 
conditions  of  the  urino-genital  organs.  Conium  ointment, 
made  with  two  ounces  of  succus  conii  and  three-quarter 
ounce  of  lanoline,  is  applied  as  an  anodyne  in  acute 
mammitis  of  the  cow. 

Doses,  etc. — Neither  the  dried  leaves  nor  the  fully-ripened 
dried  fruit  are  to  be  depended  upon.  The  fresh  leaves  and 
young  branches,  and  preparations  promptly  obtained  from 
them  without  heat,  are,  however,  reliable,  of  which  the  best  is 
the  succus.  Three  parts  of  juice  are  mixed  with  one  of  recti- 
fied spirit,  allowed  to  stand  for  seven  days,  and  then  filtered 
and  bottled.  This  succus  has  a  dark  sherry  colour,  an  agree- 
able odour,  and  acid  reaction ;  one  fluid  ounce  yields  thirty 
grains  of  soft  extract.  Horses  and  cattle  take  fgij.  to  f§iv. ; 
sheep  and  pigs,  fgss.  to  f§j. ;  dogs,  f5ss.  to  f5j.  Its  analgesic 
and  anti-spasmodic  effects  are  increased  by  using  it  with 
opium  or  chloral-hydrate.  Conine  employed  hypodermically 
by  Dr.  Harley  and  Mr.  Mavor,  frequently  produced  irritation, 
which  hindered  its  absorption.  For  subcutaneous  or  intra- 
tracheal injection  the  hydrobromide,  which  contains  60  per 
cent,  of  coninc,  should  be  used.  Doses — horses,  gr.  i.  to 
grs.  ii. ;  dogs,  gr.  ^\-  to  gr.  ^,  dissolved  in  20  to  60  minims  of 
water  containing  a  few  dro])s  of  alcohol. 


HENBANE  513 


HYOSCYAMUS 

Hyoscyamus  or  Henbane  Leaves.  The  fresh  leaves  and 
flowers,  with  the  branches  to  which  they  are  attached, 
of  Hyoscyamus  niger ;  also  the  leaves  and  flowering 
tops,  separated  from  the  branches,  and  carefully  dried. 
Collected  from  the  flowering  biennial  plants  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Solanaceae. 

Henbane  grows  wild  in  most  parts  of  this  country,  and  is 
cultivated  at  Mitcham  and  Hitchin.  The  large,  sinuate, 
usually  decurrent  yellow-brown  leaves  are  rough,  hairy,  and 
clammy,  with  a  foetid,  narcotic  odour,  and  a  nauseous,  bitter 
taste.  There  are  two  varieties,  an  annual  and  a  biennial; 
the  latter  alone  recognised  by  the  B.P.,  is  larger,  stronger, 
more  branched,  clammy,  and  active.  One  hundred  pounds 
of  the  fresh  plant  when  dried  weigh  14  lbs.,  and  yield 
about  4  lbs.  of  extract. 

The  active  principle,  hyoscyamine  (C^^HggNOg),  in  its  im- 
pure form  is  an  oily  liquid,  becoming  brown  on  exposure, 
but  it  can  be  slowly  crystallised  into  colourless,  translucent 
needles.  It  is  soluble  in  120  of  water,  and  readily  dissolves 
in  alcohol,  chloroform,  and  dilute  acids.  It  resembles 
daturine,  the  active  principle  of  Datura  stramonium,  is 
identical  with  duboisine,  the  active  alkaloid  of  Duboisia 
myoporoides,  and  is  isomeric  with  atropine.  It  is  decom- 
posed, and  its  physiological  action  neutralised  by  caustic 
alkalies.  Henbane  also  contains  hyoscine,  which  is  a  cere- 
bral and  spinal  sedative,  and  an  oil. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Hyoscyamus  closely  resembles  bella- 
donna and  stramonium.  Locally  applied,  it  paralyses  the 
endings  of  sensory  nerves.  It  dilates  the  pupil,  although 
not  so  certainly  and  fully  as  atropine.  Full  doses  of  the 
drug  or  its  alkaloid  stimulate  the  cerebral  centres  and 
paralyse  the  ends  of  motor  nerves.  There  are  produced 
dryness  of  the  mouth,  general  convulsions,  paralysis,  and 
stupor,  alternated  with  a  peculiar  form  of  delirium,  in  which 
a  constant  desire  for  action  is  accompanied  by  lassitude, 
failure  of  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  of  breathing,  and 
death  from  asphyxia  (Brunton). 

2  K 


514  COCAINE 

Toxic  Effects. — Horses  receiving  an  infusion  made  with 
three  to  four  ounces  of  the  leaves  have  dilatation  of  the 
pui^ils,  spasmodic  movements  of  the  lips,  acceleration  and 
subsequently  depression  of  the  heart-beats,  but  no  symptoms 
of  acute  poisoning.  Dogs  are  acted  on  exactly  as  by  bella- 
donna. Cats  become  dull  and  drowsy,  the  mouth  and  nose 
dry,  the  pulse  accelerated,  the  pupils  dilated,  and  the  power 
of  walking  or  springing  impaired  (0/(i  Vegetable  Neurotics). 

Medicinal  Uses. — Hyoscyamus  is  prescribed  with  cathartics 
to  prevent  their  griping.  It  is  mainly  excreted  by  the  kid- 
neys, and  occasionally  is  used  as  an  anodyne  in  irritable 
conditions  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder.  It  is  prescribed  in 
human  practice  in  cases  of  mania  and  nervous  or  muscular 
excitement,  and  has  been  used  with  some  success  in  epilepsy 
and  chorea  in  dogs.  It  is  occasionally  substituted  for  opium 
as  a  topical  anodyne. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  succus  and  tincture  horses  and  cattle 
take  fgj. ;  dogs,  TTLx.  to  TTj^xl.  The  extract  is  six  times  the 
strength  of  the  succus  or  tincture.  Hyoscyamine,  usually 
prescribed  as  the  sulphate,  which  is  freely  soluble  in  water, 
is  one  hundred  times  more  active  than  the  extract,  and  is 
sometimes  used  hypodermically. 


COCAINE 

CocAiNA.  An  alkaloid  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  Erythro- 
xylum  Coca  and  its  varieties. 

CocAiNiE  Hydrochloridum.  The  hydrochloride  of  an  alka- 
loid obtained  from  Coca  leaves.  Cj^HgiNO^.HCl.  Nat. 
Ord. — Lineae. 

The  alkaloid,  of  which  the  leaves  yield  26  per  cent.,  is  pre- 
pared by  agitating  an  acidulated  alcoholic  extract  with  ether. 
It  occurs  in  colourless  prisms,  almost  insoluble  m  water, 
insoluble  in  glycerin,  soluble  in  ten  parts  rectified  spirit,  and 
in  twelve  of  olive  oil.  The  hydrochloride,  in  colourless  acicular 
crystals,  or  crystalline  powder,  is  readily  soluble  in  water, 
alcohol,  and  glycerin.  Insoluble  in  olive  oil,  and  nearly 
insoluble  in  ether.     Its  watery  solution  has  a  bitter  taste. 


ACTIONS   AND   USES  615 

producing  on  the  tongue  a  sensation  of  tingling,  followed  by 
numbness,  and  when  applied  to  the  eye  dilates  the  pupil. 
It  gives  a  yellow  precipitate  with  gold  chloride,  and  a  white 
precipitate  with  ammonium  carbonate,  soluble  in  excess  of 
the  re-agent.  Cocaine  is  associated  in  the  plant  with  coca- 
tannic  acid,  and  with  two  other  alkaloids — cocamine  and 
cinnamyl-cocaine — and  a  volatile  constituent  which  gives 
aromatic  fragrance  to  the  fresh  leaves. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Cocaine  paralyses  the  sensory  nerves 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact,  and  is  thus  a  local  anaesthetic. 
It  is  also  antiseptic.  Small  to  moderate  doses  are  stimulant 
and  tonic,  and  diminish  metabolism.  The  South  American 
Indians,  on  long  marches,  not  only  chew  coca  leaves,  but  give 
them  to  their  horses,  with  the  effect  of  diminishino'  thirst, 
hunger,  and  sense  of  fatigue.  Although  topically  anaesthetic 
and  anodyne,  large  doses,  swallowed  or  injected  subcutane- 
ously,  paralyse  the  nerve-centres,  impair  co-ordination, 
causing  aimless  gyrating  movements,  muscular  spasms,  and 
death  from  respiratory  failure. 

General  Actions. — Solutions  of  4  to  10  per  cent.,  applied 
to  a  mucous  surface,  within  one  minute  cause  pallor  and 
vascular  contraction,  and  two  or  three  minutes  later  local 
anaesthesia  lasting  ten  minutes.  A  few  drops  of  a  5  per  cent, 
solution,  placed  within  the  eyelids,  paralyse  the  conjunctiva 
and  iris,  and  dilate  the  pupil.  This  dilatation  is  more 
notable  in  men  and  dogs  than  in  horses  and  cattle  (Frohner). 
When  swallowed,  it  slightly  stimulates  the  stomach.  It 
diminishes  the  sensations  of  hunger  and  thirst.  Large  or 
repeated  doses  quicken  circulation,  increase  blood-pressure, 
breathing,  and  temperature,  and  heighten  reflex  irritability. 
Still  larger  doses  cause  trembling  and  timidity,  impair  co- 
ordination and  equilibrium;  animals  cannot  walk  straight, 
have  muscular  trembling  and  rotatory  convulsions,  and  die 
from  paralysis  of  respiration.  It  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys ; 
does  not  appear,  however,  to  alter  the  proportion  of  the 
urinary  constituents,  but  exerts  antiseptic  effects  on  the 
urine  and  other  secretions.  Applied  to  the  mammary  gland 
it  diminishes  secretion  of  milk. 

Horses  receiving  60  to  80  grains  injected  subcutaneously. 


51 G  COCAINE 

or  about  '005  gramme  per  kilogramme  of  body-weight, 
according  to  Froliner,  are  restless,  paw  with  the  fore  feet 
neigh,  and  exhibit  tiniidity  and  excitement,  the  pulse  rises 
to  90-96,  temperature  is  increased,  salivation  occurs,  the 
bowels  are  frequently  moved,  and  the  pupil  dilated.  After 
fifty  minutes  the  animal  is  in  a  state  of  frenzied  excitement, 
with  greatly  augmented  reflex  activity.  Two  hours  elapse 
before  these  effects  disappear.  In  cows  like  effects  were 
produced  by  hypodermic  injection  of  similar  doses.  One 
drachm  is  stated  to  have  produced  excitement  bordering  on 
madness,  and  continuing  for  four  hours,  but  gradually  pass- 
ing ofit",  and  leaving  no  injurious  effects. 

In  dogs,  doses  consisting  of  'OlS  to  -02  gramme  per 
kilogramme  of  live-weight  produce  psychical  excitement, 
muscular  spasms,  rhythmical  contractions  of  the  skeletal 
muscules,  tetanic  and  clonic  spasms,  epileptic  fits,  rolling, 
loss  of  co-ordination,  and  dyspnoea.  The  spasms  and  more 
prominent  symj)toms  do  not,  however,  occur  when  potassium 
bromide,  ether,  or  amyl-nitrite  have  previously  been  given. 
Large  doses  paralyse  the  central  nervous  system,  implicating 
first  the  brain,  then  the  corpora  quadrigemina,  the  spinal 
cord,  and  lastly,  the  medulla.  Injected  hypodermically, 
twelve  to  fifteen  grains  kill  small  dogs  in  ten  minutes 
(Hobday). 

Medicinal  Uses. — Cocaine  hydrochloride  is  a  convenient 
and  effectual  local  anaesthetic.  Its  effects  are  confined  to 
the  skin  or  mucous  surfixce  moistened  with  it,  are  more  easily 
regulated  than  those  of  ether  spray,  are  unaccompanied  by 
pain,  and  may  be  kept  up  for  considerable  periods  without 
injuriously  affecting  the  nutrition  of  the  parts.  Anaesthesia 
may  be  produced  within  five  minutes,  and,  Avhen  insensibility 
is  secured,  it  usually  continues  for  twenty  to  thirty  minutes. 
For  application  to  the  skin  cocaine  should  be  dissolved  in 
oil  of  cloves  which  ensures  deeper  penetration.  Twcnt}' 
minims  of  a  4  or  5  per  cent,  solution  dropped  into  the  eye 
within  ten  minutes  diminish  sensibilit}",  so  that  a  thorough 
examination  can  be  made  of  the  organ  ;  the  irritabilit}'  and 
pain  of  conjunctivitis,  iritis,  and  ulceration  of  the  cornea  are 
abated;  chaffer  other  foreign  bodies  imbedded  in  the  cornea 


HOLOCAINE  617 

can  be  removed  without  provoking  pain  or  reflex  movements : 
warts  can  be  excised,  torn  lids  stitched,  and  injuries  of  the  eye 
painlessly  treated.  Indeed,  after  several  applications  of  the 
cocaine  solution,  the  eyeball  of  the  horse  has  been  removed, 
Avithout  symptoms  of  pain,  and  without  the  necessity  of 
casting  the  patient.  In  examinations  and  operations  in  con- 
nection with  the  larynx,  cocaine  is  equally  serviceable,  and 
for  such  cases  a  stronger  solution  is  generally  used.  Applied 
to  the  skin,  along  the  course  of  the  plantar  nerves,  and  still 
more  effectually  when  injected  subcutaneously,  it  abolishes 
sensibility  sufliciently  for  the  painless  performance  of 
neurectomy.  Mr,  Richard  Rutherford,  Edinburgh,  after 
closely  clipping  or  shaving  the  hair,  finds  that  half  an  ounce 
of  a  20  per  cent,  solution,  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes 
anaesthetises  the  limbs  even  of  irritable  horses  sufficiently 
for  the  performance  of  firing  Avithout  casting,  and  for  the 
painless  insertion  of  setons.  It  is  serviceable  in  the  opening 
of  abscesses,  the  removal  of  tumours,  and  in  operations  on 
the  uterus,  vagina,  and  rectum.  Subcutaneously  injected, 
it  has  been  used  to  allay  rheumatic  and  other  irritative  pain, 
and  to  assist  in  the  diagnosis  of  lameness. 

In  order  to  preserve  cocaine  hydrochloride  solutions,  Avhich, 
when  long  kept,  are  liable  to  spoil,  l-200th  part  of  boric  acid 
should  be  added  to  them  when  freshly  made.  The  B.P. 
injectio  cocainse  hypodermica,  is  made  with  33  grains 
cocaine  hydrochloride,  h  grain  salicylic  acid,  and  6  drachms 
distilled  water.  One  hundred  and  ten  minims  contain  about 
10  grains  of  cocaine.  The  ointment  consists  of  20  grains 
cocaine,  80  grains  oleic  acid,  and  400  grains  of  lard.  Tablets 
containing  ^^  and  ^  grain  are  now  obtainable. 

Holocaine,  a  cocaine  substitute,  obtained  by  combination 
of  phenacetin  and  paraphenetidin,  is  employed  as  the  hydro- 
chloride, Avhich  is  soluble  in  one  hundred  parts  of  water.  In 
ophthalmic  practice  a  few  drops  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution 
produce  anaesthesia  in  fifty  seconds,  the  effects  lasting  for 
five  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  solution  is  antiseptic  but  does 
not  dilate  the  pupil.  Acoin,  derived  from  guanin,  is  less 
poisonous  and  acts  longer  than  cocaine.  It  is  antiseptic  as 
well  as  anaesthetic.     A  solution  for  hypodermic  injection  is 


5 1 8  COCAINE 

composed  of  one  part  acoin,  eight  parts  of  sodium  chloride, 
and  a  thousand  parts  of  distilled  water.  Tropacocaine, 
employed  as  the  hydrochloride,  occurs  with  cocaine  and 
other  bases  in  Java  coca  leaves,  and  is  prepared  synthetically 
by  Liebermann.  It  is  a  white  crystalline  powder  readily 
soluble  in  water.  Used  in  solution  (2  to  3  per  cent.)  it  is 
a  powerful  local  anaesthetic,  more  rapid  and  less  toxic  than 
cocaine.  The  hydrochlorides  of  alpha-eucaine  and  beta- 
eucaine  are  also  employed  as  substitutes  for  cocaine. 
Eucaine-a  is  soluble  in  ten  parts  of  ^vater  and  is  not 
decomposed  on  boiling.  As  a  local  anaesthetic  it  is  seldom 
used  in  eye  cases  owing  to  its  irritant  action  on  tte 
conjunctiva.  Eucaine-b  is  more  active  and  much  less  toxic 
than  cocaine.  Readily  soluble  in  water  it  is  free  of  irritant 
action.  Solutions  can  be  sterilised  by  boiling  without 
undergoing  decomposition.  A  2  per  cent,  solution  is 
employed  as  a  local  anaesthetic  for  minor  operations. 
Solutions  of  5  and  10  per  cent,  have  been  used.  A  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  eucaine-band  cocaine  ha ;  been  recom- 
mended as  the  best  and  safest  local  anaesthetic. 

Orthoform  (methyl-para-amido-meta-oxybenzoate),  another 
cocaine  substitute,  occurs  as  a  white,  odourless  and  tasteless 
powder,  slightly  soluble  in  water.  According  to  Guinard 
and  Souliere,  Orthoform  is  more  analgesic  than  anaesthetic. 
Applied  to  Avounds  only  a  small  part  is  dissolved  by  the 
discharge.  Absorption  does  not  occur  or  is  exceedingly 
slow,  so  that  local  applications  may  be  regarded  as  non- toxic. 
When  swallowed,  or  injected  subcutaneously,  it  is  quickly 
absorbed  and  acts  as  a  powerful  nerve  depressant,  blood 
pressure  being  lowered  and  heart  action  and  respiration 
much  increased.  Large  doses  given  to  dogs,  hypodermically 
or  by  the  mouth,  cause  nausea  and  vomiting.  Orthoform  is 
employed  as  a  local  antesthetic;  and  as  an  anodyne  and 
antiseptic  in  powder  or  in  ointment  (10  to  20  per  cent.) 
made  with  lanoline.  Mixed  with  collodion  it  is  used  as  an 
antiseptic  adhesive  protective  for  small  wounds.  The  hydro- 
chloride (soluble  in  nine  parts  of  water)  is  not  generally 
applicable  for  ophthalmic  or  subcutaneous  use  {Newer 
Remedies,  1899). 


JABORANDI — PILOCARPINE  519 


JABORANDI 

Jaborandi  Folia.    The  died  leaflets  of  Pilocarpus  Jaborandi. 

(B.P.)    Nat  Ord. — Rutaceae. 
Pilocarpine  Nitrate.  PilocarpinseNitras  (C^HijjNgOaHNOg). 

The  nitrate   of  an   alkaloid   obtained  from  Jaborandi 

leaves  (B.P.). 

The  shrubs  yielding  jaborandi  are  natives  of  Brazil.  The 
leaflets  have  a  slightly  aromatic  odour  and  a  bitter,  pungent 
taste,  and  when  chewed  they  increase  secretion  of  saliva. 
The  leaflets  are  about  four  inches  long,  and  contain  an  acrid 
resin,  an  essential  oil  consisting  in  part  of  a  dextrogyrate 
terpene  (Cj^H^g),  and  an  amorphous,  liquid,  colourless  alkaloid, 
pilocarpine  (CjjHigN20.2),  which  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
chloroform,  ammonia,  and  dilute  acids,  and  forms  crystal- 
lisable  salts,  the  nitrate  being  chiefly  used.  Another  alkaloid, 
jaborine,  occurs  in  much  smaller  proportion,  is  stated  to  be 
a  basic  decomposition  product  of  pilocarpine,  and  antagonistic 
to  it  in  its  actions.  Pilocarpine  nitrate,  is  a  white,  crystalline 
powder,  soluble  in  nine  parts  of  water,  and  in  fifty  parts  of 
cold  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Pilocarpine  and  jaborandi  leaflets  have 
no  notable  in-contact  effect  on  the  skin  or  mucous  membranes, 
but  when  absorbed  they  stimulate  glandular  secretion  more 
promptly,  energetically,  and  generally  than  any  other  known 
drugs.  The  salivary,  lachrymal,  bronchial,  intestinal,  urinary, 
and  mammary  secretions  are  increased.  The  cutaneous  per- 
spiratory glands  are  not  so  actively  stimulated  in  the  lower 
animals  as  in  man.  They,  moreover,  slightly  and  temporarily 
excite  and  then  paralyse  the  efferent  nerves  of  involuntary 
muscles,  while  large  doses  impair  the  irritability  of  voluntary 
muscles  and  motor  nerves  (Brunton).  They  are  prescribed 
as  eliminatives  in  catarrhal,  pneumonic,  and  rheumatic  cases, 
and  in  torpidity  and  obstruction  of  the  bowels — in  these  being 
conjoined  with  physostigmine.  Jaborine  has  actions  entirely 
opposite  to  those  of  pilocarpine.  It  is  an  anti-secretory  and 
a  paralysant  of  involuntary  muscles,  thus  closely  resembling 
atropine.      Its   presence   in  jaborandi   and    in    commercial 


520  JABORANDI — PILOCARPINE 

specimens  of  pilocarpine  hence  interferes  with  their 
characteristic  actions. 

General  Actions. — Pilocarpine  stimulates  the  peripheral 
terminations  of  efferent  nerves  going  to  glands  and  to 
involuntary  muscles,  and  also  excites  the  nerve  centres 
presiding  over  secretion.  In  the  lower  animals  secretion  of 
saliva  is  early  and  prominently  increased.  Horses  sub- 
cutaneously  injected  with  three  to  four  grains  in  two  or 
three  minutes  are  freely  salivated ;  within  one  hour  three 
and  a  half  pints  of  saliva  have  been  collected ;  during  the 
next  hour  about  half  that  quantity,  but  an  hour  later  the 
secretion  was  nearly  normal  (Kaufmann).  The  nasal  and 
lachrymal  secretions  are  augmented.  So  nuich  bronchial 
mucus  is  outpoured  that  a  distinct  rale  is  audible,  and  in 
poisonous  doses  the  accumulation  of  fluid  and  oedema  of  the 
membrane  cause  dj^spncea,  which  is  sometimes  fatal.  The 
intestinal  glands  are  stimulated,  rendering  the  dejections 
more  abundant,  soft,  and  shortly  semi-fluid.  Small  and 
moderate  doses  increase  the  secretion  of  urine,  and  also  of 
milk.  In  man  pilocarpine  produces  profuse  sweating,  but 
in  the  lower  animals  even  full  doses  only  render  the  skin 
moist.  By  its  stimulation  of  the  skin  growth  of  hair  is  said 
to  be  encouraged  (Frolmer). 

Pilocarpine  temporarily  stimulates  the  peripheral  termina- 
tions of  the  efferent  nerves  distributed  to  involuntary  muscles, 
and  secondarily,  and  especially  in  large  doses,  paralyses  them. 
Given  by  the  mouth,  or  injected  locally,  the  circular  fibres 
of  the  iris  arc  contracted,  but  frequently  the  pupil  is  sub- 
sequently dilated.  The  muscles  of  the  stomach  and  intestines 
are  in  a  state  of  active  peristalsis,  occasionally  accompanied 
by  vomiting,  colic,  and  diarrhcea.  The  bladder  contracts, 
and  urine  is  passetl  at  short  intervals.  Contractions  of  the 
uterus  and  movements  of  the  spleen  arc  also  produced. 
After  slight  and  temporary  stimulation,  heart  action  is 
slowed  and  blood-pressure  lowered.  The  temperature,  Avhich 
at  first  rises,  subsequently  falls  several  tenths  of  a  degree. 
Frohner  states  that  a  single  dose  in  from  two  to  four  hours 
will  reduce  the  weight  of  a  horse  by  forty  to  sixty  pounds. 

Horses  receiving  two  to  four  drachms  of  the  leaves  infused 


GLANDULAR  STIMULANTS  521 

in  hot  water,  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  exhibited  profuse 
salivation,  continuing  for  three  hours,  but  without  notable 
diaphoresis,  altered  circulation,  or  increased  temperature. 
Carriage  horses  to  which  I  gave  two  to  four  drachms,  in 
tifteen  minutes  salivated  abundantly,  and  the  discharge 
continued  for  two  or  three  hours ;  very  slight  diaphoresis 
occurred  for  twenty  minutes  ;  no  change  was  noticeable  in 
the  pulse,  temperature,  or  quantity  of  urine  excreted.  Mr. 
WilUam  Dollar  injected  hypodermically  li  grains  pilocarpine 
in  ten  parts  water  into  the  shoulder  of  an  aged  horse  15:| 
hands;  in  six  minutes  marked  saHvation  set  in,  the  saliva 
pouring  out  of  the  mouth;  the  secretion  from  the  buccal 
glands  also  appeared  to  be  augmented.  These  effects  con- 
tinued for  fully  an  hour  and  a  half;  the  pulse  was  lowered 
in  force,  and  was  slowed  two  to  three  beats;  the  skin 
previously  dry,  became  moist,  but  there  was  no  distinct 
sweating.  Major  Fred.  Smith  of  the  A.V.D.,  reports  that  in 
horses,  in  about  ten  minutes  after  a  subcutaneous  injection 
of  three  grains,  there  is  constant  '  champing  of  the  jaws, 
whilst  saliva  flows  from  the  mouth,  sometimes  in  quite  a 
stream.  There  is  no  attempt  at  sweating;  the  sweat  glands 
of  the  horse  are  perfectly  insensible  to  the  action  of  pilo- 
carpine. The  involuntary  muscles  of  the  intestinal  canal 
are  stimulated,  and  the  rectum  is  repeatedly  emptied.  .  .  . 
In  one  case  I  observed  a  gulping  sound  in  the  throat, 
resembling  the  effect  produced  by  aconite '  ( Veterinary 
Journal,  1888). 

Horses  are  poisoned  by  the  subcutaneous  injection  of  live 
grains  (Kaufmann).  Cattle,  however,  tolerate  much  larger 
quantities.  Feser  subcutaneously  injected  a  cow  and  a  bull 
with  doses  ranging  from  three  to  eighteen  grains.  The  larger 
doses  produced  abundant  secretion  of  viscid  saliva,  frequent, 
short,  laboured  respiration,  tympanites,  intestinal  irritation, 
colic,  and  profuse  diarrhoea,  but  only  slight  and  temporary 
diaphoresis.  Still  larger  doses  increased  the  cedema  of  the 
lung  and  paralytic  tympany  of  the  rumen,  and  also  weakened 
heart  action.  But  much  larger  doses,  reaching  to  forty- tive 
grains,  were  tolerated  when  given  by  the  mouth.  Compared 
with  physostigmine,  pilocarpine,  although  stimulating  more 


522  JABORANDI — PILOCARPINE 

powerfully  intestinal  glandular  secretion,  had  much  less 
effect  on  intestinal  muscular  fibre,  and  two  to  four  times  the 
dose  is  stated  to  be  required  to  produce  purgation  in  cattle 
{Jour,  of  Covif).  Path,  and  Therap.,  1889). 

Dogs  and  cats  are  more  sensitive  to  the  drug  than  horses 
or  cattle.  A  dog  of  25  lbs.  weight  was  prostrated  for  two 
days  by  three-quarters  of  a  grain,  and  Frohner  records  that 
this  dose  killed  by  pulmonary  oedema  a  dog  weighing  132  lbs. 
Half  a  grain  caused  profuse  salivation,  continuing  for  six 
hours,  and  increased  action  of  the  bowels  and  kidneys. 
Half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  the  leaves,  infused  in  water, 
produced  in  English  terriers,  of  20  to  25  lbs.  weight,  abundant 
salivation,  but  no  notable  diaphoresis.  The  physiological 
antagonist  of  pilocarpine  is  atropine,  which  arrests  glandular 
secretion  and  paralyses  the  nerve  endings  of  involuntary 
muscles.  It  is  hence  the  appropriate  antidote  in  poisoning 
by  pilocarpine. 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  prompt  and  general  eliminative 
action  of  pilocarpine  has  suggested  its  use  for  the  absorption 
of  pleuritic  and  other  effusions,  and  the  removal  of  products 
of  tissue  waste.  It  has  been  prescribed  for  rheumatism, 
especially  when  affecting  muscles,  and  in  chronic  eczema, 
Kaufmann  testifies  to  its  value  as  an  expectorant  in  catarrh, 
pneumonia,  and  complaints  resulting  from  exposure  to 
cold.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  usefully  combined  with 
other  expectorants.  Friedberger  and  Frohner  advise  its 
subcutaneous  injection  in  acute  brain  inflammation,  hydro- 
cephalus, and  laminitis.  In  nephritis  it  beneficially  removes 
by  other  channels  the  albuminoid  waste  usually  got  rid  of 
by  the  kidneys.  In  virtue  of  its  increasing  alike  intestinal 
secretion  and  peristalsis,  it  is  serviceable  in  torpidity  and 
obstruction  of  the  bowels,  and  may  even  relieve  volvulus 
and  invagination.  In  these  gastro-intestinal  cases  it  is 
conjoined  with  pliysostigmine,  which  stimulates  muscular 
contractions  more  powerfully  than  pilocarpine. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  fresh  leaves,  horses  or  cattle  take  gij- 
to  3iv. ;  sheep,  pigs,  or  large  dogs,  5^^-  ^^  5^->  given  as  an 
infusion.  But  pilocarpine  nitrate  or  hydrochloride  is  more 
certain  and  effective,  and  is  prescribed,  hypodermically  or 


CURARE  523 

intratracheally,  to  horses  and  cattle  in  closes  of  grs.  ij.  to  grs. 
iv.;  to  dogs,  gr.  ^  to  gr.^,  dissolved  in  Avater,  1  grain  of  the 
salt  to  20  minims  of  water  containing  a  drop  or  two  of  alcohol. 


CURARE 

CuRARA.  Woiirara.  Wourali.  Urari.  The  South  American 
arrow  poison.  An  extract  from  one  or  more  species  of 
Strychnos,  mixed  with  some  mucilaginous  juice,  and 
owing  its  activity  to  an  alkaloid,  curarina  (CjgHjgNg). 
(Not  official.) 

Curare  is  a  black-brown  substance,  with  a  very  bitter  taste, 
and  imperfectly  soluble  in  water.  It  appears  to  vary  some- 
what in  composition,  and  two  varieties  have  been  described. 

The  drug,  and  its  twenty- times  more  active  alkaloid 
curarina,  by  whatever  channel  they  enter  the  body,  paralyse 
the  peripheral  endings  of  motor  nerves.  The  nerves  of  the 
voluntary  muscles  of  the  limbs  are  first  affected,  then  those 
of  the  trunk  and  head ;  but  later,  and  with  large  doses,  they 
involve  the  endings  of  sensory  nerves,  and  also  of  the  vagus, 
enfeebling,  and,  it  may  be,  arresting  respiration.  Intelligence 
and  consciousness  remain  unimpaired.  Horses  are  poisoned 
by  15  to  30  grains  of  curare,  dogs  by  about  one-tenth  of 
these  doses.  Nikelski  and  Dogiel's  investigations  demon- 
strate that  the  poison  affects  the  protoplasm  both  of  nerves 
and  muscles ;  that  paralysis  is  removed  Avhen  the  drug  is 
washed  out  of  the  muscle ;  that  it  acts  less  powerfully  on 
the  vaso-motor  system  of  rabbits  and  cats  than  of  dogs; 
applied  to  the  conjunctiva  it  dilates  the  pupil  of  birds,  but 
not  of  mammals ;  while  the  reverse  obtains  in  the  case  of 
atropine.  Although  the  blood  becomes  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid,  the  motor  nerves  are  so  paralysed  that  convulsions 
do  not  occur.  The  heart  continues  to  beat  after  the  breathing 
ceases,  but  the  poison  is  quickly  eliminated  by  the  kidneys, 
and  artificial  respiration  persisted  with  accordingly  prevents 
death,  even  when  lethal  doses  have  been  given.  The  rapid 
excretion  of  the  poison,  unchanged,  by  the  kidneys  is  strikingly 
illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  urine  of  a  frog,  puisoned  by 


524  DIGITALIS 

curare,  injected  subcutaneously  into  a  second  frog,  paralyses 
it,  and  its  urine  will  even  paralyse  a  third  (Brunton). 

It  is  allied  to  hemlock  and  conine,  and  to  methyl- 
strychnine,  methyl-brucine,  and  methyl-thebaine.  Some  of 
its  effects  are  antagonised  by  strychnine.  It  has  been  given 
in  chorea  and  epilepsy;  but  in  neither  of  these  has  its 
efhcacy  been  established.     In  tetanus  it  deserves  further  trial. 

The  doses  for  horses  and  cattle  are  from  gr.  ss.  to  gr.  j. ; 
for  dogs,  gr.  .Pg-  to  gr.  i  It  acts  much  more  powerfully  when 
injected  intravenously,  hypodermically,  or  intratracheally, 
than  when  swallowed.  Any  considerable  amount  of  food  in 
the  stomach  retards  and  minimises  its  effect,  when  given 
•per  orein. 

DIGITALIS 

Foxglove.  The  dried  leaves  of  Digitalis  purpurea.  Col- 
lected from  plants  commencing  to  Hower  (B.P.).  Nat. 
Ord. — Scrophulariacese. 

Digitalis  grows  wild  in  this  country  and  in  many  parts  of 
the  Continent,  on  gravelly,  sandy  soils,  in  young  plantations, 
on  hedge  sides,  and  hill  pastures.  Other  species  have 
probably  the  same  properties  as  the  D.  purpurea,  recognised 
by  the  B.P.  It  is  herbaceous,  biennial  or  perennial,  with 
numerous  drooping,  purple  -  spotted,  occasionally  white 
flowers,  an  erect  stem  one  to  five  feet  high,  and  large  alter- 
nate ovate  -  lanceolate,  crenatc,  rugose  leaves,  downy, 
especially  on  their  paler  lower  surfaces,  and  tapering  into 
winsred  foot-stalks.  The  leaves  are  dried  in  baskets,  in 
darkness,  over  stoves,  and  are  then  of  a  dull-green  colour, 
with  little  smell,  but  a  nauseous,  bitter,  slightly  astringent 
taste.  They  should  be  used  when  fresh;  twelve  months' 
keeping  greatly  diminishes  their  activity.  Both  the  roots 
and  seeds  are  bitter,  and  probably  active. 
Digitalis  yields  several  active  principles: — 
(1)  Digitalin,  or  digitalinum,  a  bitter  glucoside,  almost 
insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  alcohol.  Pure 
digitalin  and  the  commercial  variety  are  topical  irritants  and 
muscle  poisons,   and  hence  notable  cardiac  poisons.      The 


DIGITALIS   GLUCOSIDES  525 

four  undermentioned  non-nitrogenous  substances  have  also 
been  isolated. 

(2)  Digitoxin  is  a  crystalline  body,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  and  alcohol.  It  is  the  most 
active  of  the  several  glucosides  which  constitute  digitalin. 

(3)  Digitalein  is  bitter  and  amorphous,  and  readily 
soluble  both  in  water  and  alcohol.  Insoluble  in  ether  and 
chloroform.  Digitoxin  and  digitalein  act  in  the  same 
manner  as  digitalin. 

(4)  Digitonin  is  soluble  in  600  parts  of  water,  and  in 
50  parts  dilute  alcohol;  resembles  saponin,  the  active 
principle  of  quillaia,  the  Chili  soap  bark;  is  a  powerful 
irritant,  local  anaesthetic,  and  muscular  paral3^sant;  and 
hence  is  in  some  degree  antagonistic  to  digitalin,  digitoxin, 
and  digitalein. 

(5)  Digitin  appears  to  be  physiologically  inert. 

These  five  non-nitrogenous  bodies,  in  variable  proportion, 
are  obtainable  from  the  plant  grown  in  different  climates 
and  circumstances,  and  also  from  dift'erent  preparations, 
depending  chiefly  upon  differences  in  their  solubility  in 
water  and  alcohol.  The  tincture  contains  the  first  three, 
and  appears  to  be  most  suitable  as  a  heart  tonic,  while  the 
infusion,  containing  more  digitoxin,  is  stated  to  be  more 
active  as  a  diuretic.  They  readily  yield  products  of  decom- 
position, especially  when  exposed  to  high  temperatures,  and 
several  of  these  products  are  convulsants  like  picrotoxin. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Digitalis  and  digitalin  are  topical 
irritants  and  contractors  of  muscle,  especially  of  the  un- 
striped  variety.  Medicinal  doses  are  vascular  and  cardiac 
stimulants  and  tonics,  and  are  prescribed  to  increase  the 
force  and  co-ordinating  power  of  the  heart,  and  relieve  con- 
gestion of  veins  and  capillaries.  They  are  diuretic.  Large 
doses  are  muscle  poisons  :  they  contract  spasmodically  and 
even  tetanically  the  heart  and  other  muscles,  and  kill  usually 
by  cardiac  paralysis. 

General  Actions. — Digitalis  owes  its  action  chiefly  to 
digitalin,  which,  in  contact  with  living  tissues,  is  an 
irritant.  Injected  into  the  skin  or  trachea  it  irritates  and 
inflames.     Placed  in  the  mouth,  besides  a  sensation  of  bitter- 


526  DIGITALIS 

ness,  it  causes  salivation  and  redness.  Introduced  into  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  it  induces  irritation  and  nausea;  in 
carnivora,  vomiting,  colic  pains,  and  diarrhoea.  It  is  absorbed 
slowly,  and  contracts  muscular  fibre,  notably  of  the  heart 
and  arterioles.  Properly  regulated  doses  strengthen  and 
prolong  the  cardiac  diastole,  both  auricles  and  ventricles  are 
more  fully  dilated,  systole  is  more  vigorous,  and  conse- 
quently the  heart  is  more  perfectly  emptied.  The  muscular 
fibres  of  the  arterioles  have  their  tonicity  increased.  Blood- 
pressure  accordingly  is  raised.  Such  doses,  Avhile  increasing 
the  volume  of  the  pulse,  diminish  the  pulse-rate  of  health}' 
horses  three  to  five  beats,  and  of  dogs  ten  to  fifteen  beats 
per  minute,  and  these  eftects  last  from  six  to  twelve  hours. 
The  action  on  the  heart  is  more  notable  on  the  dog  and 
sheep  than  on  the  horse  and  ass. 

The  action  on  the  circulation  is  divided  by  Schmiede- 
berg  into  the  following  four  stages,  and  this  division  has 
been  adopted  by  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton  : — 

(1)  Medicinal  doses  cause  a  fuller  stream  of  blood  to  be 
thrown  into  the  circulation,  blood-pressure  rises,  the  pulse  is 
usually  slowed,  but  increased  in  volume.  These  effects, 
depending  chiefly  on  contraction  of  muscular  fibre,  are 
intensified  by  stimulation  of  the  vagus  roots  in  the  medulla, 
and  of  the  nerve-endings  in  the  heart  itself. 

(2)  Continued  rise  of  blood-pressure.  The  pulse,  pre- 
viously slowed  from  stimulation  of  the  vagus  roots  and 
cardiac  nerve-endings,  owing  to  paralysis  of  the  vagus  end- 
ings, now  becomes  quickened. 

(3)  Larger  or  more  frequently  repeated  doses  increase  or 
maintain  the  high  pressure,  and  gradually  cause  direct 
cardiac  paralysis,  inducing  irregularity  of  the  heart  action 
and  pulse  rate. 

(4)  Still  larger  doses  produce  rapid  fall  of  blood-pressure, 
sudden  stoppage  of  the  heart,  and  death.  The  heart  usually 
stops  before  the  respiration. 

Neither  digitalis  nor  digitalin  has  any  direct  action  on  the 
brain  or  spinal  cord,  nor  any  marked  effect  on  sensory  or 
motor  nerves.  They  temporarily  quicken,  and  more  notably 
and  permanently  slow,  respiration.      By  increasing  general 


AND   ITS   ANALOGUES  527 

blood-pressiire,  a  fuller  stream  of  blood  passes  tlirough  the 
kidneys,  the  renal  as  well  as  other  arterioles  are  strengthened 
and  contracted,  and  thus  diuresis  is  tardily  produced,  usually 
with  increase  of  the  urinary  solids.  No  direct  irritation  of  the 
kidneys  occurs ;  but  large  doses,  dilating  arterioles,  diminish 
renal  excretion,  and,  the  drug  consequently  being  longer 
retained,  its  general  effects  are  intensified,  and  its  so-called 
cumulative  action  developed. 

The  following  drugs  resemble  digitalis,  and,  like  it,  most 
of  them  contain  an  active  glucoside: — 

Liliacece.      .     .  Urginea    Scilla.      Squill.      Contains    the 
active  neutral  body  Scillitoxin. 
Convallaria  majalis.     Lily  of  the  Valley. 
Convallamarin. 
Ranunculacece.  Helleborus  niger.     Helleborein. 

Adonis  vernalis.     Adonidin. 
Leguminosce.    .  Erythrophloeum  guineense,  which  yields 
the    African    poison    casa,    or    doom, 
Erythrophloeine.     Broom.     Sparteine, 
ApocynacecB.     .   Strophanthus  hispidus,  and   the   variety 
S.  Kombe.     Strophanthin. 
Nerium  odorum  (oleander).     Neriin. 
Apocynum  cannabinum.   Canadian  hemp, 
Apocynin. 
Toxic  Actions. — The  toxic  dose  of  the  powdered  leaves  is 
thus  stated  by  Kaufmann : — For  horses,  six  to  eight  drachms ; 
for  dogs,  one  to  two  drachms ;  for  cats,  thirty  grains.     The 
toxic  dose  of  amorphous  digitalin  for  horses  is  one  and  a 
half  grains ;  for  dogs,  one  quarter  grain. 

A  horse  was  poisoned  in  twelve  hours  by  two  ounces  of 
dried  powdered  leaves  (Moiroud).  One  ounce,  and  in  some 
cases  six  drachms,  given  to  horses  in  bolus,  caused,  in  three 
to  ten  hours,  loss  of  appetite,  frequent  urination,  fluid  fasces, 
sometimes  tinged  with  blood,  a  pulse  at  first  full  and 
increased,  but  afterwards  small,  slow,  and  irregular,  contrac- 
tion of  the  pupil,  difficulty  of  breathing,  languor,  and,  after 
twelve  or  sixteen  hours,  death  (Hertwig).  Messrs.  Bouley 
and  Reynal,  administering  large  doses  to  horses,  observed 
quickened    circulation,   abrupt  and   energetic  heart  -  beats 


528  DIGITALIS 

characterised  by  a  vibratory  thrill,  and  subsequently  by  a 

bellows  murmur,   with  intermittence,  the  pulse,  as  death 

approached,  numbering  120  to   140.      Smaller  doses,  after 

slight  acceleration,  lowered  pulsations  20  or  25  beats  per 

minute,  and  rendered  the  several  cardiac  sounds  particularly 

distinct. 

The  following  cases,  in  which  I  gave  full  medicinal  doses 

of  digitalis  to  healthy  horses,  illustrate  its  effects  on  the 

heart,  its  nauseating  action,  and  its  irritation  of  the  digestive 

organs. 

lu   February    1856,   powdered   digitalis  was  given  to  three  horses   in 

good  health,  and  receiving  daily  12  Ihs.  hay,  5  lbs.  oats,  and  5i  lbs.  bran. 

On  the  20th  they  each  received  a  drachm  of  the  ])owder  at  12  noon,  and 

another  drachm  at  6  P.M.  ;  on  the  21st  and  22nd  one  drachm  at  (!  a.m.,  at 

12  noon,  and  6  p.m.  ;  and  on  the  23rd  a  drachm  at  6  a.m. — in  all,  nine  doses 

of  a  drachm  each  in  three  days. 

No.  1.  Brown  Mare,  3  years  old  : — 

Feb.  20,  12  noon,  jiulse  38,  respirations  8. 

»     21,         „  „     34,  „  6. 

„     22,         „  „     28,  „  t. 

„     23,         „  „     28,  „  7. 

On   the  evening  of  the  22nd  she  became  dull  and  refused  her  feed. 

23rd,  10  A.M.,  still  dull,  without  appetite,  pupil  contracted,  passing  flatus, 

with  small  quantities  of  Huid  f;^ices  :    4.30  p.m.,  pulse  32,  more  distinct 

than  at  noon,  jjupil  considerably  contracted,  ratlior  less  dulness.     On  the 

25th,  two  days  after  the  medicine  was  withdrawn,  the  mare  was  eating 

and  perfectly  well  again. 

No.  2.  Bay  Gelding,  3  years  old  : — 

Feb.  20,  12  noon,  pulse  36,  respirations  7. 

„     21,         „  „     36,  „  8. 

2-''  30  6 

11     "-1         »  11     "")  jj  "• 

,,     23,         ,,  „     32,  ,,  0. 

23rd,  12  noon. — Pulse,  both  yesterday  and  to-day,  slightly  irregular  ; 
no  appetite,  very  dull  and  stupid,  with  the  ])upil  somewhat  contracted. 
4.30  P.M.,  pulse  34,  tolerably  firm,  but  unequal ;  eating  a  little,  and  scarcely 
so  dull.  No  more  digitalis  being  given,  the  animal  recovered  its  appetite, 
and  by  the  26th  was  well  again. 
No.  3.  Jjrown  Mare,  3  years  old  : — 

Feb.  20,  12  noon,  pulse  38,  respirations  8. 
„     21,         „  „     33,  „  7. 

9-7  "XA  71 

»     ^"1         »  )j     ""*)  >j  '  i- 

„     23,         „  „   120,  „         20. 

„     24,         „  „    120,  „         25. 

Towards  the  evening  of  the  22nd  the  mare  became  dull  and  would  not 
feed.  23rd,  10  a.m.,  very  much  nauseated  ;  nose,  mouth,  and  ears  cold  ; 
abdomen  tympanitic,  with  colicky  pains,  and  occasional  pawing  ;  pupil 
somewhat  contracted  ;  pulse  firm  at  axilla  and  heart,  but  not  very 
perceptible  at  jaw.  Had  four  di'achms  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  and 
clysters  occasionally,  the  stimulant  being  repeated  at  two  o'clock  and  four. 
At  4.30  P.M.  she  was  down,  much  pained,  attempting  to  roll ;  pulse  82,  but 
unequal.  24th,  12  noon,  pulse,  imperceptible  at  jaw,  about  120;  respira- 
tions  25,  and    very  much  laboured  ;   lii)S  retracted  and  saliva   dripping 


MEDICINAL    USES  529 

from  the  mouth  ;  enormous  abdominal  tympanites  and  much  pain  ;  rapid 
sinking  ;  died  on  25th,  at  11  a.m. 

Post-mortem  examination  made  next  morning  at  9.30.  Voluntary 
muscles  unusually  pale  ;  spots  of  ecchymosis  found  in  the  areolar  textures, 
between  the  muscular  fibres,  and  in  places  underneath  the  skin.  Lunag 
and  pleurae  healthy  ;  anterior  extremity  of  lungs  contained  more  blood  than 
posterior  ;  venaj  cavae  contained  the  usual  amount  of  dark  non-coagulated 
blood  ;  bronchial  tubes  inflamed  for  about  six  inches  along  their  anterior 
ends  ;  windpipe  inflamed  half-way  up  the  neck,  and  containing  flakes  of 
greenish  pus  mixed  with  mucus  ;  no  froth  here  or  in  bronchi.  Heart 
pale,  friable,  containing  a  small  clot  of  blood  in  its  left  ventricle,  and 
about  five  ounces  of  non-coagulated  blood  in  the  right  ventricle.  A  rent 
of  eight  inches  long  was  found  in  the  inferior  curvature  of  the  stomach, 
through  which  food  had  passed  into  the  omentum  ;  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach  was  quite  healthy  ;  the  organ  itself  very  large,  but  col- 
lapsed, in  consequence  of  the  rupture  ;  the  intestines  were  pale  and  flaccid, 
and  contained  enormous  quantities  of  food  and  gas,  but  their  mucous 
membrane  was  quite  healthy.  The  kidneys  and  generative  organa,  with 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  were  perfectly  healthy. 

Dogs  receiving  one  or  two  drachms  were  nauseated,  and, 
when  vomiting  was  prevented,  moaned  and  exhibited 
abdominal  pain,  green-coloured  fluid  dejections  were  passed, 
the  pulse  was  feeble  and  indistinct,  breathing  irregular  and 
distressed,  spasmodic  eflforts  were  made  to  empty  the 
bladder,  muscular  debility  preceded  death  (Tabourin).  Pigs 
poisoned  by  decoction  of  the  leaves  are  reported  to  be 
languid,  attempt  to  vomit,  strain,  and  pass  small  quantities 
of  fa3ces ;  whilst  after  death  the  mucous  coat  of  the  stomach 
and  small  intestine  is  inflamed,  the  kidneys  slightly  con- 
gested, the  bladder  empty  {Veterinarian,  1872).  In  poison- 
ing with  large  doses  the  power  of  the  muscles  to  lift  weight 
is  diminished,  and  their  tetanic  contractions  persist  until 
post-mortem  decomposition  sets  in. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Dr.  Ringer  believes  that  digitalis  exerts 

its  curative  effects  in  one  or  more  of  the  following  ways 

first,  by  strengthening  the  action  of  the  heart ;  second,  by 
reducing  the  strength  of  the  beats  of  a  heart  acting  too 
powerfully ;  third,  by  lessening  the  frequency  of  the  heart- 
beats ;  fourth,  by  correcting  irregular  action  of  the  heart. 

When  the  heart  is  enfeebled  or  acting  irregularly,  as  in 
horses  suffering  from  influenza  or  other  exhausting  disease, 
in  cattle  convalescing  from  pleuro-pneumonia  or  rheumatic 
fever,  in  dogs  debilitated  by  distemper  or  over- work,  digitahs 
imparts  co-ordination  and  expulsive  power  to  the  heart, 

2l 


530  DIGITALIS 

and  tone  to  relaxed  capillaries,  rendering  the  quick,  weak 
irregular  pulse-beat  slower,  stronger,  and  steadier.  Diffi- 
culty of  breathing  and  dropsical  effusion  resulting  from 
imperfect  action  of  the  heart  are  usually  relieved,  and 
general  as  well  as  cardiac  nutrition  is  improved.  In  such 
cases  digitalis  is  usefully  conjoined  with  potassium  chlorate 
or  nitrate,  or  with  alcohol,  or  ether.  Palpitation  in  horses 
resulting  from  unwonted  over-exertion,  or  from  fast  work 
performed  shortly  after  a  full  meal,  occasionally  persists  for 
several  days;  the  violent,  irritable  impulse  of  the  heart, 
accompanied  by  lifting  of  the  flanks,  comes  in  paroxysms ; 
repeated  doses  usually  control  such  inordinate,  tumultuous, 
functional  disturbance.  In  the  more  violent  of  these  cases 
Professor  Robertson  conjoined  with  the  digitalis  small  doses 
of  aconite,  and  in  other  cases  prescribed  it  with  belladonna. 
In  dilatation  of  the  heart,  with  insufficiency  of  the  mitral 
valves,  carefully  regulated  doses  of  digitalis  abate  the 
dyspnoea,  cold  extremities,  venous  pulse,  and  oedema.  In 
dilatation  or  hypertrophy  of  the  left  ventricle — common 
in  hard-worked,  aged  horses — even  when  accompanied  by 
slight  valvular  disease,  the  lull,  strong,  intermittent  pulse 
is  usually  moderated,  its  unduly  forcible  impulse  quieted, 
and  the  breathing  relieved  by  digitalis.  In  such  cases  of 
hypertrophy,  when  the  pulse  is  full  and  strong,  one  or  two 
small  doses  of  aconite  may  first  be  tried. 

In  pericarditis,  after  the  more  acute  symptoms  have  been 
subdued  by  salines,  digitalis  frequently  lessens  the  embar- 
rassed breathing  and  the  friction  sound.  In  endocarditis, 
occurring  occasionally  in  cattle,  it  renders  the  heart-beat 
more  regular,  and  gives  fulness  to  the  small  thready  pulse. 
Quieting  and  regulating  cardiac  action,  and  contracting 
arterioles,  it  is  recommended  in  haemorrhage,  especially 
from  the  lungs  and  stomach. 

In  equine  pneumonia,  especially  in  the  second  stages, 
digitalis  frequently  relieves  engorgement,  probably  by  pro- 
pelling blood  in  fuller  stream  into  the  abdominal  and  other 
vessels.  Promoting  circulation,  it  moreover  aids  arterialising 
of  blood,  and  hence  is  also  useful  in  congestion  and  purpura. 
It  is  a  frequent  constituent  of  cough  mixtures. 


DOSES    AND    PKEPARATIONS  531 

Professor  Dick's  recipe  for  thick  and  broken  wind  con- 
sists of  thirty  grains  each  of  calomel,  digitalis,  opium,  and 
camphor,  and  its  efficacy  in  great  part  depends  upon  the 
calomel  regulating  the  bowels,  while  the  other  drugs  abate 
the  cardiac  irritability  so  notable  in  such  cases.  Where  the 
medicine  must  be  persisted  with  daily  for  a  week,  or  longer, 
the  professor  advised  omission  of  the  calomel. 

Digitalis  relieves  many  cases  of  dropsy  by  regulating  faulty 
heart-action,  stimulating  dilated  capillaries,  as  well  as  by 
inducing  diuresis.  In  pleuritic  eftusion,  Professor  Robertson 
gave  horses  digitalis,  grs.  xx,  to  grs.  xxx. ;  potassium  nitrate, 
5ij.;  powdered  cantharides,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  x.,  made  into  bolus, 
and  repeated  twice  daily  for  a  week.  Diuresis  is  determined 
by  prescribing  digitahs  with  salines — a  combination  often 
useful  in  cardiac  dropsy. 

The  chief  indications  for  the  use  of  digitalis  are  an 
enfeebled,  irritable,  jerking,  or  irregular  heart,  deficient 
arterial  pressure,  venous  engorgement,  and  scanty  secretion 
of  urine.  It  is  more  suitable  for  chronic  than  acute  cases, 
for  combating  functional  rather  than  organic  mischief.  As 
with  other  tonics,  it  is  best  tolerated  in  those  ^veak  and 
irritable  states  of  the  heart  in  w^hich  it  is  most  serviceable. 
It  is  of  little  use  in  difficulty  of  breathing  or  dropsical  con- 
ditions chiefly  dependent  on  lung  disease.  It  does  harm  in 
aortic  disease  or  in  hypertrophy,  where  the  pulse  continues 
strong,  firm,  and  regular;  or  in  enfeebled  circulation  dependent 
on  advanced  fatty  degeneration.  Xausea  or  irritability  of  the 
digestive  organs,  coldness  of  the  extremities,  unwonted  force 
of  the  pulse-beats,  indicate  that  the  medicine  should  be 
stopped,  or  given  in  reduced  amount.  The  effects  of  over- 
doses are  combated  by  alcohol  or  other  stimulants,  and  by 
keeping  the  patient  perfectly  quiet. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  powdered  leaves,  horses  take  grs.  xv.  to 
grs.  xxx. ;  cattle,  5ss.  to  5j- ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x. ; 
dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  iv.,  in  bolus  or  pill.  These  doses  may  be 
administered  daily  for  a  week,  and  are  advantageou.sly  con- 
joined with  potassium  iodide,  caffeine,  or  arsenic ;  but  digitalis 
is  not  very  soluble  or  readily  absorbed,  and  being  moreover 
an    in-contact   irritant,   should   be    used    in   a   fluid   form. 


532  STROPHANTHUS 

The  infusion  is  made  by  digesting  for  tifteen  minutes 
60  grains  of  dried  leaves  with  20  ounces  of  distilled  water. 
The  tincture  is  made  by  maceration  and  subsequent  perco- 
lation of  2^  ounces  dried  leaves  with  one  pint  alcohol  (60  per 
cent.),  B.P.  It  contains  54|  grains  to  the  fluid  ounce,  is 
about  sixteen  times  the  strength  of  the  infusion,  and  is  the 
most  suitable  preparation  for  cardiac  cases.  Horses  and 
cattle  take  f5ii.  to  f5iv. ;  sheep,  f5ss.  to  f5j. ;  dogs,  Tliij.  to 
ITix. 

In  commerce  four  varieties  of  digitalin  are  met  with — 
(1)  Homolle's,  or  French ;  (2)  the  German ;  (3)  Nativelle's 
and  (4)  digitalin-kiliani.  Digitalin  is  upwards  of  five  hun- 
dred times  the  strength  of  the  tincture,  and  the  dose  for  the 
horse  is  gr.  -^  to  gr.  i.  The  several  preparations  are  adminis- 
tered 2)er  orera.  Even  when  diluted  they  are  apt  to  irritate 
if  given  hypodermically  or  intratracheally.  They  are  not 
always  of  uniform  strength  ;  this  depends  upon  the  varying 
activity  of  the  plants  grown  under  ditt'erent  conditions,  pro- 
longed keeping,  variations  in  the  method  of  preparation,  and 
differing  proportions  of  the  active  constituents.  It  is  hence 
desirable,  when  using  unfamiliar  specimens  of  the  drug,  or 
its  preparations,  to  begin  with  moderate  doses,  and  narrowly 
watch  their  eflfects. 

STROPHANTHUS 

The  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Strophanthus  kombe,  freed  from  the 
awns  (B.P.).     Nat.  Orel. — Apocynacete. 

The  ripened  follicles  contain  upAvards  of  a  hundred  oval 
acuminate  seeds,  about  three-fifths  of  an  inch  long  and 
one-sixth  of  an  inch  broad,  covered  Avith  silky  hairs ;  odour 
characteristic,  taste  very  bitter.  They  contain  8  to  10  per 
cent,  of  an  active,  bitter,  crystalline  glucoside,  strophan- 
thin,  which  is  soluble  in  water  and  rectified  spirit,  insoluble 
in  chloroform,  or  ether.  Similar  seeds  are  got  from  the 
S.  hispidus.  A  paste  prepared  from  strophanthus  seeds  is 
used  in  Africa  as  an  arrow  poison. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  seeds  and  their  active  principle 
are  muscle  poisons.     They  augment  the  contractile  power, 


MEDICINAL   USES  633 

especially  of  striated  muscles.  They  resemble  digitalis  and 
the  bodies  of  that  group.  They  are  prescribed  as  cardiac 
tonics  and  diuretics. 

Professor  Thomas  Fraser  has  carefully  investigated  the 
actions  of  strophanthus  and  digitalis.  The  former,  he  reports, 
is  more  soluble,  and  hence  more  rapid  in  its  actions  ;  but  it 
is  also  more  quickly  eliminated,  and  its  effects  are  hence  less 
durable,  and  the  cumulative  results  credited  to  digitalis  are 
not  observed.  Its  efficacy  does  not,  hoAvever,  seem  to  be 
impaired  by  repetition.  Full  doses  produce  less  gastro- 
intestinal disorder  and  less  marked  vascular  contraction. 
Strophanthus  acts  more  notably  on  striated  muscle,  digitalis 
on  unstriated ;  strophanthus  has  less  diuretic  action,  and 
may  with  safety  be  given  more  frequently  and  in  larger 
doses  than  digitalis.  Both  increase  the  length  and  power  of 
the  heart  systole,  and  hence  strengthen  and  co-ordinate 
enfeebled  or  irregular  action.  Comparing  the  active  prin- 
ciples. Professor  Fraser  found  that  a  solution  of  ^^Vo^th 
digitalin  paralysed  the  heart  of  a  frog,  but  e-.ow.oiroth  stro- 
phanthin  was  equally  powerful.  Strophanthin  is  therefore 
the  most  potent  known  heart  tonic. 

Frohner  has  experimented  on  various  animals,  and  con- 
cludes that  the  lethal  dose  of  strophanthus  tincture  is  about 
half  a  gramme  (7-|  minims)  per  kilogramme  of  body- weight. 
Horses  tolerate  100  grammes,  dogs  10  to  20  minims  of  the 
tincture.  Full  doses,  he  states,  are  irritant,  narcotic,  pro- 
ducing hsemorrhagic  gastro-enteritis,  colic,  diarrhoea,  cramp, 
with  some  stupor.  The  cardiac  action  manifests  two  stages — 
(1)  diminution  of  pulse-rate,  with  rise  of  temperature ;  (2) 
increase  of  pulse-rate,  with  diminution  of  temperature. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Strophanthus  is  prescribed  to  slow, 
strengthen,  and  steady  feeble  or  faulty  heart  action.  Com- 
bining cardiac  tonic  and  diuretic  effects,  it  is  commended  by 
Frohner  in  valvular  disease,  hydrothorax,  hydropericarditis, 
ascites,  and  chronic  nephritis. 

Doses. — Of  the  tincture,  made  with  one  part  of  seed  to 
forty  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.),  horses  and  cattle  take  f^iv.  to 
f5vi.,  and  dogs  TT^v.  to  flj^xv. 


534  SQUILL — BROOM 

SQUILL 

SciLLA.  The  bulb  of  Urginea  Scilla,  divested  of  its  dry, 
membranous,  outer  scales,  cut  into  slices,  and  dried 
(B.R).     Nat.  Ord— Liliaceoe. 

The  large  bulbs  of  this  Mediterranean  plant,  when  sliced 
and  dried,  have  a  faint  odour  and  disagreeable,  mucilaginous, 
bitter,  acrid  taste.  The  slices  are  easily  reduced  to  powder. 
The  active  principle  is  a  glucoside — scillain  or  scillitoxin — 
which  is  soluble  in  water,  acetic  acid,  and  alcohol. 

Actions,  Uses,  and  Doses. — Squill  and  its  active  principle,  in 
full  doscs,are  irritants,  causing  vomiting  and  purging:  absorbed 
into  the  blood,  they  lower  the  pulse-rate  and  raise  blood- 
pressure  ;  they  are  expectorant  and  diuretic.  They  resemble 
digitalis  in  paralysing  voluntary  nmscle,  acting  as  heart 
tonics,  and  producing  diuresis.  Large  doses,  or  small  doses 
too  long  continued,  induce  urinary  irritation  and  ha3maturia. 
Squill  is  prescribed  chiefly  in  those  catarrhal  and  bronchial 
cases  in  which  secretion  is  defective.  Professor  Robertson 
gave  horses  the  syrup  in  f5iv.  doses  ;  dogs  take  "n^x.  to  TI[xv., 
conjoined,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  case  require,  with  digi- 
talis, ammonium  acetate  solution,  or  camphor  electuary. 
The  vinearar  and  tincture  are  used  in  about  half  the  dose  of 
the  syrup.  Powdered  squill  is  sometimes  added  to  electu- 
aries.    Horses  may  be  given  5iv.  to  §j. 

BROOM 

ScoPARii  Cacumina.  The  fresh  and  dried  tops  of  Cytisus 
scoparius  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Leguminosse. 

The  tops  and  other  parts  of  the  shrub  contain  a  natural 
glucoside,  scoparin  ( CgiHoP^o),  which  has  diuretic  pro- 
perties and  a  volatile,  oily,  poisonous  alkaloid,  sparteine 
(Cj5H.,(.N.2),  which  resembles  conine  in  some  of  its  actions. 
Like  digitalin  and  strophanthin  it  increases  the  force  of  the 
heart,  and  acts  as  a  diuretic.  Kaufmann  states  that  it 
relieves  inordinate  heart  action,  regulates  rhythm,  and  raises 
blood-pressure.  The  sulphate  and  periodide  of  sparteine,  as 
well  as  the  succus  prepared  from  the  fresh  broom  tops,  are 


BUCHU — UVA    URSI^PAREIRA  535 

occasionally  prescribed  in  dropsies  connected  with  heart 
disease,  the  dose  of  the  succiis  for  horses  being  fgj. ;  for 
dogs,  ■n[xx.  to  "n^xxx. 

BUCHU 
BucHU    Folia.      The    dried   leaves   of   Barosma    betulina 
(B.P.).     Nat  Ore?.— Rutaceffi. 

Buchn  is  a  shrub  two  to  four  feet  high,  and  a  native  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  leaves  are  smooth,  dull  yellow- 
green,  with  a  strong,  penetrating  odour,  a  bitter  aromatic 
taste,  and  varying  in  different  species  from  half  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  Oil  glands  are  distinctly 
visible  in  the  leaves,  especially  near  the  margin.  They  con- 
tain a  volatile  oil,  a  bitter  substance,  and  mucilage. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Buchu  is  a  mild,  stimulating  bitter, 
expectorant,  and  diuretic,  and  a  disinfectant  of  the  urino- 
genital  mucous  membrane.  The  oil  or  active  principle  is 
excreted  by  the  kidneys  and  bronchial  mucous  membrane. 
Professor  Robertson  gave  it  to  allay  irritability  in  cystitis, 
usinsf  it  either  alone  or  alonsf  with  borax  or  benzoic  acid. 
The  tincture  of  buchu — made  with  one  of  buchu  to  five  of 
alcohol  (60  per  cent.) — is  seldom  prescribed. 

The  dose  of  the  infusion  for  horses  or  cattle  is  §i.  to  §iv. ; 
for  dogs,  5j-  to  5ij-  The  infusion  is  made  with  one  part 
leaves  and  twenty  parts  of  boiling  water.  Animals  readily 
take  this  infusion  when  it  is  mixed  with  linseed  tea  or 
barley  water.  It  is  sometimes  advantageously  conjoined 
with  belladonna,  opium,  hyoscyamus,  potassium  bromide,  or 
saline  diuretics. 

Bearberry  leaves — the  leaves  of  Arctostaphylos  Uva-ursi 
— contain  the  bitter  neutral  extractive  arbutin,  which  within 
the  body  is  in  part  converted  into  hydroquinone,  and  is 
employed  as  a  diuretic  astringent,  and  antiseptic,  in  chronic 
vesical  irritation. 

Pareira — the  root  of  chondrodendron  tomentosum,  con- 
taining the  active  principle  buxine,  although  not  very 
reliable,  is  also  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  buchu  and 
uva-ursi. 


636  ACONITE 

The  root  of  Collinsonia  canadensis— stone  or  knob  root — 
has  been  largely  used  in  America  as  a  remedy  in  inflam- 
mation of  the  urino-genital  mucous  membrane,  and  in 
spasniodic  colic  in  men  and  animals;  and  Dr.  T.  Oliver, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  with  15  grains  of  extract,  repeated 
thrice  daily,  gradually  reduced  the  pus  in  several  cases  of 
cystitis  in  man,  which  had  defied  other  treatment  {Lancet, 
1888). 

ACONITE 

Aconite. — Monkshood.     Wolfsbane.     Blue  Rocket.     Aconi- 
tum.     The  root  of  Aconitum  Napellus.     Collected  in 
the   autumn   from   plants    cultivated   in   Britain,   and 
dried.    Nat  Ord. — Ranunculacese. 
AcoNiTiNA. — Aconitine.     An  alkaloid  obtained  from  Aconite 
Root,  and  having  the  formula  CggH^gNO^g-     (B.P-) 
Botanists  have  numbered  twenty-two  species,  and  upwards 
of    a   hundred   varieties    of    aconite,   which    are    common 
throughout  the  cooler  mountainous  countries  of  both  hemi- 
spheres.    Some   sj)ecies  are  eaten  as  vegetables,  some  are 
bitter  tonics;   but  others,  as  the  Aconitum  ferox,  Sinense, 
and  Napellus,  are  sedative  poisons.     The  last  of  these,  the 
common  officinal  species,  is  a  doubtful  native  of  Britain,  but 
often  grown  for  its  flowers  in  gardens  and  shrubberies.     Its 
several  varieties   are  herbaceous,  with   perennial,  tapering, 
carrot-shaped,  brown  roots,  with  lateral  rootlets,  from  which 
after  the  first  year's  growth,  are  formed  one  or  more  oval 
tubers,  at   first   nourished   by   the   decaying    parent  root ; 
several  annual,  erect,  glabrous  stems  two  to  five  feet  high ; 
numerous  alternate  dark-green  leaves  ;  long-stalked,  helmet- 
shaped  blue  or  purple  flowers,  which  form  loose  terminal 
racemes,  and  appear  in  June  or  July  ;  and  dry,  black,  angular 
seeds,  which  ripen  about  the  end  of  August. 

Aconite  root,  from  which  the  tincture,  liniment,  and  alka- 
loid are  prepared,  varies  from  two  to  four  inches  long,  and  from 
half  an  inch  to  nearly  an  inch  thick  at  the  crown,  which  is 
knotty ;  is  brown  externally,  but  pinky  white  within ;  conical, 
rapidly  tapering,  prominently  marked,  with  the  bases  of 
the   rootlets,   and   of   an   earthy   odour — characters   which 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  537 

distinguish  it  from  the  larger,  longer,  more  uniformly 
cylindrical,  -white,  pungent,  bitter  root  of  horse-radish,  for 
which  aconite  root  has  sometimes  been  fatally  mistaken. 
According  to  Professor  Schroff',  Vienna,  the  root  is  six  times 
as  active  as  the  other  parts,  and  should  be  taken  up  after 
the  plant  has  flowered  in  autumn,  when  it  is  in  perfection, 
or  before  the  new  stem  rises  in  spring,  cut  into  small  pieces, 
and  dried  at  a  low  temperature.  The  leaves  are  less  active 
than  the  root,  but  more  so  than  the  flowers,  fruit,  or  stem. 
Any  part  of  an  active  aconite,  when  slowly  chewed,  produces 
a  peculiar  sensation  of  tingling,  and  numbness  of  the  lips 
and  tongue. 

The  chief  active  principle — aconitina  (C33H45NO12) — is 
obtained  by  a  tedious  process  from  the  powdered  root.  It 
occurs  in  colourless,  hexagonal  rhombic  prisms,  nearly  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  chloroform, 
and  ether.  Its  salts  are  crystalline.  Two  other  alkaloids, 
Benzaconine  and  Aconine,  have  been  obtained  from  aconite 
root.  In  the  plants  the  alkaloids  are  united  with  aconitic 
acid  (CgHgOg),  and  according  to  Cash  and  Dunstan  neither 
the  composition  nor  the  constitution  of  the  chief  alkaloid, 
aconitine,  can  yet  be  regarded  as  settled. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Anodyne  and  sedative,  acting  specially 
on  the  peripheral  endings  of  sensory  nerves,  on  the  heart, 
and  on  respiration.  Aconite  kills  by  respiratory  arrest.  Its 
physiological  actions  as  a  cardiac  and  respiratory  sedative 
render  it  a  febrifuge  ;  it  is  also  diaphoretic  and  diuretic.  It 
is  prescribed  in  acute  febrile  conditions,  and  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  acute  local  inflammation.  It  is  used  topically  to 
relieve  pain. 

General  Actions. — Locally  applied,  in  virtue  of  its  action 
on  sensory  nerves,  aconite  produces  first  irritation,  tingling 
and  twitching,  and  subsequently  numbness  and  anaesthesia. 
Aconite  tincture  is  rapidly  absorbed  and  quickly  passes  into 
the  tissues,  as  is  shown  by  the  blood  of  a  poisoned  dog,  five 
minutes  after  the  drug  has  been  administered,  being  trans- 
ferable into  the  veins  of  another  dog  without  producing  the 
physiological  action  of  the  poison. 

Full  medicinal  doses  administered  by  the  mouth  induce 


538  ACONITE 

salivation,  champing  of  the  jaws,  movements  of  swallowing, 
and  nausea,  and  cause  in  dogs  and  cats  vomiting,  and  in 
horses,  ruminants,  and  rabliits  retching  and  eructation  of 
frothy  mucus.  The  topical  irritant  action  is  exerted  not 
only  on  the  stomach,  but  sometimes  on  the  bowels,  which 
are  affected  by  spasms  and  diarrhoea,  while  the  secretions  of 
the  skin  and  kidneys  are  also  increased.  Within  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes  the  strength  and  frequency  of  the  heart- 
beats are  reduced,  and  blood-pressure  is  lowered.  These 
effects  on  the  circulation  appear  to  depend  upon  paresis  of 
the  motor  ganglia  in  the  heart,  as  well  as  of  the  vagus  roots 
in  the  medulla,  and  of  the  vaso-motor  centres.  From  the 
impaired  circulation,  the  skin  secretion  is  increased,  tempera- 
ture is  lowered,  and  general  muscular  weakness  ensues. 
Kaufmann  records  that  subcutaneous  injection  of  aconitina, 
in  moderate  doses  in  dogs,  lowered  the  temperature  from 
38'5°  Cent,  to  36-7°  Cent. ;  while  intravenous  injection  in 
horses  reduced  the  temperature  from  37*4°  Cent,  to  37'1° 
Cent.  (Traite  de  Tlierapeiitique  et  de  Maiiere  Medicale 
Veterinaires).  Partly  from  the  reduced  circulatory  force, 
and  partly  from  the  drug  directly  depressing  the  respiratory 
centre,  breathing  is  slow  and  deepened,  and  exhibits  a  dis- 
tinct expiratory  effort.  When  large  or  repeated  doses  have 
been  given,  cardiac  action  becomes  irregular,  and  often 
quickened,  but  tension  remains  low  ;  the  breathing  becomes 
still  slower,  shallower,  and  more  laboured  ;  after  every  two  or 
three  respirations  there  is  a  distinct  pause  in  expiration. 
Convulsions,  mainly  due  to  asphyxia,  sometimes  precede 
death,  which  generally  results  from  failure  of  respiration. 
The  brain  and  special  senses  are  unaffected.  The  pupil, 
which  in  the  earlier  stages  of  poisoning  is  sometimes 
dilated  and  sometimes  contracted,  during  the  later  stages 
remains  dilated.  Aconite  is  removed  from  the  body  chiefly 
in  the  urine,  augmenting  both  its  solid  and  fluid  parts. 

Toxic  Effects. — Aconite  exerts  tolerably  uniform  effects 
upon  all  animals,  especially  when  injected  hypodcrmically. 
Horses  have  been  poisoned  within  two  or  three  hours  by  120 
to  150  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture,  given  by  the  mouth. 
Cattle,  however,  sometimes  receive  large  .doses  without  fatal 


EXrERTMENTS  539 

effects.  Dogs  weighing  40  lbs.  are  killed  iisuall}^  within  half 
an  hour  by  50  to  60  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture  ;  cats  by 
10  minims.  But  half  these  doses  are  liable  to  produce 
alarming  symptoms.  Full  medicinal  doses  sometimes  leave 
untoward  effects ;  pulse,  blood-pressure,  and  breathing  may 
continue  reduced  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  while  nausea  and 
impaired  appetite  may  remain  for  several  days. 

The  following  experiments  on  horses  were  made  at  the 
Edinburgh  Veterinary  College  many  years  ago  by  my 
lamented  friend,  Mr.  Barlow ,  and  myself : — 

A  black  mare,  15i  hands  high,  previously  used  for  slow  work,  and  in 
good  health,  got,  at  12.40  p.m.,  one  fluid  drachm  of  Fleming'.'^  tincture  of 
aconit«.  At  1  she  was  nauseated,  had  eructations  of  frothy  mucus,  with 
attempts  to  vomit,  which  increased  till  1.30,  when  she  went  do^vn.  The 
pulse,  which  was  35  before  administration  of  the  poison,  was  now  60,  and 
very  weak  ;  she  continued  down  till  7  p.m.,  when  she  was  destroyed,  in 
consequence  of  being  unable  to  stand. 

An  aged  chestnut  cab  horse,  16  hands  high,  and  useless  from  quittor,  was 
tied  up  for  ten  minutes,  to  ensure  perfect  quietude.  The  pulse  was  then 
found  to  be  56,  and  the  respirations  12.  The  animal  had  a  good  appetite 
and  regular  evacuations.  At  10  o'clock  he  got  ninety  minhns  of  Fleming's 
tincture  of  aconite  in  a  linseed  meal  ball,  the  head  being  still  kept  tied  up 
for  tifteen  minutes.  In  half  an  hour  he  fed  greedily  on  potatoes  and  beans, 
but  no  change  was  observable.  At  1  p.m.  he  got  fifty  minims  of  the  same 
tincture  in  four  ounces  of  water.  At  1.15  he  appeared  to  be  making 
continual  efforts  to  swallow  something ;  his  mouth  was  closed  ;  and,  after 
such  attempts  at  swallowing,  air  and  fluid  were  regurgitated  up  the  gullet, 
causing  a  rattling  noise,  as  of  air-bubbles  mixed  with  water.  At  1.20  the 
pulse  was  50  ;  symptoms  of  actual  nausea  appeared  ;  the  muscles  on  the 
side  of  the  neck  and  throat  were  contracted,  the  muzzle  brought  near  to  the 
breast,  the  lips  retracted,  and  the  mouth  slightly  opened.  Fits  of  retching 
came  on  every  two  minutes,  and  increased  in  violence  during  the  next  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes.  1.30. — During  each  paroxysm  of  retching  the  mouth 
was  opened,  the  lips  retracted,  and  four  or  five  ounces  of  frothy  mucus 
discharged  on  the  gi-ound.  The  pulse  had  fallen  to  40,  and  become  weak. 
On  account  of  the  retching,  the  resi)ir;itions  could  not  be  counted. 
Sweating  broke  out  over  the  body  ;  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth, 
nose,  and  eyes  were  pallid,  and  there  were  fibrillary  twitchings  of  the 
muscles,  especially  about  the  head  and  neck.  2  p.m. — Pulse  38,  and  weak  ; 
the  respirations  not  easily  counted,  but  probably  about  9  ;  in  other  respects 
no  change.  The  animal  passed  faeces  and  urine  freely ;  and,  shortly  after 
taking  a  pint  of  cold  water,  lay  down  somewhat  relieved,  with  the  retching 
scarcely  so  frequent.  At  2.30  the  pulse  was  somewliat  weaker  ;  the  breathing 
irregular,  interrupted,  and  sighing  ;  and  the  animal  unable  to  rise.  The 
labial  and  nasal  muscles  were  contracted,  causing  retraction  of  the  lips,  and 
disclosing  the  gums  blanched,  and  the  teeth  covered  with  frothy  mucus. 
Two  bottles  of  strong  ale  were  given,  with  half  an  oxince  of  sjjirit  of 
ammonia.  At  3  p.m.  the  pulse  was  35,  and  stiU  weaker  than  before  ; 
respiration  was  somewhat  accelerated,  probably  owing  to  the  animal  being 
down  ;  profuse  sweating  continued  and  the  retching,  though  somewhat 
subsided,  still  came  on  about  every  ten  minutes.  The  animal  remained 
down  without  much  change  until  about  6,  when  the  nausea  was  somewhat 


540  ACONITE   POISONING 

diminished,  but  the  pnlse  so  weak  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  He  wns 
raised  with  difficulty,  and  stood,  blowing  mucli,  for  fifteen  minutes.  At  7 
there  was  little.^  change  ;  the  pulse  remained  iiiijieroeptible,  the  respirations 
about  20,  and  there  wa.s  no  appetite  for  food  or  drink.  He  was  left'  with 
the  expectation  of  finding  htm  dead  next  morning,  but  at  7  a.m.  he  was  up 
and  eating.  His  pulse  was  65,  his  respirations  10,  and  his  appearance  very 
haggard  and  reduced.  He  continued  in  much  the  same  state  for  a  week, 
never  regained  his  former  look  or  ajjpetite,  for  two  days  was  unable  to  rise 
or  stand,  and  became  much  wasted.  He  was  destroyed  by  six  drachms  of 
prussic  acid  ;  but,  on  post-mortem  examination,  every  part  except  the  lungs 
seemed  healthy.  These  organs,  more  especially  the  right  one,  were 
extensively  studded  with  patches  of  extra vasated  blood  about  the  size  of 
walnuts,  Avhich,  in  those  parts  connected  with  the  pulmonary  tissue,  were 
more  or  less  softened,  and  emitted  an  odour  characteristic  of  lieated, 
decomi)Osed  blood.  The  rusty  fluid  produced  from  the  softening  had  in 
various  places  passed  into  the  bronchi,  imparting  to  their  frothy  mucus  a 
brown  colour. 

The  following  experiments  on  cats  and  dogs  were  made 
at  the  Edinburgh  Royal  (Dick's)  Veterinary  College  many 
years  ago : — 

A  cat  of  average  size  got  seven  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite. 
In  two  minutes  severe  retching  came  on,  with  a  copious  supply  of  saliva, 
probably  arising  from  paralysis  of  the  fauces  ;  and  in  five  minutes  painful 
vomiting  and  involuntary  muscular  contractions  of  a  most  active  kind,  with 
perverted  action  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  causing  the  animal  to  leap  up 
the  wall  and  turn  somersaults  backwards.  In  this,  as  in  most  other  cases, 
the  pupil,  at  first  somewhat  contracted,  ultimately  became  dilated.  The 
pulse  was  reduced  in  volume  and  strength,  shortly  becoming  very  weak  ; 
the  breathing  was  gasping.  The  vomiting  and  inordinate  muscular  action 
continued  until  within  two  or  three  minut«s  of  death,  which  took  place 
twenty  minutes  after  the  administration  of  the  poison.  No  morbid  or 
peculiar  post-mortem  appearances  were  observable. 

A  medium-sized  Scotch  terrier  got  thirty  minims  of  Fleming's  tincture. 
In  five  minutes  painful  and  active  vomiting  came  on,  which  must  have 
eflectually  emptied  the  stomach.  The  retching  and  vomiting  continued, 
however,  for  half  an  hour,  when  the  animal  was  so  exhausted  and  paralysed 
in  its  hind  extremities  as  to  be  unable  to  walk,  except  by  supporting  itself 
on  its  fore-limbs  and  dragging  the  hind-quarters.  It  gradually  recovered, 
however,  in  about  two  hours.  In  some  cases  a  drachm  of  Fleming's 
tincture  has  destroyed  dogs  with  as  much  rapidity  as  an  equal  quantity  of 
prussic  acid. 

After  death  the  lungs  are  collapsed,  and  contain  little 
blood ;  the  trachea  and  bronchi  contain  excess  of  frothy 
mucus,  accumulating  owing  to  paralysis  of  the  respiratory 
muscles  and  glottis;  the  cavities  of  the  right  heart  are 
greatly  distended  with  blood ;  the  left  heart  is  nearly  empty ; 
there  are  ecchymoses  of  the  lungs,  pleura,  and  endocardium ; 
the  digestive  organs  are  normal. 

Antidotes. — If    the    patient    is    seen    immediately    after 


MEDICINAL   USES  541 

swallowing  the  poison,  endeavour  should  be  made  to  empty 
the  stomach  by  an  emetic  or  the  stomach-pump.  Alcoholic 
and  ammoniacal  stimulants  are  given.  Ether,  digitalis,  or 
atropine  should  be  used  hypodermically  to  antagonise  the 
sedative  effects  of  aconite  on  the  heart  and  breathing. 
Warmth,  and  infriction  of  the  chest-walls  with  stimulating 
liniment  also  assist  in  maintaining  cardiac  and  respiratory 
action. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Aconite  is  more  used  by  British  than  by 
German  practitioners.  Frohner  states  that  there  are  other 
safer  febrifuges.  Cagny  indicates  its  more  general  use  in 
France,  and  characterises  it  as  the  grand  vaso-motor  sedative, 
slowing  the  circulation  in  acute  fever.  Kaufmann  designates 
it  a  very  precious  febrifuge  in  the  early  stages  of  all  internal 
inflammatory  maladies,  especially  of  the  air-passages.  Medi- 
cinal doses,  as  already  stated,  within  ten  or  fifteen  minutes 
reduce  the  number  and  lessen  the  force  and  tension  of  the 
pulsations,  lower  abnormal  temperature,  and  relieve  pain. 
The  arteries  being  dilated,  the  capacity  of  the  vascular 
system  is  increased,  and,  as  Dr.  Fothergill  aptly  puts  it,  '  the 
patient  bleeds  into  his  own  vessels,'  sometimes  with  conse- 
quent relief  of  limited  inflammation.  In  virtue  of  these 
physiological  actions,  carefully  regulated  doses  are  beneficial 
in  fever  and  acute  inflammation  in  robust  patients,  as  in 
the  earlier  stages  of  pleurisy,  enteritis,  peritonitis,  mammitis, 
lymphangitis,  laminitis,  and  acute  rheumatism.  Pharyngitis 
in  horses,  accompanied  by  high  fever,  is  sometimes  controlled 
by  a  moderate  dose,  followed  at  intervals  of  an  hour  by  half- 
doses,  repeated  until  five  or  six  have  been  given.  In  the  more 
common  epizootic  sore-throat  of  influenza,  aconite  is  useless, 
and  indeed  injurious.  Although  serviceable  in  pharyngitis, 
laryngitis,  and  pleurisy,  it  is  too  reducing  a  remedy  to  be 
used  in  most  cases  of  bronchitis  or  pneumonia.  Professor 
Williams  recommends  it  in  equine  pleurisy  and  pneumonia, 
where  pyrexia  is  considerable,  but  does  not  find  it  so 
serviceable  for  these  complaints  in  dogs  (Principles  and 
Practice  of  Veterinary  Medicine). 

Conjoined  with  a  purgative,  aconite  is  sometimes  prescribed 
in  spasmodic  colic.     In  enteritis  in  horses,  Mr.  Hill  states 


542  ACONITE 

that,  within  five  minutes  after  aconite  tincture  is  swallowed 
he  has  repeatedly  found  the  pulse  fall  from  100  to  70  beats 
per  minute,  and  this  notable  effect  is  usually  succeeded  by 
gradual  abatement  of  fever  and  pain  (Veter'hiarian,  1811). 
Professor  Robertson  prescribed  in  enteritis  111,  v.  Fleming's 
tincture,  and  3ss.  each  of  camphor  and  powdered  opium  in 
a  pint  of  gruel  (Equine  Medicine).  Mr.  Richard  Rutherford 
informs  me  that  he  finds  aconite  specially  useful  in  laminitis. 
The  patient,  he  urges,  should  be  hobbled  and  thrown, 
especially  when  all  four  feet  are  affected.  A  full  dose, 
followed  by  four  or  five  half-doses,  given  at  intervals  of 
one  to  two  hours,  abates  violent  cardiac  action,  fever,  and 
pain.  In  acute  rheumatism  it  usually  relieves  both  febrile 
symptoms  and  local  pain.  Mr.  Connochie,  Selkirk,  in  the 
treatment  of  acute  rheumatism,  after  a  dose  of  physic 
conjoined  with  opium,  recommends  thrice  daily,  for  either 
horses  or  cattle,  TlLx.  Fleming's  tincture  and  a  drachm  of 
nitre.  Repeated  small  doses  are  beneficial  in  the  outset  of 
metro-peritonitis  in  cattle;  and  some  flockmasters  use 
aconite  tincture  with  success  during  the  lambing  season, 
giving  it  with  gruel  to  ewes  which  have  a  hard  time,  begin 
to  bloAv,  or  show  febrile  symptoms.  Conjoined  with  perfect 
quiet  and  a  dose  of  physic,  small  doses  of  aconite  have  been 
used  in  the  earlier  stages  of  tetanus  by  Mr.  Thomas  Dollar 
and  Mr.  Macgillivray  {Veterinarian,  1871).  In  small, 
frequently  repeated  doses,  either  alone  or  with  hemlock,  it 
usually  controls  and  steadies  tumultuous,  excessive,  or 
irregular  action  of  the  hypcrtrophied  heart,  especially  in 
plethoric  patients.  Although  administered  for  other  pur- 
poses, it  frequently  leads  to  the  expulsion  of  intestinal 
worms. 

Paralysing  sensory  nerves,  aconite  is  used  externally  as  a 
local  anodyne  in  neuralgic  and  rheumatic  affections,  and  for 
swollen  and  painful  joints.  As  with  other  anodynes,  it  is 
more  effective  in  combating  irritative  than  inflammatory 
pain.  It  frequently  relieves  the  itching  of  dermatitis  and 
eczematous  eruptions  in  horses  and  dogs.  More  rapid 
absorption  and  greater  anodyne  efi'cct  are  secured  by  adding 
a  little  chloroform  to  the  aconite  tincture  or  liniment.     The 


DOSES    AND    ADMINISTRATION  543 

external  application  of  aconite,  it  must  be  remembered, 
demands,  however,  almost  as  much  care  as  its  internal  use. 

Doses,  etc. — The  plant  is  not  used  in  the  crude  state. 
The  extract,  unless  very  carefully  made  from  an  alcoholic 
solution,  is  apt  to  be  of  defective  or  irregular  strength.  The 
B.P.  tincture  (1  in  20),  now  made  with  two-fifths  of  the 
proportion  of  root  ordered  in  the  B.P.  of  1885,  is  convenient 
alike  for  internal  and  external  use.  For  horses,  the  dose 
varies  from  1T[xxv.  to  5j- ;  for  cattle,  f  5ss.  to  f  5iss. ;  for  sheep 
and  pigs,  V{x.  to  TT[xx. ;  for  dogs,  TlLij.  to  TI[x.  Fleming's 
tincture  (1  in  1|),  still  used  in  veterinary  practice,  is  very 
much  stronger  than  the  B.P.  tincture,  and,  on  account  of  its 
concentration,  requires  to  be  used  carefully.  The  dose  for 
horses  is  from  T^x.  to  fl^xx. ;  for  cattle,  from  1T[x.  to  TT^^xx. ;  for 
sheep,  Tl[ij.  or  IT^iij. ;  and  for  dogs,  from  TTLss.  to  TIjj.  Either 
tincture  should  be  given  in  several  ounces  of  cold  water. 
The  etYects  of  full  doses  sometimes  continue  for  twelve  or 
fifteen  hours.  Small  and  repeated  doses  are  preferable  to 
larger  doses  at  longer  intervals.  The  first  may  be  a  full 
dose,  and  may  be  followed  by  five  or  six  half-doses,  repeated, 
as  the  case  appears  to  require,  at  intervals  of  from  half  an 
hour  to  two  hours.  The  antipj^retic  effects  which  should 
thus  be  produced  are  usually  kept  up  by  salines  and  other 
treatment.  Used  hypodermically,  less  than  half  the  above 
quantities  suffice.  Professor  Walley  taught  that  the  activity 
of  aconite  is  increased  by  giving  it  in  combination  with 
alkaline  carbonates.  The  liniment  of  aconite  (1  in  1|), 
made  with  powdered  root,  camphor  and  rectified  spirit,  is 
occasionally  used.     It  should  not  be  applied  to  a  wound. 

Aconitine  is  one  of  the  most  potent  of  sedative  poisons. 
Dr.  Headland  {TJie  Action  of  Medicines)  records  that  g^th 
of  a  grain  in  solution  in  water  suffices  to  destroy  a  mouse ; 
y-^th  of  a  grain  kills  a  small  bird  after  a  few  minutes,  and 
Jg-th  almost  instantaneously;  -^Vth  to  -ru^h.  kills  cats,  the 
latter  quantity  in  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour.  Half  a 
grain,  given  to  a  shepherd's  dog  weighing  30  lbs.,  began  to 
operate  in  three  or  four  minutes,  and  proved  fatal  in  sixty- 
five  minutes.  The  lethal  dose  for  an  adult  man  is  Jo^b 
grain.     Mavor  and  Burness  subcutaneously  injected  over  the 


544  IPECACUANHA 

scapula  of  a  horse  ..Vl^  grain,  and  noted  in  a  few  minutes 
champing  of  the  teeth,  salivation,  fits  of  retching,  and 
reduced  number  and  force  of  the  pulsations  {Tlce  Action  of 
Medicines). 

Majors  Smith  and  Rutherford,  of  the  Army  Veterinary 
Department,  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal  the  unpublished 
notes  of  four  experiments  made  on  healthy  horses  with 
aconitina.  One  grain  of  the  alkaloid  was  dissolved  in  one 
ounce  of  water,  and  10  minims,  containing  -^^\h  grain,  were 
injected  hypodermically  into  the  anterior  region  of  the  chest 
of  two  geldings.  Within  ten  minutes  there  were  produced 
biting  and  licking  at  the  site  of  puncture,  persistent  shaking 
of  the  head,  yawning,  pawing ;  increase  of  pulse  in  one  sub- 
ject to  the  number  of  ten  beats,  in  the  other  of  two  beats ; 
no  change  of  temperature  occurred.  The  effects  disappeared 
in  one  and  a  half  hour. 

Two  horses  had  injections  of  15  minims  of  the  above  solu- 
tion with  15  minims  of  water,  the  dose  containing -^nd  grain 
aconitina.  The  same  effects  resulted  ;  but  pawing  and  move- 
ments of  the  head  were  more  marked  ;  both  subjects  coughed 
and  sneezed;  while  one  occasionally  belched,  ground  its 
teeth,  and  showed  indications  of  pain  ;  the  pulse,  previously 
38  and  soft,  rose  to  52  beats,  and  was  firmer ;  there  Avas  no 
change  of  temperature,  and  no  increased  secretion  from  skin, 
bowels,  or  kidneys,  and  in  about  two  hours  the  symptoms 
passed  off. 

These  and  other  experiments  indicate  that  for  hypodermic 
use  '-^th  to  ^th  grain  of  aconitine  is  a  sufficient  dose  for 
the  horse.  As  with  other  preparations,  administered  either 
hypodermically  or  otherwise,  the  effects  may  be  increased 
and  maintained  by  repeating  half  the  dose  three  or  four 
times,  at  intervals  of  half  an  hour  or  an  hour. 

IPECACUANHA 

Ipecacuanha.  Ipecacuanhoa  radix.  The  dried  root  of  Psycho- 
tria  Ipecacuanha  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Rubiaceie. 

The  Psychotria  Ipecacuanha  is  a  Brazilian  shrub  two  or 
three  feet  high.     The  root,  the  only  officinal  part,  occurs  in 


MEDICINAL   USES  545 

twisted,  knotted  pieces,  two  to  four  inches  in  length,  of  the 
thickness  of  a  quill.  The  tough,  white,  internal  woody- 
matter  is  inert;  the  brittle  brown  bark,  marked  with  un- 
equal rings,  contains  the  active  principle.  The  powder  is 
grey-brown,  has  an  acrid,  bitter  taste,  a  faint,  nauseous 
odour,  and  communicates  its  properties  to  hot  water,  alcohol, 
and  diluted  acids.  Besides  other  plant  constituents,  it  con- 
tains an  odorous  volatile  oil,  the  amorphous  red-brown 
tannin  called  ipecacuanhic  or  cephaelic  acid,  and  the  alka- 
loids emetine  (C3QH42O2N4)  and  cephaeline  (CggHggNgO^). 
Emetine  is  a  colourless  powder,  slightly  bitter,  soluble  in 
ether,  alcohol,  and  chloroform,  but  not  in  caustic  potash. 
Neutralises  acids,  forming  crystalline  salts.  A  volatile  alka- 
loid has  also  been  isolated. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Ipecacuanha  and  emetine  are  topical 
irritants  and  emetics.  When  absorbed  they  dilate  blood- 
vessels, reduce  blood-pressure,  increase  secretion,  notably 
from  the  bronchi,  intestines,  skin,  and  liver.  They  are 
used  as  expectorants  and  diaphoretics,  and  occasionally,  in 
small  doses,  as  stomachics. 

Ipecacuanha  powder,  and  emetine,  like  tartar  emetic,  when 
applied  locally,  irritate  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes. 
When  swallowed  by  dogs  or  other  carnivora,  they  produce 
similar  in-contact  irritation,  stimulate  the  ends  of  the  vagus, 
causing  vomiting,  and  when  absorbed  into  the  blood  like- 
wise produce  emesis  by  irritation  of  the  vomiting  centre. 
Full  doses  induce  gas tro- enteritis,  with  congestion,  and 
oedema  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane  and  lungs. 
Professor  Rutherford  found  that  60  grains  of  ipecacuanha 
powerfully  stimulated  the  liver  of  dogs ;  3  grains  given  to  a 
dog  weighing  17  lbs.  produced  no  purgation,  but  increased 
the  mucus  secreted  from  the  small  intestine.  Bracy  Clark 
states  that  3  ounces  kill  a  horse.  It  is  more  active  when 
given  in  solution  than  in  bolus.  It  is  eliminated  by  the 
kidneys,  intestinal  mucous  surface,  and  the  skin  (Binz). 

Medicinal  Uses. — As  an  emetic  for  dogs,  cats,  or  pigs,  it 
acts  more  slowly  and  gently  than  zinc  or  copper  sulphates, 
and  is  less  nauseating  than  tartar  emetic.  As  an  anti- 
emetic, drop  doses  of  the  vinum,  conjoined  with  morphine 

2  M 


.'546  IPECACUANHA — EMETINE 

or  chlorodyne,  are  sometimes  serviceable  in  dogs.  Given  in 
doses  insufficient  to  cause  emesis,  or  used  in  horses  or  other 
animals  which  do  not  vomit,  it  promotes  secretion  of  bron- 
chial mucus,  and  hence  is  serviceable  in  the  dry  stages  of 
catarrh  and  bronchitis.  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Dollar  frequently 
gives  a  drachm  of  powdered  ipecacuanha  with  an  ounce  of 
ammonia  acetate  solution,  in  ten  ounces  of  water,  repeating 
the  dose  several  times  daily.  Following  the  practice  of 
human  medicine,  American  practitioners  prescribe  it  as  a 
remedy  for  dysentery,  in  half-drachm  doses,  for  horses  and 
cattle,  and  Professor  Robertson  also  recommended  it  in  these 
cases,  in  conjunction  with  opium. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  powder,  as  an  emetic,  dogs  take  grs.  xv. 
to  grs.  XXV. ;  cats,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xii. ;  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx., 
given  in  tepid  water,  either  alone  or  with  half  a  grain  to  a 
grain  of  tartar  emetic.  Mr.  Mayhew  recommends  for  the 
dog, — ipecacuanha,  grs.  iv.,  tartar  emetic,  gr.  ^,  with  anti- 
monial  wine,  f5j.  to  fSiJ-,  dissolved  in  tepid  water,  fgj.,  and 
repeated  every  half-hour  until  vomiting  takes  place.  Some 
practitioners  use  Dover's  powder,  or  its  pharmaceutical 
imitation,  made  by  triturating  together  one  part  each  ipeca- 
cuanha and  opium,  and  eight  parts  potassium  sulphate.  Of 
this  expectorant  and  diaphoretic,  horses  and  cattle  take  5i- 
to  5iij- ;  sheep,  grs.  xxx.  to  5i- ;  dogs,  grs.  x,  to  grs.  xv. ;  cats, 
grs.  ii.  to  grs.  v.,  repeated  several  times  daily,  the  patient 
supplied  with  plenty  of  diluents,  and  kept  comfortably 
clothed,  and  in  an  atmosphere  of  about  60°  Fahr.  The  wine 
is  prepared  with  an  ounce  of  the  liquid  extract  of  ipecacuanha 
and  ten  fluid  ounces  of  sherry. 

Emetine,  when  inhaled  even  in  minute  amount,  irritates 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air-passages,  and  induces 
symptoms  analogous  to  hay-fever.  Two  grains  swallowed 
by  a  dog  caused  violent  vomiting,  increased  secretion  of 
mucus  from  the  respiratory  and  alimentary  membranes,  in- 
flammation of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  stupor,  and  death 
in  twenty-four  hours  (Magcndie).  It  is  eliminated  by  the 
mucous  membranes  and  liver,  increasing  secretion  of  bile. 
Large  doses  lower  temperature,  relax  voluntary  nmscles,  and 
kill  by  cardiac  paralysis  (Dr.  A.  Vl  D.  Ornellas,  Phanna- 


VERATRINE  647 

ceuticcd  Journal,  1874).  Emetine  hydrochloride  (or  hydro- 
bromide)  has  been  proscribed  as  a  gastric  stimulant  for 
cattle  and  sheep,  and  as  an  emetic  for  dogs.  Doses— Cattle, 
grs.  iii.  to  grs.  vi. ;  sheep,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  ij. ;  dogs,  gr.  a  to  gr.  i. 
Administered  subcutaneously.  For  hypodermic  use  the 
emetine  salt  is  dissolved  in  equal  parts  of  water  and  alcohol 

VERATRINE 
Veratrina.     An  alkaloid,  or  mixture  of  alkaloids,  obtained 
from  Cevadilla,  the  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Schoenocaulon 
officinale  (B.P.).     Nat.  0/-(L— Liliacese. 

It  is  prepared  from  Cevadilla  by  precipitation  with 
ammonia.  It  is  pale  grey,  amorphous,  odourless,  bitter, 
and  acrid,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  spirit,  in  ether, 
and  in  diluted  acids.  In  nitric  acid  it  dissolves,  yielding  a 
yellow  solution,  and,  warmed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  pro- 
duces a  blood-red  colour.  Commercial  specimens  are  said 
to  consist  of  veratrine  and  two  other  alkaloids,  cevadine  and 
cevadilline,  resembling  jervine,  an  alkaloid  of  green  hellebore. 

Actions  and  Uses.— Veratrine  is  a  topical  irritant  and 
subsequent  paralysant,  especially  of  the  heart  and  other 
muscles,  and  is  sometimes  used  to  relieve  rheumatic  and 
neuralgic  pains,  and  as  a  parasiticide  and  vermin-killer. 

General  Actions.— Rubbed  into  the  skin  or  placed  upon  a 
mucous  surface,  it  causes  irritation  and  then  numbness, 
similar  to  that  produced  by  aconite,  and  depending  upon 
irritation,  followed  by  paralysis  of  sensory  nerve  endings. 
When  inhaled  it  induces  violent  sneezing ;  when  swallowed  in 
considerable  doses  it  causes  gastro-enteritis,  followed  by  col- 
lapse. It  is  a  nervo-muscular  poison,  first  exciting,  afterwards 
depressing  and  paralysing  the  peripheral  terminations  of  motor, 
sensory,  and  secretory  nerves.  It  produces  prolonged  mus- 
cular contraction,  followed  by  paralysis.  Minimum  doses 
increase  muscular  power.  Its  effect  on  the  heart  muscle  is 
similar  to  that  on  voluntary  nmscles.  Under  the  influence  of 
large  doses  the  heart's  action  becomes  slower  and  weaker,  then 
irregular  and  intermittent,  and  finally  arrested.  Its  actions 
closely  resemble  those  of  Vcratrum  viride  and  V.  album. 


548  VERATRINE 

Toxic  Effects. — Magendic  found  that  one  grain  of  veratrine 
acetate  killed  a  dog  in  a  few  seconds  when  injected  into  the 
jugular  vein,  and  in  nine  minutes  when  injected  into  the 
peritoneum.  One  or  two  grains  swallowed  by  dogs  caused 
great  uneasiness,  nausea,  vomiting,  violent  purging,  slow- 
ness of  respiration,  slowness  and  irregularity  of  circulation, 
extreme  prostration  of  strength,  spasmodic  twitching,  and 
subsequently  paralysis  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  especially 
those  of  the  extremities,  and  death  from  respiratory  arrest, 
usually  amid  convulsions.  Horses  SAvallowing  five  or  six 
grains,  or  one-fifth  of  these  doses  hypodermically,  are  sali- 
vated, sweat  profusely,  have  trembling  of  external  muscles, 
and  violent  contractions  of  the  gastro-intestinal  muscles,  with 
efforts  to  vomit.  Similar  doses  in  cattle  produce  cmesis 
(Kaufmann).  The  appropriate  antidotes  are  stimulants, 
warm  coffee,  potassium  carbonate  solution,  and  perfect  quiet; 
tannin,  acetate  of  ammonia,  and  opium. 

Medicinal  Uses. — For  its  febrifuge  and  analgesic  actions 
it  has  been  prescribed  in  such  febrile  diseases  as  acute  pneu- 
monia, pleurisy,  peritonitis,  rheumatism,  and  laminitis ;  but 
it  must  be  used  with  extreme  caution.  In  persistent  cases 
of  shoulder  rheumatism  in  horses  Friedberger  recommends 
^  to  1^  grains,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  to  be  deeply  injected 
into  the  affected  muscles  daily,  beginning  with  the  smaller 
amount,  and  gradually  increasing  it,  intermitting  the  treat- 
ment every  fourth  or  fifth  day,  and  walking  the  patient 
after  each  injection  until  the  general  excitement  produced 
abates.  Kaufmann  prescribes  it  in  muscular  atony  and  in 
chronic  intestinal  catarrh.  Mullcr  recommends  it  hypo- 
dermically in  locomotor  paralysis  ;  and  Berre  considers  it 
is  the  best  gastric  stimulant  for  cattle. 

Externally,  the  ointment,  made  with  1  of  veratrine,  4  of 
oleic  acid,  and  45  of  lard,  is  used  to  relieve  rheumatic  and 
neuralgic  pains,  and  as  an  insecticide. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  i^er  orem  take  gr.  i.  to  grs.  ij.,  but 
hypodermically  not  more  than  gr.  i.,  at  least  for  a  first  dose; 
cattle  (hypodermic  injection),  grs.  2^  to  grs.  4  in  60  to  100 
minims  of  alcohol.  Dogs  take  ^^er  orem  gr.  .}^t\\ ;  hypoder- 
mically, not  more  than  gr.  /g^th,  in  weak  spirit. 


VERATRUM    (VIRIDE   AND    ALBUM)  549 


VBRATRUM  (VIRIDE  AND  ALBUM) 

Veratri  Viridis  Rhizoma.    Green  Hellebore  Rhizome.    The 

dried  rhizome  and  rootlets  of  Yeratrum  viride.     (Not 

official.) 
Veratri  Albi  Rhizoma.    "W^iite  Hellebore  Rhizome.    Dried 

rhizome  and  rootlets  of  Yeratrum  album.    (Not  official.) 

Nat.  Ord. — Colchicacese  or  Melanthacese. 

The  Yeratrum  viride  is  a  native  of  North  America,  the 
Y.  album  is  indigenous  in  many  parts  of  Continental  Europe. 
Both  have  a  bitter  acrid  taste,  excoriate  the  mouth  and 
fauces  when  chewed,  and  produce  sneezing  when  the  powder 
is  inhaled.  They  contain  about  a  half  of  one  per  cent,  of 
the  several  alkaloids — ^jervine  (CggHg-NOg),  pseud  o-jervine, 
cevadine,  with  traces  of  veratrine. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Both  the  viride  and  album  are  motor 
depressants,  closely  allied  in  physiological  action  to  vera- 
trine, and  resembling  aconite  and  tobacco.  They  slow  and 
weaken  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  cause  muscular  weak- 
ness ;  nausea,  and  in  men  and  dogs  vomiting.  Fuller  doses 
induce  extreme  rapidity,  weakness,  and  imperceptibility  of 
the  pulse,  partial  unconsciousness,  and  collapse.  The  album 
is  more  powerful  than  the  viride. 

Professor  H.  C.  Wood  states  that  jervine  depresses  the 
functions  of  the  spinal  cord  and  cardiac  ganglia,  producing 
muscular  and  cardiac  weakness,  while  concurrently  it  irri- 
tates the  motor  centres  of  the  brain,  inducing  convulsions. 
Death  ensues  from  paralysis  of  respiration. 

Toxic  Effects. — Waldinger  states  that  two  ounces  vera- 
trum  album  caused  in  horses  increased  salivation,  efforts  to 
vomit,  and  relaxed  bowels.  Rytz  declares  that  one  ounce 
induces  purgation  and  gastric  derangement.  Mr.  Miller 
{Edinburgh  Veterhiary  Review,  1863)  records  that  a  three- 
year-old  filly  accidentally  ate  about  two  ounces  of  the 
powdered  root,  and  in  half  an  hour  was  in  much  pain, 
frothing  at  mouth,  attempting  to  vomit,  heaving  at  the 
flanks,  with  a  full  pulse,  numbering  40 ;  painful  spasms, 
involving  especially  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  injection  of  the 


550  VERATRUM    (VIRIDE    AND    ALBUm) 

mucous  lucinbranes  of  the  nostrils  and  eyes,  stillness  in 
walking,  and,  after  a  few  hours,  partial  paralysis  of  the  hind 
limbs.  The  filly  was  bled,  and  had  drachm  doses  of  tannin 
given  in  starch  gruel.  In  three  hours  the  symptoms  abated, 
gradual  recovery  took  place,  and  in  four  days  she  was  again 
at  work. 

Dogs  are  liable  to  suffer  from  absorption  of  strong  dress- 
ings. Mr.  Howard  records  that  liberal  application  of  vera- 
trum  ointment  causes  nausea,  sometimes  vomiting,  accelerated 
and  weakened  action  of  the  heart,  short,  catching,  and  moan- 
ing respiration,  prostration,  with  death  sometimes  in  four 
hours.  Congestion  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach, 
lungs,  and  heart  was  notable  post-mortem  {Veterinarian, 
1873).  The  antidotes  consist  of  demulcents,  diffusible 
stimulants  to  counteract  cardiac  depression,  and  morphine 
to  relieve  nausea  and  gastric  irritation.  Infusions  of  tannin 
form  insoluble  compounds  with  the  unabsorbed  alkaloids. 

Medicinal  Uses. — As  a  sedative  in  acute  inflammatory 
diseases  veratrum  was  highly  spoken  of  by  Percivall  and 
Morton,  who  prescribed  it  for  horses  in  doses  of  20  to  30 
grains,  repeated  every  four  or  five  hours.  But  its  actions  are 
irregular  and  uncertain.  For  neuralgic  and  rheumatic  cases 
it  has  been  superseded  by  tincture  of  aconite.  For  the 
destruction  of  lice,  for  setons,  and  as  an  addition  to  blisters — 
objects  for  which  it  is  still  occasionally  used — there  are  more 
fitting  agents.  Active  preparations  have  the  disadvantage 
of  sometimes  being  absorbed  and  producing  untoward  con- 
stitutional effects. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  powdered  rhizome  horses  and  cattle 
take  5ss.  to  5j. ;  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  dogs, 
gr.  -J^  to  gr.  I,  given  in  bolus,  or  dissolved  in  dilute  alcohol, 
and  repeated  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  hours.  It  is  used 
externally  in  the  several  forms  of  powder,  watery  decoction 
improved  by  a  little  spirit,  and  ointment  made  with  one  part 
of  veratrum  to  eight  of  vaseline  or  lard.  It  is  occasionally 
applied  with  tar  or  sulphur  dressings. 


CINCHONA   BARKS    ,  551 


CINCHONA 


Red  Cinchona  Bark.  Cinchonse  Riibrse  Cortex.  The  dried 
bark  of  the  stem  and  branches  of  cultivated  plants  of  Cin- 
chona Succirubra.    A^at.  Orel. — Cinchonaceffi  (Rubiacese). 

Quinine  Sulphate.  QuininjB  Sulphas.  The  sulphate  of  an 
alkaloid  obtained  from  the  bark  of  various  species  of 
Cinchona  and  Remijia  (B.P.). 

Quinine  Hydrochloride.  Quininse  Hydrochloridum.  The 
hydrochloride  of  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  the  bark  of 
various  species  of  Cinchona  and  Remijia  (B.R). 

The  evergreen  trees  or  tall  shrubs  which  yield  the 
medicinal  barks  were  originally  grown  on  the  slopes  and  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Andes,  but  are  now  cultivated  in  British 
India,  Ceylon,  Java,  and  Jamaica.  The  bark,  in  1639,  was 
brought  from  Peru  to  Madrid,  distributed  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  hence  received  the  names  of  Peruvian  and  Jesuits' 
bark.  Of  thirty-six  known  species,  there  are  many  varieties, 
yielding  barks  distinguished  as  pale,  yellow,  and  red. 

The  pale  cinchonas,  some  of  which  are  got  from  the  stem 
and  branches  of  the  Cinchona  officinalis  and  C.  condaminea, 
are  usually  in  single  and  double  rolls,  and  yield  more 
cinchonine  than  quinine. 

The  yellow  barks  yielded  by  the  C.  calisaya  and  other 
species  are  commonly  met  with  in  flat  pieces,  eight  to  fifteen 
inches  long,  two  to  three  wide,  and  two  to  four  lines  thick. 
They  consist  mostly  of  liber,  are  furrowed  and  brownish- 
yellow  externall}-,  fibrous  and  yellow-orange  within.  The 
transverse  fracture  shows  numerous  short  fibres ;  the  powder 
is  cinnamon-brown;  the  odour  aromatic;  the  taste  bitter, 
without  astringency.  Good  specimens  yield  5  to  6  per  cent. 
of  quinine. 

The  official  or  red  bark  is  the  produce  of  the  C.  suc- 
cirubra; imported  in  quilled  or  more  or  less  in-curved 
pieces,  two  to  twelve  inches  long,  one- tenth  to  one-fourth  inch 
thick.  The  pieces  are  red,  rough,  wrinkled,  and  coated  with 
epiderm  externally;  finely  fibrous,  with  granular  fracture, 
and   brick-red   or   deep   red-brown   internally;   no  marked 


552  CINCHONA — QUININE 

odour;  taste  bitter  and  somewhat  astringent.     It  yields  5  to 
6  per  cent,  of  alkaloids. 

The  cuprea  barks  from  the  Remijia — a  genus  nearly 
allied  to  cinchona  and  cascarilla — arc  now  largely  imported ; 
are  dense,  with  a  thin,  longitudinally  striated  epidermis,  and 
a  smooth  pale  red  inner  surface ;  and  besides  quinine  and 
quinidine,  contain  a  special  alkaloid,  cinchonamine,  but  no 
cinchonidine  (Phillips). 

Properties. — The  cinchona  barks  occur  in  quills,  stripped 
from  the  smaller  branches,  and  curled  into  single  or  double 
rolls,  and  in  flat  pieces  from  the  larger  branches  or  trunk. 
They  are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  on  hurdles  over  fires.  Their 
colour  varies  from  deep  yellow  to  red-brown,  and  is  deepened 
by  moisture.  They  have  a  faint  odour,  and  a  bitter,  usually 
astringent  taste.  They  are  soluble  in  cold  and  hot  water, 
and  in  alcohol ;  their  best  solvents  are  alcohol  (70  per  cent.), 
and  diluted  acids.  The  tests  of  quality  and  value  are  the 
general  appearance,  fracture,  colour,  odour,  taste,  and  per- 
centage of  the  alkaloids,  which  are  the  active  principles. 

Composition. — Besides  ordinary  plant  constituents — lignin, 
starch,  gum,  resin,  mineral  matters,  with  traces  of  a  volatile 
oil — cinchona  bark  contains  (1)  a  series  of  active  alkaloids 
ranging  from  3  to  5  per  cent. ;  (2)  chinic  and  chinovic 
acids,  with  which  the  alkaloids  are  naturally  united,  but 
which  have  no  very  marked  physiological  actions ;  (3)  tan- 
nins, recognised  as  cincho-tannic  acid,  constituting  1  to  3 
per  cent,  of  the  bark,  and  conferring  astringency;  (4)  a 
glucoside,  chinovin ;  (5)  a  colouring  matter,  cinchona  red. 

Quinine  (C2oH2^N.P2)  is  present  in  all  the  Cinchona  and 
Remijia  barks.  It  is  in  the  form  of  sulphate  that  quinine 
is  generally  prescribed  in  this  country.  From  a  watery 
solution  of  the  sulphate  the  alkaloid  may  be  precipitated  by 
ammonia.  It  occurs  in  delicate  acicular  crystals,  inodorous 
and  intensely  bitter.  It  requires  for  solution  900  parts  of 
cold  water,  but  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform, 
ammonia,  and  diluted  acids.  It  forms  colourless,  bitter, 
crystallisable  salts,  remarkable,  like  the  alkaloid,  for  tonic 
and  febrifuge  properties.  Quinine  and  its  salts  turn  a  ray 
of  polarised  light  to  the  left.     Aqueous  solutions,  acidulated, 


ALKALOIDS    AND    SALTS  653 

even  when  extremely  diluted,  exhibit  blue  fluorescence. 
Treated  with  chlorine  or  bromine  solutions,  and  then  with 
a  drop  of  liquor  ammoniaD,  a  green  coloration  is  produced. 

QuiNiDiNE,  is  isomeric  with  quinine,  but  crystallises  in  larger 
prisms,  is  dextro-rotatory,  and  its  salts  are  more  soluble  and 
of  nearly  the  same  activity. 

CiNCHONiNE  (C20H24N2O),  is  present  in  the  bark  of  various 
species  of  Cinchona  and  Remijia.  It  is  obtained  from  the 
mother-liquors,  after  crystallisation  of  sulphate  of  quinine. 
Like  quinine,  it  is  used  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  which  occurs 
in  hard,  colourless  prisms,  having  a  feebly  bitter  taste.  It  is 
anhydrous,  dextro-rotatory  ;  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  in  thirty 
parts  of  water  ;  its  acidulated  watery  solution  exhibits  no 
fluorescence.  It  is  the  least  active  of  the  cinchona  alkaloids, 
requiring  to  be  given  in  double  the  dose  of  quinine, 

CiNCHONiDiNE,  an  alkaloid  isomeric  with  cinchonine,  is 
obtained  from  the  mother-liquors  of  the  crystallisation  of 
sulphate  of  quinine.  Like  the  other  alkaloids,  it  is  used  as 
a  sulphate,  and  is  considerably  more  active  than  cinchonine. 

Quinine  and  cinchonine,  when  heated  with  excess  of  a 
mineral  acid,  are  converted  into  amorphous  isomeric  alka- 
loids, termed  respectively  quinicine  and  cinchonicine. 

Quinine  Sulphate  [(C2oH2^N202)2,  H2SOJ2,  l.'iH20,  contains 
74i  per  cent,  of  the  alkaloid.  In  filiform  silky  white  crystals 
of  an  intensely  bitter  taste.  Soluble  in  about  800  parts 
water,  entirely  soluble  in  water  acidulated  with  a  mineral 
acid,  and  in  alcohol. 

Quinine  Hydrochloride  (C^qR^J^^O.^,  HCl,  2H2O)  contains 
83  per  cent,  of  the  alkaloid.  In  crystals  resembling  those 
of  the  sulphate  but  somewhat  larger.  Soluble  in  thirty-five 
parts  cold  water,  and  in  three  parts  cold  alcohol  (90  per 
cent.),  and  very  soluble  in  boiling  water. 

Acid  Quinine  Hydrochloride,  is  a  white  crystalline  powder, 
soluble  in  less  than  its  own  weight  of  water,  yielding  a  some- 
what acid  liquid  (B.P.). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Cinchona  bark  is  astringent  from  the 
presence  of  tannin,  and  antiseptic,  tonic,  and  antipyretic 
owing  to  its  alkaloids.  These  alkaloids  have  in  concentrated 
form   the   several  actions  of   the  crude  drug,  but   not   its 


564  QUININE 

astrin^cncy.  They  differ  only  in  the  degree  of  their  action. 
Quinine  is  the  most  powerful  and  most  generally  used. 
Small  doses  stimulate,  large  doses  depress  the  functions  of 
the  organs  with  which  they  are  brought  into  contact. 

General  Actions. — (Quinine  and  its  salts  combine  with 
albumin,  and  have  antiseptic  properties  nearly  as  marked  as 
those  of  carbolic,  benzoic,  and  salicylic  acids,  camphor, 
eucalyptol,  or  chloral-hydrate.  One  part  to  830  hinders,  one 
part  to  625  prevents,  development  of  anthrax  bacilli  (Koch). 
It  diminishes  fermentation,  especially  when  depending  upon 
such  organised  ferments  as  the  alcoholic,  lactic,  or  butyric. 
It  checks  oxidation,  and  lessens  protoplasmic  and  amoeboid 
movements.  Similar  antiseptic  effects  doubtless  occur  when 
quinine  is  administered,  and  afford  explanation  of  most  of 
its  curative  eff'ects. 

Quinine  in  the  mouth,  from  its  bitterness,  reflexly  in- 
creases the  flow  of  saliva.  Small  or  moderate  doses 
stimulate  the  stomach  and  increase  appetite ;  but  large 
doses  impair  appetite,  and  may  induce  nausea  and  vomiting. 
Its  effects  on  intestinal  secretion  and  movement  are 
unknown ;  but  it  does  not  increase  secretion  of  bile.  It  is 
absorbed  from  mucous,  serous,  and  areolar  surfaces, 
especially  when  in  perfect  solution,  and  its  effects  are 
notable  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  later.  Small  doses 
stimulate,  large  doses  depress.  Small  to  moderate  doses 
reduce  the  calibre  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  increase  the 
strength  of  the  circulation,  but  large  doses  weaken  cardiac 
action  and  diminish  blood  -  pressure.  Moderate  doses 
quicken  respiration,  large  doses  slow  and  eventually 
paralyse  it.  Death  results  from  respiratory  failure.  The 
brain  functions  are  stimulated  by  small,  but  depressed  by 
large  doses.  Sensory  and  motor  nerves  are  affected  only 
Avhen  the  drug  is  locally  applied. 

Tissue  change  is  diminished.  Experiments  on  dogs  have 
shown  that  less  oxygen  is  taken  up,  while  less  carbonic 
acid  and  albuminoid  waste  materials  arc  excreted.  Tem- 
perature, notably  in  febrile  cases,  is  lowered.  These  effects 
may  depend  upon  the  antiseptic  action  of  quinine,  and  may 
be  connected  with  its  property  of  increasing  the  size  of  the 


MEDICINAL    USES  555 

red  globules  while  diminishing  their  capacity  to  give  up 
oxygen,  and  on  its  diminishing  the  number,  contractility,  and 
movements  of  the  white  blood-corpuscles.  It  diminishes 
all  secretions  except  the  urinary,  which  is  increased. 
Repeated  full  doses  contract  the  spleen  and  also  the  uterus, 
sometimes  exciting  abortion.  This  may  result  from  large 
quantities  causing  gastro-intestinal  irritation.  That  the 
drug  has  no  specific  ecbolic  action  appears  to  be  proved  by 
Dr.  H.  C.  Wood's  experiments  on  healthy  pregnant  cats 
{Practitioner,  1879  and  1881).  The  headache,  impaired 
sight  and  hearing,  and  other  symptoms  of  cinchonism  pro- 
duced in  man  by  large  or  repeated  doses,  have  not  been 
distinctly  recognised  in  the  lower  animals. 

Cinchona  bark  as  a  bitter  tonic  resembles  cascarilla  bark, 
calumba  root,  and  hydrastis,  the  rhizome  and  rootlets  of 
Hydrastis  canadensis,  or  golden  seal,  which  yields  the 
alkaloids  berberine  and  hydras  tine.  The  antiseptic  and 
febrifuge  properties  of  quinine  ally  it  to  various  substances 
of  the  aromatic  carbon  series,  while  the  anti-malarial  actions 
resemble  those  of  arsenic. 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  bark  and  its  alkaloids  are  prescribed 
for  all  classes  of  patients  as  bitter  stomachics  and  tonics. 
They  improve  appetite,  check  abnormal  gastro-intestinal 
fermentation,  and  counteract  relaxed  conditions  of  the  intes- 
tine and  accumulations  of  mucus,  which  prove  favourable  to 
the  development  of  worms.  In  troublesome  cases  of  atonic 
indigestion  in  horses,  where  alkaline  treatment  has  failed. 
Professor  Robertson  frequently  gave  20  to  30  grains  of 
quinine  sulphate,  with  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  nitric 
or  hydrochloric  acid.  Weakly  foals  and  calves  affected  by 
relaxed  bowels,  after  a  dose  of  oil,  are  often  much  benefited 
by  a  few  doses  of  cinchona  bark,  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
spirit.  Few  tonics  are  so  effectual  as  bark  or  quinine  in  im- 
proving appetite  and  muscular  strength,  and  hastening 
convalescence  from  debilitating  disease.  In  anaemia  they 
are  advantageously  joined  with  iron  salts.  They  are  service- 
able in  the  earlier  stages  of  tuberculosis,  in  septicaemia,  and 
pyajmia  in  all  animals ;  in  influenza,  protracted  cases  of 
strangles,  purpura,  and  other  similar  diseases  in  horses,  in 


556  CINCHONA — QUININE 

septic  metritis  in  cows  and  ewes,  and  in  lingering  cases  of 
distemper  in  dogs — their  beneficial  effects  in  these  and  other 
diseases  probably  depending  on  the  action  of  quinine  on 
micro-organisms  or  their  products.  Drachm  doses,  con- 
joined with  iron  salts,  repeated  night  and  morning,  are 
certainly  the  most  effectual  treatment  for  purpura.  The 
sulphate,  in  doses  of  240  to  350  grains,  repeated  if  requisite, 
is  strongly  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  red  water  in  cattle 
(Veterinarian,  1900). 

In  malarial  diseases,  Avhich  in  various  regions  attack  the 
lower  animals  as  well  as  man,  no  remedies  prove  so  effectual. 
Not  only  do  they  mitigate  the  febrile  symptoms  and  cut  short 
the  attack,  but  full  doses,  given  one  or  two  hours  before  a 
periodical  seizure,  frequently  prevent  it.  The  antiseptic  pro- 
perties of  the  drug  explain  this  remarkable  power.  Mr.  R. 
W,  Burke,  A.V.D.,  has  successfully  used  drachm  doses  of 
quinine  in  malarial  and  other  fevers  affecting  horses  and 
cattle  in  India,  and,  where  febrile  symptoms  run  high,  reports 
that  the  medicine,  within  an  hour  after  administration,  reduces 
the  temperature  1°  to  8°,  and  when  persisted  Avith  prevents 
its  subsequent  rise  (Veterinarian,  1887).  It  is  often  useful 
in  rheumatism,  being  given  either  by  the  mouth  or  hypoder- 
mically,  frequently  conjoined  with  salicylic  acid  or  potas- 
sium iodide.  Mr.  T.  A.  Dollar  has  successfully  treated  cases 
of  rheumatism  and  sciatica  in  horses,  which  have  resisted 
other  remedies,  by  hypodermic  injection  into  the  affected 
muscles  of  half  a  drachm  of  quinine  sulphate  in  solution, 
and  has  not  found  undue  irritation  or  abscess  follow  the 
operation.  Like  other  bitters,  when  administered  with 
cathartics,  it  generally  increases  their  activity.  Alternated 
with  cod-liver  oil  and  iron,  quinine  is  the  best  tonic  for 
weakly  dogs  and  those  suffering  from  chorea. 

The  alkaloids  are  seldom  used  as  antiseptics  for  wounds, 
but  occasionally  in  the  form  of  spray  or  gargle  are  applied  to 
relaxed  or  sujij^urating  throat. 

Doses,  etc. — Cinchona  bark  is  prescribed  in  the  following 
doses : — For  horses,  5ij-  to  ^iy. ;  for  cattle,  §i.  to  §ij. ;  for 
sheep  and  pigs,  5i-  to  5iv. ;  for  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  '^i.,  repeated 
twice  or  thrice  daily  for  several  days.     If  nausea  or  vomiting 


DOSES   AND    ADMINISTRATION  557 

supervene,  as  occasionally  happens  in  dogs,  the  dose  should 
be  considerably  reduced  or  intermitted  for  a  day  or  two.     It 
is  administered  in  bolus,  pill,  or  solution,  and  is  often  con- 
ioined  with  camphor,  gentian,  ginger,  spirit,  or  ether.     The 
infusion  is  made  by  digesting  one  part  red  bark  with  one- 
fourth  part  aromatic  sulphuric  acid  and  twenty  parts  water, 
and  straining.     The  tincture,  now  standardised,  is  made  by 
maceration  and  percolation  of  4  ounces  red  bark  in  one  pint 
of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.).     It  contains  1  per  cent,  of  alkaloids. 
The  compound  tincture,  made  with  tincture  of  cinchona, 
orange  peel,  serpentary,  cochineal,  saffron,  and  alcohol  (70 
per  cent.),  is  standardised  to  contain  a  half  of  1  per  cent,  of 
alkaloids.     The  liquid  extract  of  cinchona,  contains  5  per 
cent,  of  alkaloids.     The  salts  of  quinine  are  prescribed  in 
the   following  doses :— Horses   and   cattle,  grs.  xx.  to  5i.; 
sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  xx. ;  dogs  and  cats,  gr.  i.  to 
grs.  viij.      Cinchonine   sulphate   is   given   in   double   these 
quantities.      These   doses,   in   bolus,   pill,   or    solution,   are 
administered  two  or  three  times  daily.     Given  in  the  fluid 
form,   their    solubility    is    increased    and    their    bitterness 
diminished  by  prescribing  them  in  an  acidulated  solution. 
They  are  also  conveniently  exhibited  in  milk.     Any  tendency 
to  nausea  or  vomiting  is  abated  by  combination  with  hydro- 
bromic  acid. 

Intratracheal  injection,  horses,  grs.  ii.  to  grs.  viij.  in  two 
drachms  distilled  water.  For  hypodermic  or  intratracheal 
injection,  a  convenient  solution  of  the  sulphate  (80  grains) 
is  made  with  tartaric  acid  (40  grains)  in  4  drachms  of 
distilled  water.  Another  equally  useful  hypodermic  solu- 
tion is  made  with  15  grains  quinine  hydrochloride  and  2| 
drachms  distilled  water,  containing  a  minim  of  diluted 
hydrochloric  acid.  Quinine  lactate,  which  is  soluble  in  ten 
parts  of  water,  is  sometimes  preferred  for  hypodermic 
administration.  The  cinchona  alkaloids  form  comparatively 
insohible  compounds  with  bile,  and  hence  before  their  ad- 
ministration any  excess  of  bile  should  be  cleared  away  by  a 
laxative.  They  are  often  conjoined  with  other  bitter  tonics, 
and  with  capsicum,  camphor,  valerian,  or  salts  of  iron.  The 
citrate  of  iron  and  quinine  is  sometimes  used  in  canine 


558  SALICYLIC   ACID 

practice,  but  it  is  better  to  prescribe  a  reliable  quinine  salt 
with  a  salt  of  iron.  The  tincture  of  quinine,  made  with  the 
hydrochloride  and  the  tincture  of  orange,  contains  one  grain 
of  the  salt  in  55  minims.  The  ammoniated  tincture  of 
quinine,  made  with  the  sulphate,  solution  of  ammonia,  and 
alcohol  ((30  per  cent.),  contains  about  one  grain  in  55  minims. 
Quini-chloral,  a  thick  oily  mixture  of  quinine  and  chloral, 
soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol,  is  stated  to  be  superior,  as  a 
microcide,  to  corrosive  sublimate. 

SALICYLIC  ACID-SALICIN  AND  SODIUM 
SALICYLATE 

AciDUM  Salicylicum.  a  Crystalline  Acid,  CgH^-OH-COOH, 
obtained  by  the  interaction  of  sodium  carbolate  and 
carbonic  anhydride;  or  from  natural  salicjdates,  such 
as  the  oils  of  winter-green  (Gaultheria  procumbens)  and 
sweet  birch  (Betula  lenta).  (B.P.) 

Salicylic  acid  was  originally  prepared  from  salicin, 
a  crystalline  glucoside  obtained  from  willow  and  poplar 
barks.  It  can  also  be  extracted  from  the  stems,  leaves, 
and  rhizomes  of  violets.  In  these  plants,  and  in  the 
volatile  oils  of  the  winter-green  and  various  Spireas,  it 
occurs  as  a  methyl  salicylate.  But  the  commercial  source 
is  sodium  phenol,  through  which  carbonic  acid  gas  is 
passed  for  several  hours.  The  mixture  is  raised  to 
482°  Fahr.,  the  residue  is  dissolved  in  a  limited  quantity  of 
water,  and  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  when  salicylic 
acid  is  precipitated,  and  is  subsequently  crystallised.  Com- 
mercial specimens  frequently  contain  cresotic  acid. 

Properties. — Salicylic  acid,  occurs  as  a  soft,  light,  colour- 
less powder,  consisting  of  minute  acicular  crystals ;  but  it 
may  be  crystallised  in  bold  four-sided  prisms.  It  is  odour- 
less, but  Avhen  inhaled  irritates  the  nostrils.  It  has  a  taste 
at  first  sweet,  but  subsequently  bitter.  It  is  soluble  in  538 
parts  of  water,  120  of  olive  oil,  200  of  glycerin,  'Sh  of  rectified 
spirit,  2  of  ether,  and  8  of  lard ;  and  its  solubility  is  in- 
creased by  admixture  with  sodium  borate  or  phosphate.  It 
fuses  at  311"  Fahr.,  volatilises  without  decomposition  below 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  f)59 

392°  Falir.,  but  above  that  is  decomposed  into  phenol  and 
carbonic  acid  gas.  Sodium  salicylate  may  be  obtained  by 
the  interaction  of  salicylic  acid  and  sodium  carbonate.  In 
small,  colourless  scales,  or  in  tabular  crystals ;  odourless, 
taste  sweetish  and  saline ;  soluble  in  water,  and  in  6  parts  of 
rectified  spirit. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Salicylic  acid  belongs  to  the  benzene 
or  aromatic  series  of  carbon  compounds,  and  in  chemical 
constitution  and  physiological  action  is  allied  to  benzoic 
acid.  It  is  antiseptic,  antiperiodic,  antipyretic,  irritant  and 
astringent,  and  is  specially  useful  in  the  treatment  of  rheu- 
matism. The  acid,  its  alkaline  salts,  and  salicin  have  similar 
actions,  but  salicin  is  now  little  used. 

General  Actions. — Salicylic  acid,  as  an  antiseptic,  is  less 
penetrating,  but  rather  more  powerful  than  carbolic  acid  or 
creolin.  It  prevents  fermentation  and  putrefaction.  Watery 
solutions  are  more  active  germicides  than  the  alcoholic  or 
oily ;  they  have  no  appreciable  action  on  the  intact  skin,  but 
on  a  mucous  membrane,  or  a  wound,  they  irritate,  and 
coagulate  albumin.  Full  doses  of  the  powder  or  concentrated 
solutions  are  in-contact  irritants,  provoking,  when  inhaled, 
sneezing  and  coughing,  and  when  swallowed  vomiting  in 
carnivora  and  diarrhoea  in  all  animals.  Sodium  salicylate, 
until  the  acid  is  liberated,  is  devoid  of  irritant  action  and 
also  of  antiseptic  power.  Although  not  very  soluble,  the 
acid  and  its  salts  are  tolerably  quickly  absorbed.  In  the 
blood  the  acid  occurs  as  an  alkaline  salt,  and  its  antiseptic 
power  must  hence  be  neutralised.  Both  acid  and  salt  slow 
the  pulse  and  breathing,  lower  blood-pressure,  and  diminish 
excretion  of  urea.  In  most  men  and  dogs  full,  continued 
doses  further  cause  nausea,  occasional  vomiting,  and  giddi- 
ness— symptoms  which  resemble  those  of  cinchonism.  In 
healthy  animals  the  temperature  is  not  affected,  but  in 
rheumatic  and  malarial  fevers  abnormal  temperature  is 
reduced,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  several  degrees.  This 
antipyretic  effect  Frohner  ascribes  to  an  excess  of  carbonic 
anhydride,  liberating  salicylic  acid.  Clinical  experience, 
however,  does  not  indicate  that  carbonic  anhydride  abounds 
in  cases  in  which  the  salicylate  treatment  reduces  temj^era- 


560  SALICYLIC   ACID 

ture.  Professor  Rutherford  found  that  the  acid  and  its  soda 
salt,  like  benzoic  acid  and  benzoates,  are  hepatic  but  not 
intestinal  stimulants,  and  render  the  bile  watery.  They  are 
eliminated  more  quickly  in  vegetable  than  in  tlesh  feeders 
(Frohner).  'I'hey  are  excreted  in  the  perspiration,  saliva, 
and  urine,  in  which  they  appear  as  salicylates,  and  in  com- 
bination with  glycol,  as  salicyluric  acid.  They  communicate 
to  the  urine  a  brown  or  green  coloration,  and  retard  its 
decomposition. 

Toxic  doses  are  borne  better  by  graminivora  than  grani- 
vora.  Frohner  records  that  a  healthy  horse,  weighing  1000 
lbs.,  received  during  three  days  300  grammes  (about  9^  ounces). 
Slight  dyspepsia  resulted  from  irritation  of  the  alimentary 
mucous  membrane,  but  no  toxic  symptoms.  A  healthy  sheep 
of  70  lbs.  during  three  days  had  50  grammes  (1|  ounce), 
but  remained  perfectly  healthy.  The  like  negative  results 
also  occurred  in  the  case  of  a  sheep  o  65  lbs.,  which 
received  in  three  days  65  grammes  (2  ounces)  of  sodium 
salicylate.  Dogs  are  not  so  tolerant;  toxic  effects  were 
produced  by  1  gramme  (IS'O'i  grains)  for  each  5  kilogrammes 
of  body-weight.  A  dog  10  lbs.  weight  received  08  gramme 
in  repeated  doses  during  six  hours ;  he  vomited,  had  muscular 
trembling,  and  weakness  of  the  hind  limbs.  A  dog  of  60 
lbs.,  had  4  grammes,  in  divided  doses,  which  caused 
weakness  and  cramp  of  the  hind-quarters.  A  dog  of  10  lbs. 
had  5  grammes  sodium  salicylate  subcutaneously,  and  ex- 
hibited dyspncea,  irregular  pulse,  dilated  pupils,  dulness, 
vomiting,  lameness  of  the  hind-quarters,  convulsions,  and 
fatal  paresis.  A  dog  of  18  lbs.  was  fatally  asphyxiated 
by  eight  grammes  injected  into  the  rectum  {ATzncimittel- 
lehre  fiir  Thierdrzte). 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  acid  and  its  alkaline  salts  are  service- 
able in  arresting  dyspeptic  fermentation  and  diarrhoea  in 
young  animals.  As  bitters  they  are  also  gastric  tonics.  When 
administered  in  cases  of  gastro-intcstinal  irritation,  the  sodium 
salicylate,  not  being  irritant,  is  preferable  to  the  acid. 

The  salicylate  treatment  is  almost  a  specific  for  acute 
rheumatism  in  human  patients.  It  frequently  relieves 
the  pain  before  the  temperature  or  fever  is  abated.     The 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  561 

beneficial  results  have  been  ascribed  to  the  breaking  up  of 
lactic  acid  products.  But  British  veterinarians  have  not 
found  the  treatment  so  effectual  either  in  horses  or  cattle. 
In  animals  such  attacks  are  chieliy  of  a  chronic  type,  on 
which  salicylic  acid  has  not  such  marked  effect  as  in  the 
acute  cases,  and  it  may  be  that  the  doses  prescribed  have  not 
been  large  enough,  or  given  with  sufficient  frequency,  or  for 
a  sufficient  period.  Mr.  E.  Price,  Birmingham,  is,  however, 
satisfied  with  the  effects  on  horses,  and  prescribes  10  grains, 
repeated  every  two  hours,  gradually  increased  to  a  drachm, 
and  reports  the  disappearance  of  the  rheumatic  pains  in 
forty-eight  hours  (Veterinarian,  1888).  Frohner  uses  both 
the  acid  and  the  sodium  salt  in  muscular  and  arthritic  rheu- 
matism in  all  animals,  and  states  that  chronic  cases  are 
benefited  by  continued  doses,  that  good  results  need  not  be 
despaired  of  until  the  drug  has  been  persisted  with  for  ten 
or  fifteen  days,  while  to  prevent  relapse  the  administration 
is  continued  for  some  days  after  the  symptoms  have  been 
relieved.  Dogs  are  benefited  especially  where  the  joints 
are  prominently  affected.  Mr.  J.  Gresswell  adopts  similar 
treatment  in  rheumatic  arthritis  and  bad  cases  of  foot- 
and-mouth  disease  in  sheep  (Veterinary  Pharmacology  and 
Therapeutics). 

In  horses,  as  in  human  patients,  a  few,  frequently  repeated 
doses  arrest  attacks  of  acute  catarrh  when  given  in  the  earher 
stages,  and  appear  to  have  a  similar  power  in  gastro-intestinal 
and  urinary  catarrh.  Frohner  recommends  it  in  cystitis. 
Professor  Robertson  used  it  in  equine  influenza  accompanied 
with  gastro-intestinal  symptoms.  Other  practitioners  testify 
to  its  value  in  purpura  and  also  in  strangles.  In  zymotic 
and  malarial  fevers  it  is  not  so  effectual  as  quinine.  Feser 
and  Friedberger  have  shown  that  it  exerts  no  antij^yretic 
effect  in  septic  or  pysemic  fever.  Conjoined  with  tannic  acid 
it  is  prescribed  for  obstinate  diarrhoea  in  calves. 

In  antiseptic  surgery,  salicylic  acid  is  sometimes  substi- 
tuted for  or  alternated  with  carbolic  acid  or  creolin.  It  is 
serviceable  in  the  treatment  of  canker  and  open  joint,  for 
abating  the  itching  and  discharge  of  eczema,  for  dressing 
sores  on  the  teats  of  cows,  washing  out  the  uterus  in  metritis, 

2n 


5G2  SALICYLIC   ACID 

and  witli  alcohol  as  an  injection  in  otorrhn^a.  Its  antiseptic 
effects  are  increased  by  admixture  of  boracic  acid. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  5^^'-  to  5viij- ;  sheep 
and  goats,  5,1-  ^  3ij- ;  swine,  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  Ix. ;  dogs,  grs.  v. 
to  grs.  XV.  of  the  acid,  every  two  to  four  hours,  mixed  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  borax  to  ensure  solubility,  and  administered 
with  mucilage  or  glycerin,  in  bolus,  electuary  or  drench. 
Sodium  salicylate  and  salicin  are  used  in  similar  amounts. 
The  larger  doses  are  given  in  fevers ;  the  smaller,  repeated 
more  frequently,  in  rheumatism,  in  the  muscular  form  of 
which  a  solution  may  be  injected  deeply  into  the  affected  part. 

For  surgical  purposes  convenient  solutions  are  made  by 
dissolving  one  part  each  of  salicylic  acid  and  borax  in 
thirty  to  fifty  parts  of  water.  Ointments  and  liniments  are 
prepared  with  one  part  acid,  mixed  in  a  heated  mortar,  with 
twenty  to  twenty-five  of  vaseline  or  bland  oil.  Salicylic 
cream,  employed  as  a  pigment  for  surgical  wounds,  is  com- 
posed of  two  parts  salicylic  acid,  and  ten  parts  of  glycerin. 
The  B.P.  ointment  consists  of  one  part  acid,  and  forty-nine 
parts  of  white  paraffin  ointment.  Lint,  cotton- wool,  or  jute, 
soaked  in  4  to  10  per  cent,  hot,  watery  solution,  made  with 
borax  to  ensure  solubility,  absorbs  the  acid,  and  is  used  as 
an  antiseptic  co\ering  for  wounds  and  burns  in  the  same 
manner  as  carbolic,  boric,  or  '  Sanitas '  lint.  Being  unirritat- 
ing,  salicylic  lint  is  applied  directly  to  abraded  surfaces 
without  the  intervention  of  any  protective.  Iron  salicylate, 
is  antiseptic  and  astringent. 

Dithion,  or  di-thio-salicylate  of  sodium,  a  greyish-white 
powder,  freely  soluble  in  water,  is  antiseptic  and  antipyretic. 
In  foot-and-mouth  disease  it  has  been  given  internally,  and 
applied  externally  as  a  dusting-powder,  and  as  a  lotion  (2J 
to  5  per  cent.)  to  the  sores  of  the  mouth,  feet,  and  udder 
{Lancet,  1892). 

Aspirin,  formed  by  the  action  of  acetic  anhydride  on 
salicylic  acid,  is  a  crystalline  powder,  soluble  in  100  parts 
water,  and  in  dilute  alkalies.  It  passes  through  the  stoniach 
unchanged,  and  in  the  bowel  is  split  up,  salicylic  acid  being 
liberated.     It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  sodium  salicylate. 


GENTIAN  563 

GENTIAN 

Gentian .€  Radix.   The  dried  rhizome  and  roots  of  Gentiana 
lutea.     (B.P.)     Kat.  Orel. — Gentianacefe. 

The  Gentiana  lutea,  or  yellow  gentian,  has  a  perennial, 
often  forked  root,  and  an  annual  herbaceous  stem,  which 
rises  three  or  four  feet,  and  bears  axillary  whorls  of  yellow 
flowers.  It  abounds  in  most  parts  of  temperate  Europe, 
thrives  best  between  8000  and  5000  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  mountainous  districts  of 
the  Alps,  Vosges,  and  Pyrenees.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are 
bitter  and  tonic,  but  only  the  rhizome  is  officinal.  It  occurs 
in  cylindrical,  usually  more  or  less  branched,  often  twisted, 
pieces,  or  in  longitudinal  slices,  marked  by  transverse 
annular  wrinkles  and  longitudinal  furrows,  and  varying  in 
length  and  thickness.  It  has  a  peculiar  aromatic  and  rather 
disagreeable  odour,  and  a  taste  at  first  sweet,  but  afterwards 
bitter.  When  moist,  it  is  tough  and  flexible;  when  dry, 
brittle,  and  easily  pulverised.  The  powder  is  yellow,  with  a 
shade  of  brown,  and  readily  yields  its  bitterness  to  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether. 

Gentian  root  contains  gentianose,  a  sugar,  which,  in 
Southern  Bavaria  and  Switzerland,  is  fermented  into  a 
drinking  spirit ;  a  large  amount  of  pectin,  a  little  volatile  oil 
and  fat,  the  yellow  crystalline  gentianin,  or  gentianic  acid 
(Cj^HjoOg),  which  is  inert;  and  about  O'l  per  cent,  of  an 
intensely  bitter  glucoside,  gentiopicrin  (CooH3^0i2)'  obtain- 
able in  colourless  crystals,  which  are  soluble  in  water  and 
alcohol.   In  its  actions  gentiopicrin  is  nearly  allied  to  quinine. 

Roots  of  other  Gentianacese  are  frequently  mixed  with 
those  of  G.  lutea ;  but  this  is  not  of  much  importance,  since 
all  are  possessed  of  similar  properties.  Admixture,  however, 
sometimes  occurs  of  poisonous  roots,  such  as  monkshood, 
belladonna,  and  white  hellebore,  which  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  absence  of  the  pure  bitter  taste  and  bright  yellow 
colour  so  characteristic  of  true  gentian.  Gentian  powder, 
especially  that  met  with  abroad,  is  stated  to  be  occasionally 
adulterated  with  yellow  ochre,  easily  detected  by  heating  the 


564  GENTIAN 

suspected  specimen  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  filtering,  and 
testing  for  iron. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Gentian  is  a  pure  bitter,  and  is  pre- 
scribed as  a  stomachic  and  tonic  for  all  veterinary  patients. 
It  resembles  calumba,  chiretta,  quassia,  and  hydrastis  cana- 
densis, or  golden  seal.  As  a  gastric  tonic  it  has  been 
considered  little  inferior  to  cinchona;  it  is  devoid  of 
astringency. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Gentian  improves  the  appetite  and 
general  tone.  In  atonic  indigestion  it  is  particularly  use- 
ful amongst  young  animals,  and  in  such  cases  is  often 
conjoined  with  ginger  and  sodium  bicarbonate.  In  relaxed 
and  irritable  states  of  the  bowels,  and  where  intestinal 
worms  are  suspected,  after  administration  of  a  laxative, 
gentian  and  hydrochloric  acid  arc  often  serviceable.  For 
horses  suffering  from  simple  catarrh  few  combinations  are 
more  effectual  than  an  ounce  of  powdered  gentian,  two 
drachms  nitre,  with  two  ounces  Epsom  salt,  dissolved  in  a 
pint  of  water,  linseed  tea,  or  ale,  and  repeated  night  and 
morning.  In  inflammatory  complaints,  after  the  acute 
stage  is  passed,  such  a  prescription  also  proves  serviceable. 
Where  the  bowels  are  constipated  or  irregular,  or  febrile 
symptoms  are  insufficiently  subdued,  two  drachms  of  aloes 
are  sometimes  conjoined  with  the  gentian.  Where  more 
general  tonic  effects  are  sought,  iron  sulphate  is  alternated 
with  the  gentian  and  salines.  An  ounce  of  gentian,  with 
an  ounce  of  ether  or  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  given  three  or 
four  times  daily  in  a  bottle  of  ale,  proves  an  excellent 
stomachic  and  stimulating  tonic  in  influenza  and  other 
epizootics,  helps  convalescence  from  exhausting  disorders, 
and  is  a  useful  restorative  for  horses,  jaded,  overworked,  or 
suffering  from  loss  of  appetite  or  slight  cold. 

For  cattle  the  above  prescriptions  are  as  serviceable  as  for 
horses,  l)ut  require  to  be  given  in  somewhat  larger  doses. 
For  sheep  gentian  is  a  very  useful  stomachic,  and  when 
prescribed  with  salt  arrests  for  a  time  the  progress  of  liver- 
rot.  Next  after  quinine  it  is  the  best  vegetable  tonic  for 
dogs  [)rostrated  by  reducing  disorders. 

Doses,  etc.— For  the  horse,  §ss.  to  §i. ;  for  cattle,  §i.  to  §ij.; 


CALUMBA — CHIRETTA  565 

for  sheep,  5i  to  5iij  ;  for  pigs,  5ss.  to  5i.;  for  dogs,  grs.  v.  to 
grs.  XX.,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  daily.  The  carefully-pre- 
pared PharmacopoBia  extract,  infusion,  and  tincture,  flavoured 
with  orange  -  peel  and  aromatics,  are  frequently  used  in 
veterinary  practice.  The  powder  is  prescribed  in  bolus, 
prepared  with  treacle,  glycerin,  and  meal,  or  in  infusion, 
made  by  digesting  the  powder  during  several  hours  in  hot 
water,  and  decanting  off  the  clear  fluid.  A  small  addition 
of  diluted  alcohol  ensures  more  thorough  solution  and 
better  keeping. 

CALUMBA 
Calumb^   Kadix. — The    dried    sliced    root    of   Jateorhiza 
Columba ;  growing  in  Eastern  Africa  (B.P.).     Nat.  Orel. 
— Menispermaceoe. 

Calumba  root  occurs  in  irregular,  flattish,  circular  or  oval 
slices,  with  a  yellow  centre  and  a  brownish-yellow  cortex. 
The  fracture  is  short,  odour  feeble,  taste  bitter  (B.P.).  It  con- 
tains a  crystalline,  neutral,  bitter  principle,  Calumbin ;  an 
alkaloid,  berberine ;  Calumbic  acid ;  and  33  per  cent  of  starch. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Calumba  is  a  bitter,  gastric  stimulant 
and  carminative.  It  promotes  secretion  of  gastric  juice  and 
improves  the  appetite.  As  it  contains  no  tannin  it  is  devoid 
of  astringency  and  may  be  prescribed  with  preparations  of 
iron.  Like  quassia,  calumba  infusion  may  be  used  to  destroy 
worms  in  the  horse's  rectum. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  infusion  (one  of  calumba  to  20  of  cold 
water)  horses  and  cattle  take  §ij.  to  §iv. ;  dogs  5y-  to  ^., 
twice  or  thrice  daily.  The  tincture,  made  with  one  of 
calumba  root  to  10  of  alcohol  (60  per  cent.)  is  also  pre- 
scribed. The  doses  are  about  one-third  of  those  of  the 
infusion. 

Chiretta,  the  dried  Indian  plant,  Swertia  Chirata,  collected 
when  in  flower,  is  closely  allied  in  actions  and  uses  to 
calumba.  It  contains  an  active  bitter  principle,  chiratin, 
but  no  tannin.  The  infusion  and  tincture  of  chiretta  are 
prescribed  in  the  same  doses  as  calumba  or  gentian. 


566  CASCAEILLA — OAK    BARK 

CASCARILLA 
CASCARTLLiE  CoRTEX.     The  dried  bark  of  Croton  Eleuteria 
(B.P.).    Nat.  Ord. — Euphorbiacece. 

Cascarilla  bark  is  principally  imported  from  the  Bahama 
Islands  in  quills  about  the  size  of  a  drawing  pencil,  and 
varying  from  two  to  four  inches  in  length.  Its  outer  surface 
is  fissured,  and  usually  covered  with  a  light-coloured  lichen ; 
its  inner  surface  is  smooth  and  light-brown.  It  has  a 
strong,  pungent,  rather  nauseous  taste;  its  aromatic  odour  is 
increased  by  heat,  and  recommends  it  as  a  constituent  of 
fumigatory  pastilles.  It  contains  the  neutral  crystalline 
bitter  cascarillin  (CjoH^gO^),  15  per  cent,  of  two  resins, 
tannin,  and  1'5  of  a  pungent  volatile  oil,  one  portion  of 
which  is  isomeric  with  oil  of  turpentine. 

Actions  and  Uses.  —  Cascarilla  is  an  aromatic,  bitter 
stomachic,  and  carminative,  allied  to  cusparia  (Augustura 
bark)  and  resembling  cinchona,  but  less  active,  and  occasion- 
ally used  in  indigestion,  diarrhoea,  and  convalescence  from 
exhausting  diseases. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses,  5ij-  to  5^^. ;  for  cattle,  §i. ;  for 
sheep  and  swine,  5i-  to  3ij- ;  and  for  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xl, 
given  in  bolus,  infusion,  or  tincture,  which  is  made  with  one 
of  cascarilla  to  five  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.). 


OAK   BARK 

QiTERCUS  Cortex.  The  dried  bark  of  the  smaller  branches 
and  young  stems  of  (^ucrcus  robur  (Q.  pedunculata). 
Collected  in  early  spring  from  trees  growing  in  Britain. 
(Not  official.)     Nat.  Ord. — Cupuliferae. 

Bark  from  smaller  branches  of  young  trees  is  more 
astringent  than  thicker  pieces  of  older  growth  ;  the  interior 
finer  fibrous  portions  than  the  external  rougher  cortical. 
Oak  bark  contains  a  bitter  crystalline  substance,  quercin, 
and  owes  its  astringency  to  10  or  15  per  cent,  of  querci- 
tannic  acid,  which  differs  somewhat  from  gallo-tannic  acid, 
and  does  not,  by  oxidation,  yield  gallic  acid.     The  infusion 


QUASSIA   WOOD  567 

has  a  powerful  astringent  taste,  reddens  litmus,  gives  a  blue- 
black  precipitate  with  ferric  salts ;  and  with  gelatin  solution 
a  white  flocculent  precipitate,  which  resists  putrefaction 
better  than  that  of  gallo-tannic  acid.  Acorns — the  fruit  of 
the  oak — are  collected  in  many  parts  of  England  for  feeding 
sheep  and  pigs,  are  credited  with  a  nutritive  value  approach- 
ing that  of  beans,  but  on  account  of  their  astringency 
require  to  be  used  sparingly. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Oak  bark  is  astringent,  resembling 
galls  and  catechu.  It  is  prescribed  to  check  chronic 
otorrhoea,  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  other  excessive  mucous 
discharges.  For  weakly,  scouring  calves  the  infusion  is 
given  once  or  twice  daily  as  required,  with  warm  starch 
gruel,  to  which  may  be  added  aromatics,  gentian,  spirit, 
ether,  or  chloroform,  or  where  there  is  grij)ing,  laudanum. 
It  lacks  the  tonic  properties  of  cinchona  and  gentian,  and 
constipates  when  given  too  frequently  or  freel}^  Infusions 
are  applied  to  dry  and  constringe  hyper-secreting  and 
relaxed  surfaces,  and  to  relieve  piles  in  dogs. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  5ij-  to  ^iv.;  cattle,  §ss.  to  §ij.; 
sheep  and  pigs,  '^ss.  to  5ij- ;  (^ogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx., 
administered  in  infusion  made  w^ith  one  or  two  ounces  of 
bark  to  the  pint  of  water. 


QUASSIA  TVOOD 

QuASSLE  LiGXUM.     The  wood  of  the  trunk  and  branches  of 
Picrsena  excelsa  (B.P.).     Nat.  Orel. — Simarubacete. 

The  dense,  tough,  white  quassia  wood,  the  produce  of  a 
handsome  tree,  is  imported  from  Jamaica  and  other  West 
Indian  islands  in  billets  of  varyins:  lensfth,  and  is  met  with 
in  yellow-white  chips  or  raspings.  Quassia  has  no  odour, 
but  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  dependent  on  a  neutral 
crystalline  principle,  quassin  (C^yH^.^Og).  It  contains  no 
tannin. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Quassia  is  a  bitter  stomachic  and 
tonic.  It  resembles  gentian  and  calumba.  It  is  prescribed 
for   the   several    domestic   animals    in    dyspepsia,   loss    of 


568  TARAXACUM 

appetite,  and  convalescence  from  debilitating  disorders. 
Although  it  has  no  appreciable  vermicide  effect  when  given 
per  orem,  when  used  as  an  enema  it  destroys  both  ascarides 
and  lumbrici.  Large  doses  are  irritant.  The  infusion  is  a 
narcotic  poison  for  flies  and  other  insects,  and  is  said  also 
to  kill  fish. 

Doses,  etc. — The  B.P.  infusion,  prepared  by  macerating 
one  part  of  chips  for  fifteen  minutes  with  one  hundred  parts 
cold  water,  is  administered  alone,  or  with  salines,  acids,  or 
iron  salts,  with  which,  unlike  most  vegetable  bitters,  it 
mixes  without  decomposition  or  discoloration.  Of  the 
infusion,  horses  and  cattle  take  fgij.  to  f§iv. ;  sheep  and 
pigs,  f  3iv. ;  dogs,  f  5j.  The  tincture  is  not  used  by 
veterinarians. 


TARAXACUM 

Taraxaci  Radix.  Dandelion  Root.  The  fresh  and  dried 
roots  of  Taraxacum  officinale,  collected  in  the  autumn 
(B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Compositae. 

The  tap-shaped  root  is  about  six  to  twelve  inches  long, 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  thick,  is  dark-brown  externally  and 
white  within.  It  breaks  with  a  short  fracture ;  from  the 
fractured  surface  a  milky  juice  exudes,  which  is  inodorous, 
but  has  a  bitter  taste.  Its  active  principle  is  the  bitter 
taraxacin.  Other  constituents  are,  taraxacerin,  inulin, 
asparagin,  resins,  and  salts. 

Actions,  Uses,  and  Doses. — Taraxacum  has  had  a  popular 
reputation  as  a  blood  purifier,  liver  stiuuilant,  and  remedy 
for  jaundice.  But  Professor  Rutherford's  experiments  accord 
to  it  only  a  very  feeble  power  of  stinuilating  the  liver.  In 
virtue  of  its  bitterness,  it  is  a  mild  stomachic,  although 
seldom  so  serviceable  as  either  gentian  or  calumba,  and  it 
has  also  slight  laxative  and  diuretic  effects.  The  fresh 
succus  is  the  best  preparation,  and  the  dose  for  the  horse  is 
about  f§j.,and  for  dogs,  fgss.  to  fgij- 


MUSTARD  569 


MUSTARD 


SiNAPis,     The  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Brassica  nigra  and  Brassica 
alba,  powdered  and  mixed  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Cruciferae. 

The  mustard  plants  are  annuals,  one  to  two  feet  high, 
with  yellow  cruciform  flowers,  and  pods  containing  several 
brown  seeds.  They  are  indigenous  in  most  parts  of  Europe 
and  extensively  cultivated  in  Durham,  Yorkshire,  and  Lin- 
colnshire. An  abundant  wild  variety,  familiarly  known  as 
charlock  and  kellocks,  is  sometimes  used  for  adulterating 
the  better  sorts.  The  black  mustard  seeds  are  red  or 
greyish-brown,  about  the  size  of  millet ;  the  greenish-yellow 
powder  has  a  pungent  oily  taste,  and  when  triturated  with 
water  yields  a  pungent  odour.  The  white  mustard  seeds 
are  double  the  size  of  the  black,  and  lighter  in  colour. 
Inodorous  when  entire  or  powdered,  and  almost  inodorous 
when  triturated. 

Black  and  white  mustard  seeds  contain  about  25  per  cent, 
of  a  yellow,  tasteless,  non-drying  fixed  oil,  similar  to  that  of 
rape,  and  consisting  of  olein,  stearin,  and  glyceride  of  erucic 
or  brassic  acid ;  20  per  cent,  of  mucilage,  chiefly  found  in 
the  epidermis;  4  of  inorganic  matters,  and  10  to  15  of 
myrosin,  a  ferment  similar  to  diastase  or  the  emulsin  of 
bitter  almonds,  usually  more  abundant  in  white  than  in 
black  mustard  seeds,  and  coagulated  and  rendered  inactive 
when  heated  above  140°  Fahr.  Black  mustard,  besides, 
contains  about  2^  per  cent,  of  the  crystalline  potassium 
myronate  or  sinigrin;  white  mustard  contains  an  allied 
principle,  sinalbin.  ^\1ien  dissolved  in  water,  as  in  making 
mustard  flour  into  paste,  the  fermentescible  myrosin  decom- 
poses the  crystalloid  bodies,  and  there  are  produced  two 
acrid,  irritant  oils — the  pungent  volatile  oil  of  mustard, 
allyl-isothiocyanate  (H^CoNCS)  from  the  black  mustard, 
and  the  fixed  oil — acrinyl-isothiocyanate — (CgH-NSO)  from 
the  white  mustard. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Unbruised  mustard-seeds,  being  only 
partially  and  gradually  digested,  have  little  effect  when 
swallowed.     When  the  ground  seeds  are  mixed  with  water 


570  MUSTARD 

the  pungent,  acrid  oils  are  evolved ;  large  doses  of  the  flonr 
arc  accordingly  irritant ;  medicinal  doses  are  stomachic, 
carminative,  and  stimulant.  It  is,  however,  rarely  used 
internally,  excepting  as  a  local  acting  emetic  for  the  dog, 
cat,  or  pig.  For  this  purpose  a  dessert-spoonful  of  mustard 
flour  is  triven,  dissolved  in  several  ounces  of  water.  It  is 
slightly  laxative  and  diuretic. 

As  an  external  irritant,  mustard  is  much  used  as  a 
rubefacient  and  vesicant.  The  paste  made  with  water,  and 
rubbed  into  the  skin  of  the  horse,  within  twenty  minutes 
causes  congestion,  heat,  and  tenderness,  with  subsequent 
swelling.  Reflexly,  the  activity  of  conterminous  and  subjacent 
parts  is  roused.  In  two  to  six  hours  vesication  occurs ;  twenty- 
four  hours  later  some  of  the  vesicles  will  have  run  together, 
others  being  ruptured.  From  repeated,  prolonged,  or  injudi- 
cious use  in  irritable  states  of  the  skin,  there  occasionally 
ensue  active  inflammation,  sloughing,  and  destruction  of  the 
hair-roots. 

Compared  with  cantharides,  mustard  acts  more  promptly, 
but  unless  used  freely  or  repeatedly  it  is  less  permanent.  It 
is  used  to  control  functional  disturbance  rather  than  to 
repair  structural  damage;  it  causes  more  swelling  of  sur- 
rounding parts,  but  less  exudation  of  serum ;  applied  re- 
peatedly, especially  to  the  extremities  of  the  horse,  it  is 
more  apt  to  affect  the  skin  deeply,  and  hence  produce 
sloughing;  unlike  cantharides,  it  has  no  tendency  to  act 
upon  the  kidneys.  It  is  almost  as  prompt,  and  is  more 
manageable  than  very  hot  water.  For  horses  it  is  less  irri- 
tating and  burning  than  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  not  so 
severe  or  so  apt  to  cause  suppuration  as  euphorbium  or 
croton  oil.  For  cattle  it  is  an  excellent  blister,  often  acting 
promptly  when  other  agents  have  slight  or  tardy  effect,  and 
seldom  causing  injury  or  blemishing.  On  dogs  and  sheep  it 
acts  powerfully,  and  must  be  used  with  caution. 

Medicinal  Uses. — In  all  veterinary  patients  suffering  from 
catarrh,  sore-throat,  laryngitis,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and 
pleurisy,  mustard,  applied  in  the  early  congestive  stage, 
lessens  pain  and  relieves  difficult  breathing-.  It  is  more 
serviceable  in  chronic  than  acute  bronchitis.     In  pleurisy, 


MUSTARD    DRESSINGS  571 

mustard  liniments  alternated  with  fomentations  are  often 
applied  at  intervals  throughout  the  attack,  but  are  specially 
indicated  after  the  tenth  day,  when  such  counter-irritation 
seems  to  promote  absorption  of  exudate.  During  the  later 
stages  of  pneumonia  mustard  is  of  little  use ;  but  occasional 
dressings  are  sometimes  serviceable  in  sustaining  the  action 
of  the  heart  and  promoting  absorption.  It  is  frequently 
rubbed  over  a  considerable  area  immediately  external  to 
the  congested,  painful,  or  inflamed  parts ;  in  about  fifteen 
minutes  it  is  washed  off,  and  in  an  hour  or  two,  if  required, 
another  application  may  be  made. 

Mustard  dressings  are  serviceable  in  acute  indigestion, 
colic,  and  enteritis,  especially  among  horses.  Mustard  is  of 
service  in  chronic  rheumatism,  especially  amongst  cattle,  in 
the  second  stages  of  inflammation  of  joints  and  tendons,  in 
enlargement  of  glands,  and  occasionally  as  a  stimulant  in 
chronic  scurfy  skin  diseases.  Flying  blisters,  applied  over 
the  chest  or  abdomen,  or  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  especi- 
ally when  the  limbs  are  cold,  arouse  vitality  and  overcome 
congestion  in  the  later  stages  of  pneumonia,  in  parturient 
apoplexy  of  cattle,  and  in  poisoning  by  narcotics.  With 
stimulants  administered  internally,  mustard  is  rubbed  over 
the  region  of  the  heart  to  counteract  syncope.  Applied  over 
the  kidneys,  it  promotes  diuresis.  It  is  occasionally  used 
for  maintaining  or  increasing  the  effects  of  cantharides,  but 
in  horses  considerable  caution  is  necessary  in  applying  the 
one  irritant  soon  after  the  other. 

Mustard  is  specially  indicated  where  extensive  counter- 
irritation  has  to  be  speedily  produced  and  stimulation  of  the 
kidneys  avoided.  Cantharides  or  mercuric  iodide  ointment 
is  preferable  in  chronic  diseases  of  joints,  and  where  struc- 
tural changes  have  occurred  in  bone,  cartilage,  or  tendon. 
Neither  mustard,  nor  indeed  any  blister,  can  be  directly 
applied  to  parts  extensively  or  deeply  inflamed  without 
causing  much  irritation,  and  probably  sloughing. 

Doses,  etc. — If  used  as  a  stomachic,  carminative,  or  mild 
stimulant,  horses  take  '^iv.  to  5^1. ;  cattle,  §ss.  to  §j. ;  sheep 
and  pigs,  5j-  to  5i]- ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  To  prevent 
irritation   of  the   fauces,  it   is   given   in   the   form   of  pill, 


572  savary's  liquid  sinapism 

bolus,  or  electuary.  Larger  doses,  especially  in  solution,  act 
as  emetics  in  clogs,  cats,  and  pigs. 

Externally,  it  is  used  generally  as  a  paste  made  as  for  the 
table,  with  tepid  water.  Hot  water  or  admixture  of  spirit, 
acid,  or  alkali  coagulates  the  ferment,  or  impairs  its  action. 
A  nuistard  paste  made  with  water  produced,  in  six  minutes, 
effects  similar  to  those  produced  in  fifty  minutes  with 
mustard  mixed  with  vinegar.  Extra  activity  is  secured  by 
using  black  and  white  mustard  seeds,  in  about  equal  amount, 
ground  unmixed  with  bland  ingredients,  or  by  adding  to  the 
paste  made  from  the  mustard  of  the  shops  a  little  oil  of 
turpentine.  The  freshly-made  paste  is  usually  applied 
directly  to  the  skin,  with  friction;  after  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  it  may  be  washed  off"  with  tepid  water,  and,  if 
required,  again  applied  three  or  four  times.  Such  repeated 
moderate  external  warming  is  usually  more  serviceable  than 
one  violent  dressing,  whether  for  diminution  of  congestion, 
relief  of  pain,  or  even  for  removal  of  exudate. 

For  veterinary  patients  little  use  is  made  of  plasters 
prepared  by  spreading  mustard  upon  calico  or  paper;  of 
leaves  consisting  of  powdered  mustard  seeds  and  gutta- 
percha solution  spread  upon  cartridge  paper  and  dried ;  or 
of  poultices  usually  made  with  equal  parts  of  mustard  and 
linseed  meal,  well  stirred  with  four  parts  of  hot  water. 

A  tincture  of  the  essence,  in  the  form  of  Savary's  liquid 
sinapism,  has  been  used  hypodermically  in  France.  In 
chest  affections,  15  to  30  drops  are  injected  at  three  or  four 
points  on  each  side  of  the  chest.  The  resulting  cedema 
appears  within  ten  minutes,  but  is  said  to  be  less  painful, 
and  to  cause  the  patient  less  disturbance  than  mustard  in 
the  usual  form.  No  untoward  local  or  general  effects  are 
observed.  Such  injections  have  also  been  used  in  the  neck, 
in  vertigo,  and  ophthalmia ;  under  the  belly  in  the  gastro- 
intestinal forms  of  influenza ;  and  also  in  colic,  enteritis,  and 
umbilical  hernia. 

The  ii.P.  volatile  oil  of  mustard,  distilled  from  black 
mustard  seeds  after  maceration  with  water,  is  antiseptic  and 
antipyretic,  and  one  of  the  most  poisonous  of  the  volatile 
oils.    Soluble  in  alcohol,  and  in  fifty  parts  of  water.    Rabbits 


MYRRH  573 

are  killed  in  two  hours  by  a  drachm,  in  fifteen  minutes  by- 
half  an  ounce,  with  symptoms  of  gastro-enteritis,  loss  of 
sensation  and  muscular  power,  difficult  breathing,  and 
collapse.  Diluted  and  applied  externally,  it  is  a  prompt  and 
powerful  vesicant. 


MYRRH 

Myrrha.  a  gum  resin  obtained  from  the  stem  of  Bal- 
samodendron  Myrrha  and  probably  other  species  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Orel. — Burseraceae. 

Myrrh  is  imported  from  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea.  With 
olibanum  or  frankincense  it  has  long  been  used  in  making 
incense,  perfumes,  holy  oils,  and  unguents  for  embalming. 
It  exudes  spontaneously,  as  a  yellow-white  oily  substance, 
from  perforations  or  cracks  in  the  cortical  layer  of  the 
trunk  or  branches  of  several  species  of  the  shrubby  thorn- 
like balsamodendrons.  The  best  sorts  are  in  irregular- 
shaped,  semi- translucent,  red-brown  tears,  or  masses  of 
tears,  which  deepen  in  colour  when  breathed  on.  They 
are  brittle,  and  easily  powdered ;  their  fracture  is  irregular, 
shining,  oily,  and  occasionally  dotted  with  opaque  white 
markings.  Myrrh  has  a  slightly  bitter,  acrid  taste,  and 
an  asfreeable  aromatic  odour.  When  heated,  it  softens, 
froths  up,  and  burns,  leaving  a  dark  spongy  ash.  Powdered 
with  water,  it  forms  an  emulsion,  but  it  readily  dissolves 
in  rectified  spirit.  It  consists  of  50  to  65  per  cent,  of 
soluble  gum,  chiefly  arabin ;  23  per  cent,  of  a  resin,  myrrhin, 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  acetic  acid,  and  2  per  cent, 
of  a  pale  yellow  volatile  oil,  myrrhol  (C\oH^^O),  isomeric 
with  thymol  and  carrol,  and  some  bitter  substances. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Its  antiseptic  volatile  oil  and  slightly 
irritant  resin  render  myrrh  a  topical  stimulant.  When 
swallowed  it  increases  the  secretions  of  the  gastro-intestinal 
glands,  producing  stomachic,  carminative,  and  mild  laxative 
effects.  During  elimination  it  stimulates  the  mucous  lining 
of  the  respiratory  and  urinary  tracts,  and  is  hence  prescribed 
as  a  disinfectant,  expectorant,  and  diuretic.     It  is  sometimes 


574  PEPPERS 

used  as  an  antiseptic,  mildly  astringent  vulnerary,  and  a 
flavouring  agent.  It  resembles  the  fragrant  gum  resin  oli- 
banum,  produced  by  several  species  of  Boswellia,  and  the 
concrete  resin  of  the  Elemi  tree  imported  from  Manilla. 
It  is  less  stimulant  than  the  balsams  and  foetid  gum  resins. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  5ij-  5  sheep  and  pigs, 
5ss.  to  5i- ;  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.,  repeated  several  times 
daily,  in  bolus,  decoction,  or  tincture,  used  with  vegetable 
tonics,  or  with  aloes.  The  tincture  of  myrrh  is  thus  pre- 
pared : — Macerate  4  ounces  of  myrrh  in  16  ounces  of  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.),  for  seven  days  in  a  closed  vessel ;  shake  fre- 
quently, filter,  and  add  sufficient  alcohol  to  make  one  pint. 


PEPPERS 

The  black  and  white  peppers  in  daily  domestic  use  are 
obtained  from  the  brown  wrinkled  berries  of  an  East  Indian 
perennial  climbing  plant — the  Piper  nigrum,  of  the  natural 
order  Piperaceae.  They  are  imported  from  the  Malabar 
coast,  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  pendulous  spike,  bearing  twenty  to  thirty 
berries,  is  gathered  as  it  begins  to  redden,  shortly  before 
ripening,  and  is  dried  in  the  sun.  The  berries  rubbed  off, 
and  ground  without  separating  their  outer  covering,  yield 
black  pepper.  To  prepare  the  milder  white  pepper,  the 
best  and  soundest  ripe  berries  are  steeped  in  water,  and 
stripped  of  their  pungent  outer  covering  before  they  are 
ground.  Long  pepper,  the  produce  of  Chavica  Koxburghi, 
is  brought  from  Singapore  and  Batavia,  and  consists  of 
small,  closely-attached  berries,  arranged  on  cylindrical  grey 
spadices  one  or  two  inches  long. 

The  peppers  when  ground  have  a  hot,  pungent,  spicy 
taste,  and  owe  their  properties  to  1*6  to  2'2  per  cent,  of 
a  volatile  oil — isomeric  with  oil  of  turpentine  (Cj^H^p),  a 
soft,  pungent  resin,  and  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  colourless, 
crystallisable,  neutral  piperine  (Cj^Hj^NOg),  which  is  isomeric 
with  morphine,  and  when  boiled  with  caustic  potash  yields 
an  active  oily  alkaloid,  piperidiuc  (C^H^jN). 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  575 

Cubebs,  or  Cubeba,  is  tlie  dried,  partially  ripened  fruit 
of  the  Piper  Cubeba,  cultivated  in  Java  and  other  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  berries  are  stalked,  and 
lighter  coloured  than  those  of  common  pepper,  are  globular, 
rough,  and  wrinkled,  with  a  strong  odour,  and  pungent, 
aromatic,  bitter  taste.  They  contain  a  volatile  oil,  a  resin, 
and  the  neutral  crystalline  cubebin,  which  is  devoid  of  any 
marked  action. 

Piper  angustifolium,  a  shrub  found  in  moist  regions 
throughout  Brazil  and  Peru,  yields  matico  leaves,  much 
used  in  America  as  a  styptic  dressing,  and  also  occasionally 
administered  for  the  arrest  of  internal  haemorrhage. 

Pimenta,  pimento,  Jamaica  pepper,  or  allspice,  closely 
resembles  the  true  peppers;  is  the  dried,  unripe  berry  of 
Pimenta  officinalis,  an  evergreen  West  Indian  tree  of  the 
natural  family  Myrtace^e.  The  berries  are  about  the  size 
of  those  of  the  Piper  nigrum,  have  the  same  penetrating 
aromatic  odour,  and  hot,  pungent  taste,  but  are  more 
truly  aromatic  and  less  acrid.  They  contain  an  acrid  fixed 
oil,  and  about  6  per  cent,  of  volatile  oil,  with  traces  of 
an  alkaloid,  having  the  odour  of  conine  (Fliickiger).  Oil 
of  pimento  contains  about  70  per  cent,  of  aphenol,  eugenol, 
and  is  sometimes  substituted  for  oil  of  cloves. 

Capsicum — the  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Capsicum  minimum — 
is  also  known  as  Chili  pepper,  chillies,  Guinea  or  pod  pepper. 
The  red  pods  are  tilled  with  numerous  small  round  or  ovoid 
red-brown  seeds.  Both  pericarp  and  seeds  are  pungent,  and 
when  ground  constitute  the  familiar  Cayenne  pepper,  which 
owes  its  pungent  acridity  and  irritant  properties  to  an  acrid 
volatile  substance,  capsaicin  (C9Hi^02),  and  an  alkaloid, 
capsicine,  resembling  conine  in  odour. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  peppers  are  irritants,  stimulating' 
stomachics,  carminatives,  and  rubefacients.  Large  doses, 
especiall}'  in  carnivora  and  omnivora,  are  irritant  poisons, 
inflaming  the  alimentary  and  sometimes  also  the  urino- 
genital  mucous  membranes.  That  they  are  especially 
poisonous  to  pigs  is  a  popular  error.  ProjDerly  regulated 
doses  promote  salivary  and  gastric  secretions,  are  stomachic 
and  carminative,  and  during  their  excretion  stimulate  the 


576  GINGER 

urino-genital  mucous  membrane.  Rubbed  into  the  skin 
they  cause  redness,  irritation,  and  swelling.  The  several 
peppers  differ  in  the  intensity  of  their  action.  The  black 
is  more  active  than  the  white  and  long  peppers,  which  are 
of  nearly  equal  strength.  Pimento  is  less  active,  while 
capsicum  is  more  irritant  than  black  pepper.  In  virtue 
of  its  stimulant  effect,  and  its  rendering  the  urine  anti- 
septic, cubebs  checks  irritation  and  discharges  from  the 
urino-genital  mucous  membrane. 

Black  pepper  (the  variety  chiefly  used  in  veterinary  prac- 
tice) is  administered  in  simple  indigestion,  and  for  obviating 
the  disagreeable  taste  and  nauseating  effects  of  various  drugs. 
It  is  not  now  given  as  a  sialogogue,  nor  for  the  object  of 
increasing  sexual  appetite,  which,  when  defective,  may 
usually  be  restored,  not  by  irritating  drugs,  but  by  measures 
which  improve  general  vigour.  It  ought  not  to  be  used  for 
blistering  ointments,  or  for  setons,  nor  introduced  into  the 
rectum  of  horses  exposed  for  sale — a  barbarous  practice, 
apt  to  induce  serious  intestinal  irritation. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  black  pepper,  as  a  stomachic,  horses  take 
about  5i- ;  cattle,  5ij ;  sheep  and  swine,  grs.  x.  to  5ss. ;  dogs, 
grs.  V.  to  grs.  x.,  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day,  given  in 
bolus,  dissolved  in  water  or  spirit,  or  suspended  in  well-boiled 
gruel.  The  tincture  of  capsicum  is  made  with  one  of  capsi- 
cum and  twenty  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.). 

GINGER 

Zingiber.    The  scraped  and  dried  rhizome  of  Zingiber  offici- 
nale (B.P.).     Nat  Orel. — Zingiberaceae. 

The  Zingiber  officinale,  grown  in  many  tropical  countries, 
has  a  biennial,  creeping,  fleshy,  and  nodulous  rhizome,  which 
gives  ofi'  numerous  descending  short  radicles,  with  several 
ascending  annual  leafy  stems,  reaching  three  or  four  feet  in 
height,  invested  with  alternate  elliptical  leaves,  and  termi- 
nated by  spikes  and  racemes  of  purple  flowers.  For  making 
green  or  preserved  ginger,  the  rhizomes  are  gathered  while 
still  soft  and  juicy,  and  Avhen  about  three  months  old.  For 
other  purposes  they  are  taken  up  when  about  a  year  old, 


AN    AROMATIC    STIMULANT  677 

when  the  aerial  stems  have  withered,  but  while  the  rhizome 
is  still  plump  and  soft.  They  are  scalded  to  check  vegeta- 
tion, usually  scraped  to  remove  the  brown  wrinkled  epider- 
mis, and  dried  in  the  sun. 

Properties. — Several  sorts  are  recognised.  The  Jamaica, 
in  plump,  flat,  pale  pieces  or  races,  the  bark  stripped  of 
epidermis,  producing  a  light-coloured  powder  of  superior 
quality;  Malabar  or  Cochin  China,  a  little  darker,  but 
usually  good  ;  Bengal  and  African,  imported  both  coated 
and  uncoated,  and  generally  cheap  and  excellent ;  Barbados, 
in  short  thick  races,  retaining  its  brown  corrugated  epider- 
mis. The  unstripped  descriptions  are  sometimes  termed 
black  gingers.  The  several  varieties  are  in  flat,  irregular- 
lobed,  knotted,  zigzag  pieces,  two  to  four  inches  in  length, 
externally  pale  yellow,  striated,  and  fibrous,  breaking  with  a 
mealy,  short,  somewhat  fibrous  fracture,  having  a  strong, 
agreeable,  aromatic  odour,  a  warm,  pungent  taste,  and  dis- 
solving in  water  and  alcohol. 

Ginger  owes  its  taste  to  a  pungent  resin,  its  aroma  to  a 
volatile  oil,  and  its  medicinal  and  flavouring  properties  to 
both  constituents,  which  are  chiefly  found  in  the  delicate 
felted  layer  of  skin  lying  between  the  starchy,  mealy  paren- 
chyma and  the  brown,  horny,  external  covering.  As  a  condi- 
ment and  medicine  Great  Britain  annually  imports  about 
800  tons  of  ginger. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Ginger  is  an  aromatic  stimulant,  and 
is  used  as  a  stomachic  and  carminative  for  all  patients, 
notably  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

Blown  into  the  nostrils  it  increases  nasal  discharge; 
chewed,  it  reflexly  augments  the  flow  of  saliva ;  administered 
internally,  it  promotes  gastric  secretion,  digestion,  and  appe- 
tite. It  is  prescribed  in  atonic  dyspepsia,  often  along  with 
antacids  and  laxatives.  Conjoined  with  purgatives,  it  dimin- 
ishes their  tendency  to  nauseate  and  gripe,  and  also  somewhat 
hastens  their  effects. 

Doses,  etc. — For  the  horse,  3iv.  to  §i ;  for  cattle,  §i.  to  §ij  ; 
for  sheep,  3i.  to  5ij. ;  for  pigs,  5ss.  to  5i. ;  for  dogs,  grs.  x.  to 
grs.  XXX.  A  bolus  is  made  with  any  suitable  excipient ;  an 
infusion  is  used  sometimes  sweetened  with  treacle  or  sugar; 

2o 


578  CINNAMOX 

the  B.P.  tincture  is  prepared  with  two  ounces  powdered 
ginger  to  a  pint  of  rectified  spirit  by  maceration  and  sub- 
sequent percolation.  A  syrup  of  ginger,  made  with  a  strong 
tincture  and  the  B.P.  simple  syrup,  is  occasionally  prescribed 
An  oleo-resin,  obtained  from  ginger,  and  known  as  gingerin 
may  be  substituted  for  ginger  in  dispensing  purgatives. 


CINNAMON 

CiNNAMOMi  Cortex.  Cinnamon  Bark.  The  dried  inner 
bark  of  shoots  from  the  truncated  stocks  of  Cinna- 
momum  zeylanicum.  Imported  from  Ceylon,  and  dis- 
tinguished in  commerce  as  Ceylon  cinnamon  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Laurineaj. 

CiNNAMOMi  OleUxM.  The  oil  distilled  from  cinnamon  bark 
(B.P.). 

The  bark  occurs  in  rolled  quills,  is  thin  and  brittle,  yellow- 
brown  externally,  darker  brown  on  its  inner  surface,  with  a 
fragrant  odour,  and  a  warm,  sweet,  aromatic  taste.  Besides 
mannite,  resin,  and  other  vegetable  constituents,  the  bark 
contains  tannic  and  cinnamic  acids,  but  its  aroma  and 
medicinal  properties  depend  upon  the  presence  of  about 
one  per  cent,  of  a  volatile  oil  (CgH-OH),  which,  when  fresh, 
is  bright  yellow,  but  becomes  cherry- red  when  kept.  Its 
constituents  are  eugenol  (also  found  in  cloves),  cinnamic 
aldehyde,  and  a  terpene.  An  inferior  oil  is  extracted  from 
the  leaves. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Cinnamon  bark  is  aromatic,  carmina- 
tive, and  astringent,  and  is  used  for  flavouring. 

The  oil  resembles  that  of  anise,  caraway,  coriander,  pepper- 
mint, and  of  other  Umbellifene  and  Labiatre.  It  is  antiseptic, 
carminative,  stimulant,  and  haemostatic,  and  is  useful  in  all 
animals  affected  with  indis^estion,  flatulence,  or  diarrhoea.  Mr. 
Richard  W.  Burke,  A. V.D.,  thus  testifies  to  its  merits :  'After  a 
long  trial  I  have  found  there  is  no  more  efficacious  remedy  in 
the  treatment  of  diarrhoea  in  the  dog,  especially  in  that  form  of 
the  disease  which  is  noticed  during  the  rains  in  India.  It  will 
check  diarrhoea  when  opium,  chlorodyne,  and  other  remedies 


ASAFCETIDA  579 

usually  employed  have  been  found  to  produce  no  effect  in 
allaying  the  symptoms.  I  have  also  employed  the  tincture 
of  cinnamon  in  doses  of  one  or  two  drachms  for  smaller 
animals.  It  is  nearly,  if  not  equally,  as  rapid  in  its  effects 
as  the  oil  of  cinnamon  bark '  (Veterinarian,  February  1888), 
The  tincture  is  made  with  4  ounces  of  bark  to  a  pint  of 
alcohol  (70  per  cent). 

Doses,  etc. — of  the  bark,  horses  take  5iv.  to  §i. ;  dogs,  5ss. 
to  3i-  Of  the  oil,  horses  take  TT^xx.  to  fgi. ;  dogs,  TTii.  to  71[iv, 
administered  on  sugar,  or  in  syrup,  mucilage,  or  spirit  and 
water. 


ASAFCETIDA 

A  Gum  Resin  obtained  by  incision  from  the  root  of  Ferula 
foetida,  and  probably  other  species.  Imported  from 
Bombay  (B.P.).     JSfat.  Ore?.— Umbellifera3. 

The  Ferula  foetida,  or  Narthex  asafcetida,  has  a  massive 
perennial  root,  black  externally,  white  within.  When  the 
plant  is  four  years  old,  the  leaves  and  stems  are  removed,  and, 
six  weeks  later,  a  slice  is  cut  from  the  upper  part  of  the  root ; 
the  slicing  is  repeated  several  times  at  intervals,  when  the 
plant  is  exhausted,  after  yielding  from  a  half  pound  to  two 
pounds  of  a  foetid  milky  juice,  which  concretes.  The  yellow- 
brown  tears  are  mixed  with  soft  earth  and  made  into 
irregular  masses,  which  are  red-brown  externally,  and  within 
are  opaque  and  milk-white,  but  gradually  change  to  a  dull 
yellow-brown.  Asafcetida  has  a  strong,  persistent,  alliaceous 
odour,  and  a  bitter,  acrid  taste.  It  is  pulverised  with 
difficulty,  forms  an  emulsion  Avith  water,  is  dissolved  in 
rectified  spirit,  and  also  in  potash  and  ammonia.  Its  active 
constituents  are  resin,  gum,  and  about  5  per  cent,  of  an 
acrid  volatile  oil  containing  allyl  sulphide  (03115)28.  A  good 
sample  of  asafcetida  should  contain  about  65  per  cent,  of 
matter  soluble  in  rectified  spirit. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Asafcetida  is  a  mild  stimulant,  expec- 
torant, carminative,  antispasmodic,  and  vermifuge.  It  is 
speedily  absorbed,  its  disagreeable  odour  indicating  its 
general  distribution;   it  is  eliminated  from  the  pulmonary 


580  ARNICA 

mucous  surface,  the  skin,  and  kidneys,  gently  stimulating 
their  secretions.  Professor  Robertson  used  asafcetida,  with 
aloes  and  nux  vomica,  in  constipation  and  torpidity  of  the 
bowels  in  horses,  and  in  flatulent  colic  prescribed  the  tinc- 
ture along  with  oil  of  linseed  and  of  turpentine.  The 
spiritus  ammoniae  foetidus,  made  with  li  ounce  asafuetida, 
2  ounces  strong  solution  of  anmionia,  and  sufficient  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.)  to  make  one  pint  of  the  spirit ;  and  the  tinc- 
ture of  asafcetida,  are  sometimes  prescribed  in  colic  and 
chronic  cough.  Like  other  substances  containing  odorous 
volatile  oils,  asafcetida  is  a  vermifuge,  but  its  action  is 
uncertain.  It  is  allied  in  some  of  its  actions  to  valerian, 
and  to  sumbul,  and  closely  resembles  the  two  gum-resins, 
ammoniacum  and  galbanum,  which  are  scarcely  so  active, 
and  are  chiefly  used  for  making  charges  and  plasters. 

Doses,  etc.^Horses  take  gij-  to  5iv. ;  cattle,  §j. ;  sheep,  5i- ; 
and  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xx.  It  is  given  several  times  a 
day ;  may  be  made  into  bolus  with  camphor  and  ammonium 
carbonate ;  is  frequently  prescribed  in  draught  with  watery 
or  alcoholic  solution  of  ammonia ;  and,  to  prevent  their 
misappropriation,  it  may  be  added  to  alcoholic  and  ethereal 
preparations  intended  for  veterinary  patients. 


ARNICA 

Arnica  Rhizoma.  The  dried  rhizome  and  roots  of  Arnica 
montana  (B.P.).  Leopard's  Bane.  Mountain  Tobacco. 
Nat.  Ord. — Composita3. 

Arnica  montana  is  a  perennial,  growing  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  and  also  in  Asia  and 
America.  It  has  a  hairy  stem  about  one  foot  high,  com- 
posite yellow  flowers,  used  in  America  for  making  the  tinc- 
ture, obovate  leaves,  and  a  cylindrical,  contorted,  brown  root, 
one  to  three  inches  long,  two  or  three  lines  thick,  distin- 
guished by  a  peculiar,  aromatic,  offensive  odour,  and  a  bitter, 
peppery,  acrid  taste.  It  contains  mucin,  extractive  matter, 
two  volatile  oils,  and  an  active,  bitter,  yellow,  amorphous 
principle,  arnicin. 


ACTIONS   AND    USES  581 

Actions  and  Uses. — Arnica  is  irritant  and  stimulant,  has 
been  credited  with  alterative  properties,  and  is  used  exter- 
nally as  a  stimulant  for  strains,  bruises,  and  wounds. 

Viborg  gave  a  horse  six  drachms  of  the  flowers  in  infusion, 
and  records  production  of  quickened  circulation  and  diuresis. 
Professor  Williams  recommends  one  to  two  ounces  of  the 
tincture  in  congestion  of  the  lungs  and  lymphangitis  in 
horses,  stating  that  it  stimulates  cutaneous  circulation. 
Other  practitioners  have  administered  it  in  the  second 
stages  of  pleurisy,  in  weakness  of  the  loins,  in  muscular 
strains,  and  in  rheumatism.  Mr.  Dollar,  London,  has,  hoAv- 
ever,  repeatedly  tried  it,  without  benefit,  in  horses  suffering 
alike  from  acute  and  chronic  rheumatism.  In  the  several 
forms  of  rheumatic  lameness  in  dogs,  and  in  stiffness  pro- 
duced from  over-exertion,  it  has  been  employed  empirically 
both  externally  and  internally.  It  is  a  favourite  homoeopathic 
remedy. 

Externally,  arnica  is  a  popular  vulnerary  for  strains, 
bruises,  and  wounds,  and  especially  for  broken  knees  and 
sore  shoulders.  An  ounce  of  the  tincture  is  dissolved  in 
twelve  to  twenty  ounces  of  cold  water.  A  more  efficient 
lotion  is  made  with  a  drachm  of  arnica  tincture  and  one  to 
two  drachms  of  zinc  sulphate  or  lead  acetate,  diluted  with 
ten  or  twelve  ounces  of  water.  For  painful  or  irritable 
wounds  the  tincture  is  employed  with  chloroform,  bella- 
donna, or  laudanum,  diluted  with  water  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. Along  with  liberal  feeding  and  tonics,  a  drop 
of  arnica  tincture  placed  daily  within  the  eyelids  is  one  of 
the  remedies  for  those  troublesome  ulcerations  of  the  cornea 
which  affect  weakly  dogs  recovering  from  distemper.  Amica 
has,  however,  been  over-estimated ;  the  evidence  of  its  value 
as  an  internal  remedy  requires  confirmation,  while  the  heal- 
ing properties  ascribed  to  it  appear  to  depend  on  the  other 
drugs,  spirit,  or  cold  water  with  which  it  is  generally 
used. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  f3iv.  to  fgi.  of  the  tincture ; 
cattle,  double  that  quantity ;  dogs  TTLv.  to  "n^viij.,  mixed  with 
water,  ale,  or  gruel.  The  flowers,  leaves,  and  root  are 
occasionally  used   powdered,   especially  in  poultices ;    the 


582  ANISE 

tincture  is  made  with  au  ounce  of  the  root  in  powder 
(No.  40)  to  a  pint  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.).  Watery  infu- 
sions can  be  of  little  efficacy,  for  neither  the  arnicin  nor 
volatile  oil  is  soluble  in  water.  Arnica  opodeldoc  consists  of 
white  soap  four  parts,  rectified  spirit  ten ;  tincture  of  arnica 
five  and  camphor  one.     It  is  used  as  a  local  stimulant. 


ANISE 

Anisi  Fructus.  Anise  fruit.  The  dried  ripe  fruit  of  Pim- 
pinella  Anisum.    Nat.  Ord. — Umbelliferse. 

Oleum  Anisi.  Oil  of  Anise.  The  oil  distilled  from  anise 
fruit ;  or  from  the  fruit  of  the  Star  anise,  lUicium 
Verum  (B.P.). 

The  natural  order  Umbelliferse  yields  many  aromatic 
fruits,  such  as  anise,  caraway,  coriander,  dill,  and  fennel,  as 
well  as  the  aromatic  gum-resins,  asafoetida,  galbanum,  and 
ammoniacum.  These  aromatic  umbelliferous  fruits,  like  the 
fruits,  leaves,  and  other  parts  of  various  plants  of  such  orders 
as  the  Myrtacese,  Labiates,  and  Coniferse,  owe  their  medicinal 
value  chiefly  to  their  yielding  volatile  oils.  These  oils 
possess  certain  properties  and  actions  in  common,  and  the 
student  should  be  familiar  with  their  group  characters. 

Volatile  oils  are  readily  diffusible ;  their  in-contact  effects 
are  produced,  not  only  when  they  are  applied  topically,  but 
when  they  are  absorbed  and  distributed  in  the  blood  stream. 
When  concentrated  they  are  local  irritants;  Avhen  diluted 
they  paralyse  peripheral  nerve-endings,  and  hence  are 
anodyne,  carminative,  and  antispasmodic.  They  are  also 
expectorant,  antiseptic,  and  parasiticide.  When  absorbed 
they  stimulate  circulation  and  secretion.  As  wnth  other 
stimulants  largo  doses  paralyse  the  heart.  They  reduce 
inordinate  reflex  activity  of  the  spinal  cord.  They  are 
eliminated  chiefly— (1)  by  the  respirator}'  mucous  mem- 
brane, increasing  bronchial  secretion,  and  counteracting 
septic  conditions  of  the  membrane ;  and  (2)  by  the  kidneys, 
in  moderate  doses  producing  diuresis  and  antisepsis  through- 


MEDICINAL    USES  583 

out  the  urinary  tract,  but  in  large  doses  causing  over- 
stimulation and  strangury. 

Anise  is  chiefly  imported  from  Spain,  Germany,  and 
Southern  Russia.  It  is  an  ovoid,  oblong,  grey-brown  fruit, 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  covered  with  minute 
hairs.  Like  other  fruits  of  this  order,  it  is  separable  into 
two  symmetrical  mericarps,  each  of  which  is  encircled  by 
five  slender  ridges,  while  its  transverse  section  exhibits 
about  fifteen  vittse,  which  elaborate  the  oil. 

Both  anise  fruits  yield  about  5  per  cent,  of  a  mixture,  in 
nearly  equal  proportions,  of  a  fixed  oil,  and  a  volatile  anethol 
or  camphor-like  body,  common  to  the  Umbelliferse,  and  some 
other  plants,  and  having  the  formula  C^qR^^O.  It  is  believed 
to  be  a  phenol  derivative,  with  some  of  its  hydrogen  atoms 
displaced  by  methyl  and  allyl,  and  having  the  rational 
formula  CgH^.  C3H5.  OCH3.  It  is  colourless,  but  becomes 
yellow  on  keeping ;  exhibits  intensely  the  characteristic 
aromatic  odour  and  taste  of  the  fruit,  and  is  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  ether.  The  oil  from  the  pimpinella  solidifies 
at  from  50°  to  60°  Fahr. ;  that  from  the  star-anise  at  about 
36°  Fahr. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Anise  is  an  aromatic  stimulant,  stom- 
achic, and  carminative.  It  is  used  to  relieve  indigestion  and 
flatulence,  to  communicate  an  agreeable  flavour  to  many 
medicines,  and  to  diminish  the  griping  of  purgatives. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  receive  about  §i. ;  cattle,  §i.  to  gij. ; 
sheep  and  swine,  5ij-  to  5ii]-5  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  1.,  given 
powdered,  repeated  several  times  a  day,  often  conjoined  with 
ginger  or  other  aromatics,  and  conveniently  administered  in 
ale  or  in  spirit  and  water.  Oil  of  anise,  like  oil  of  caraway, 
or  coriander,  is  a  diffusible  stimulant,  antiseptic,  carminative, 
and  antispasmodic.  For  such  purposes  cheaper  remedies 
are  generally,  however,  employed ;  but  it  is  occasionally  used 
as  a  flavouring  ingredient,  more  especially  for  ball  masses, 
and,  mixed  with  a  little  spirit  and  bland  oil,  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  lice  in  pet  dogs  and  other  small  animals. 

Caraway,  cardamoms,  coriander,  fennel,  and  fenugreek 
resemble  anise  in  their  actions  and  uses,  and  may  be  given 
in  similar  doses.    These  seeds  are  sometimes  used  by  feeders 


584  EUCALYPTUS 

of  pigs,  sheep,  and  cattle,  and  by  waggoners  and  others,  for 
improving  the  coat  and  condition  of  their  charges.  Fenu- 
greek especially  is  prized  for  such  purposes,  is  a  constituent 
of  various  'drinks/  and,  with  ground  peas,  maize  meal,  locust 
bean,  and  linseed  meal,  forms  several  vaunted  condiments  or 
'  nourishing  foods.' 


EUCALYPTUS 

Oleum  Eucalypti.  Oil  of  Eucalyptus.  The  oil  distilled 
from  the  fresh  leaves  of  Eucalyptus  Globulus,  and  other 
species  of  Eucalyptus  (B.P.).     CjaHgoO. 

Eucalypti  Gummi.  Eucalyptus  gum,  a  ruby  -  coloured 
exudation  from  the  bark  of  Eucalyptus  rostrata,  and 
some  other  species  of  Eucalyptus.  Imported  from 
Australia  (B.P.).     Nat  Ord. — Myrtaceaj. 

The  leaves  and  flower-buds  of  various  Myrtaceae,  such  as 
cloves,  pimento,  myrtle,  and  cajuput,  as  well  as  eucalyptus 
yield,  when  distilled,  aromatic,  antiseptic,  volatile  oils. 
The  rapidly-growing  eucalyptus  trees,  indigenous  to  the 
Australian  colonies,  are  now  largely  cultivated  in  many 
temperate  regions  with  the  view  of  preventing  malarial 
fevers. 

The  dried  leaves  yield  about  70  per  cent,  of  eucalyptol,  a 
colourless  or  pale,  straw-coloured,  liquid  volatile  oil,  darken- 
ing by  exposure,  of  an  aromatic  odour  and  spicy,  pungent  taste, 
and  soluble  in  about  its  own  weight  of  alcohol.  Its  antiseptic 
powers  increase  as  it  undergoes  oxidation  by  keeping.  Other 
constituents  are  a  crystallisable  resin,  tannin,  and  an  oil, 
cineol,  which  crystallises  at  30°  Fahr. 

Eucalyptus,  or  red  gum,  occurs  in  grains  or  masses.  It  is 
tough,  and  has  a  very  astringent  taste.  Cold  water  dissolves 
80  to  90  per  cent.,  forming  a  neutral  solution.  It  is  soluble 
in  alcohol  (00  per  cent.).  Red  gum  contains  kino-tannic 
acid,  catechin,  and  catechol.  It  resembles  kino,  which  is  less 
soluble  in  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  oil  possesses  in  marked  degree  the 


ACTIONS    AND    USES  585 

group  characters  of  volatile  oils.  When  freely  used  in 
concentrated  form  it  is  an  in-contact  irritant.  It  is  power- 
fully antiseptic  and  disinfectant,  destroying  the  lower  forms 
of  animal  life.  Locally  applied  it  impairs  sensibility.  It  is 
readily  absorbed,  increasing  cardiac  action,  and  is  hence  a 
stimulant  and  antispasmodic ;  and  as  it  passes  out  of  the 
body  it  increases  the  activity  of  the  excreting  channels, 
chiefly  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane  and  the  kidneys. 
Its  antiseptic  properties  confer  some  anti-malarial  action; 
but  it  cannot,  as  has  been  suggested,  take  the  place  of  the 
cinchona  alkaloids. 

Eucalyptus  oil  is  used  as  a  stimulant  and  antiseptic  gargle, 
inhalation,  and  spray  to  diminish  excessive  quantity  and  foetor 
of  nasal,  pharyngeal,  and  bronchial  secretions.  It  is  adminis- 
tered in  protracted  cases  of  strangles,  influenza,  and  purpura 
in  horses,  septicaemia  in  all  animals,  and  in  distemper  in 
dogs — in  such  cases  being  usefully  combined  with  quinine, 
ether,  and  alcohol.  Arloing  and  Thomas  state  that  solu- 
tions containing  one  yw^h  part  destroy  the  virus  of  black- 
quarter.  As  an  antiseptic  it  is  three  times  as  powerful  as 
carbolic  acid,  for  Avhich  it  is  sometimes  substituted  in  sur- 
gical cases.  Eucalyptus  gauze  is  unbleached  cotton  im- 
pregnated with  one  part  oil  of  eucalyptus,  three  of  dammar 
resin,  and  three  of  parafiin  wax.  Eucalyptus  wool  contains 
5  per  cent,  of  the  oil.  In  foetid  uterine  discharges,  eucalyptol 
injections  or  pessaries  are  useful.  The  gum  is  astringent, 
and  styptic.  As  a  desiccant,  mixed  with  starch  and  zinc 
oxide,  it  is  used  for  superficial  wounds.  Occasionally  red 
gum  is  prescribed  for  diarrhoea  in  dogs. 

Doses,  etc.,  of  the  oil. — Horses  and  cattle  take  fgi.  to  f5iv.; 
dogs,  Tf[ii.  to  7I[x.,  in  diluted  spirits,  mucilage,  or  milk.  For 
parasitic  skin  affections  and  other  external  purposes  it  is 
dissolved  in  oil  or  cocoa  batter,  and  is  often  usefully  con- 
joined with  iodoform.  Eulyptol,  consisting  of  equal  parts 
of  eucalyptol,  carbolic  acid,  and  salicylic  acid,  has  been 
recommended  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic. 


586  JUNIPER 


JUNIPER 


Oleum  Juniperi.    Oil  of  juniper.    The  oil  distilled  from  the 
full-grown,  unripe,  green  fruit  of  Juniperus  communis. 

Spiritus  Juniperi.     Spirit  of  Juniper.     A  solution  of  the 
oil  in  alcohol  (90  per.  cent.)  (B.P.).    Nat.  OrcZ.— Coniferse. 

The  junipers  are  shrubby  evergreen  trees,  growing  in  most 
temperate  countries.  Their  leaves  are  dark-green,  linear 
and  arranged  three  in  a  whorl.  Juniper  berries  are 
bluish-purple,  furrowed,  of  the  size  and  appearance  of 
currants;  have  an  aromatic,  terebinthinate  odour,  and  a 
warm,  sweet  taste,  followed  by  bitterness.  For  flavouring 
gin  about  two  pounds  of  the  berries  are  added  to  one  hundred 
gallons  of  spirit.  They  owe  their  distinctive  properties  to 
about  2  per  cent,  of  a  mixture  of  two  volatile  oils,  one  of 
which  is  polymeric  with  terpene  (CigH^g). 

The  fresh  and  dried  tops  of  Juniperus  sabina  yield  oil  of 
savin,  which  is  sometimes  used  as  an  ecbolic.  From  the 
wood  of  the  Juniperus  oxycedrus,  and  occasionally  from 
that  of  the  communis,  the  brown  empyreumatic  oil  of  cade 
is  got  by  dry  distillation ;  is  used  in  France  and  other  con- 
tinental countries  for  most  of  the  purposes  of  oil  of  tar,  and 
is  recommended  in  scaly  skin  diseases. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  fruit,  oil,  and  spirit  of  juniper  are 
topical  irritants,  and  when  absorbed  are  stimulant,  stomachic, 
carminative,  and  diuretic.  They  resemble  the  turpentines, 
and  thuja,  or  arbor  vita?. 

Two  ounces  of  the  berries  given  to  horses  and  cattle  have 
little  notable  effect;  but  three  or  four  oimces  induce  diuresis. 
The  fruit  and  oil  are  occasionally  given  as  diuretics, 
stomachics,  and  carminatives  in  indigestion  and  flatulence, 
and  are  stated  to  diminish  the  evil  ett'ects  of  bad  fodder  and 
marshy  pastures,  and  to  aid  alike  the  prevention  and  cure  of 
ascites  in  sheep.  The  oil  mixed  with  lard  and  applied  to 
exposed  wounds,  prevents  irritation  from  flies. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  fruit,  as  a  stomachic,  horses  and  cattle 
take  §i.  to  §ij. ;  sheep,  5ij-  to  3iv. ;  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xL, 


PEPPERMINT — MENTHOL  587 

repeated  twice  a  day,  in  electuary  or  bolus.  The  fruit  is 
readily  eaten  by  most  animals,  especially  by  sheep.  A 
decoction,  made  from  the  fruit,  is  occasionally  prescribed, 
and  also  used  as  an  external  stimulant.  As  a  diuretic  the 
oil  is  the  best  form.  Horses  and  cattle  take  3i-  to  5ij- ;  dogs, 
ITLv.  to  TT[x.,  which  may  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  three 
hours  till  diuresis  is  induced.  Of  the  spirit,  as  a  carminative 
and  stomachic,  cattle  and  horses  take  5iv.  to  §j. ;  sheep,  5ij- 
to  5iv. ;  dogs,  Tl^xx.  to  5jv  i^i  oil,  or  mixed  with  other 
medicines. 


PEPPERMINT 

Oleum  Mentha  Piperita.  Oil  of  Peppermint.  The  oil 
distilled  from  the  fresh  flowering  peppermint,  Mentha 
piperita  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Labiatge. 

The  natural  family  Labiatse  furnishes  peppermint,  spear- 
mint, pennyroyal,  lavender,  rosemary,  marjoram,  and 
thyme ;  and  from  these  plants,  when  fresh  flowering, 
aromatic,  antiseptic,  volatile  oils  are  obtained.  Similar  oils 
are  extracted  from  the  leaves  of  various  Myrtacese,  from  the 
petals  of  roses,  from  the  flowers  and  fruit  of  various  Rutacese, 
and  from  the  seeds  of  various  Umbelliferse. 

Of  the  Labiatse  volatile  oils  peppermint  is  the  most  com- 
monly used.  The  fresh  plant  yields  1  to  1-25  per  cent,  of  the 
colourless  or  pale  yellow  oil,  characterised  by  its  warm 
aromatic  taste  and  subsequent  sensation  of  coldness.  It 
consists  of  two  isomeric  oils — the  fluid  menthene  (C^^^Hj^), 
and  the  crystalline  menthol  (C\(jHjg-OH),  which  is  homologous 
with  thymol,  obtained  from  the  volatile  oil  of  thyme. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Oil  of  peppermint  is  a  typical  volatile 
oil;  it  is  an  antiseptic,  topical  stimulant  and  anesthetic, 
carminative,  antispasmodic,  and  parasiticide.  It  is  more 
active  than  the  oil  from  Mentha  viridis,  or  spearmint,  or  M. 
pulegium,  or  pennyroyal.  Diluted  solutions  arrest  the  de- 
velopment of  bacilli  as  eftectually  as  carbolic  acid,  or  euca- 
lyptus oil,  and  are  hence  used  as  dressings  for  wounds,  and 


588  CHAMOMILE    FLOWERS 

as  sprays  or  gargles  for  ulcerated  throat.  It  destroys  veget- 
able and  animal  parasites  infesting  the  skin.  After  stimu- 
lating, it  paralyses  the  ends  of  sensory  nerves  with  which  it 
is  brought  into  contact,  and  hence  relieves  gastro-intestinal, 
neuralgic,  and  other  pains.  Painful  surfaces  are  gently 
rubbed  with  a  pencil  of  menthol,  solution  being  promoted  by 
wetting  with  a  little  spirit.  Increased  ansesthesia  is  secured 
by  diluting  the  menthol  with  eight  or  ten  parts  of  ether,  or 
mixing  it  with  an  equal  part  of  thymol,  carbolic  acid,  or 
butyl  chloral-hydrate.  Peppermint  oil  is  used  to  prevent  the 
nausea  and  spasms  sometimes  produced  by  purgatives;  to 
flavour  medicinal  preparations  or  cover  their  unpalatable 
taste. 

Doses,  etc.,  of  the  oil — For  horses  and  cattle,  Tll^xx.  to  TT^xxx. ; 
for  dogs,  TTj^iii.  to  TH^v.,  given  on  a  piece  of  sugar  or  in  spirit 
and  water.  Peppermint  water  contains  one  of  oil  in  one 
thousand  of  water.  The  spirit  consists  of  one  part  of  oil  to 
nine  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 


CHAMOMILE  FLOWERS 

Anthemidis  Flores. — The  dried  expanded  flower-heads  of 
Anthemis  nobilis.  Collected  from  cultivated  plants 
(B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Compositse. 

Chamomile  floAvers  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  England,  are  gathered  during  dry  weather, 
exposed  for  a  short  time  on  trays  in  the  shade,  and  carefully 
stored  and  kept  very  dry.  Both  varieties,  but  especially  the 
single,  have  a  hot,  bitter  taste,  and  a  strong  aromatic  odour. 
They  contain  bitter  extractive  matter,  soluble  both  in  water 
and  alcohol ;  a  small  quantity  of  tannin  ;  traces  of  the  bitter 
anthemic  acid;  a  crystallisable,  soluble  base,  anthemine; 
and  060  to  080  per  cent,  of  volatile  oil,  obtained  by 
distillation.  The  oil  is  of  a  pale-blue  or  green  colour, 
gradually  becoming  yellow-brown,  and  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  esters,  chiefly  of  the  angelates  and  valerianates 
of  butyl  and  amyL 


VALERIAN  689 

Actions  and  Uses, — Chamomile  flowers  are  mildly  stimu- 
lant, aromatic,  stomachic,  and  carminative ;  full  doses 
produce  emesis  in  dogs.  The  infusion  is  sometimes  given  in 
atonic  dyspepsia  and  diarrhrea.  Horses  and  cattle  take  one  to 
two  ounces ;  calves,  sheep,  and  swine,  a  drachm  or  more.  The 
flowers  are  occasionally  used  for  fomentations  and  poultices. 
Like  other  volatile  oils,  that  of  chamomile  lowers  reflex 
irritability,  and  hence  is  useful  in  dyspepsia,  diarrhoea,  and 
spasmodic  cough. 


VALERIAN 

Valeriana  Rhizoma.  The  dried  rhizome  and  roots  of 
Valeriana  ofticinalis.  Collected  in  the  autumn  (B.P.). 
Nat.  Ord. — Valerianacete. 

The  officinal  valerian  consists  of  a  short,  yellow-brown, 
tuberous  rhizome,  about  the  thickness  of  the  little  finger, 
with  attached  radicles,  shrivelled,  brittle,  and  of  an  earthy- 
brown  colour.  It  has  a  penetrating  odour,  becoming  strong 
and  even  foetid  by  keeping,  and  a  camphoraceous,  unpleasant, 
rather  bitter  taste.  It  contains  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  a  strong- 
smelling,  active  volatile  oil,  isomeric  with  oil  of  turpentine 
(CioHjg),  and  the  oily,  acrid  valerianic  acid  (C^Hg.COgH), 
which  is  also  present  in  the  berries  of  the  guelder  rose,  in 
cod-liver  oil,  and  decaying  cheese,  and  may  be  obtained 
artificially  by  distilling  amylic  alcohol,  and  treating  the 
distillate  with  caustic  alkali. 

Actions  and  Uses, — Valerian  and  its  volatile  oil  are  topical 
irritants,  stimulants,  and  antispasmodics.  In  large  doses 
they  paralyse  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  lower  blood- 
pressure,  and  slow  the  pulse.  A'alerianic  acid  has  no  special 
stimulant  action,  but  is  said  to  resemble  acetic  acid.  The 
valerianates  accordingly  do  not  exhibit  the  action  of  valerian 
or  of  the  volatile  oil. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Valerian  resembles  asafoetida,  the  other 
gum-resins,  camphor,  and  sumbul  or  musk-root  imported 
from  Russia  and  India,  and  produced  by  an  umbelli- 
ferous plant.     It  has  little  effect  on  horses  or  cattle,  even  in 


590  TURPENTINES 

doses  of  several  ounces.  It  is  occasionally  given  to  dogs  to 
allay  nervous  irritability,  and  relieve  chorea  and  epilepsy ; 
but  little  dependence  can  be  placed  on  it.  It  attracts  and 
excites  cats,  developing  by  its  suggestive  odour  their 
amatory  propensities.  The  volatile  oil  abates  the  convul- 
sions of  strychnine  poisoning,  is  an  anthelmintic,  and  is 
excreted  by  the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys. 

Doses,  etc. — Used  for  horses  or  cattle,  valerian  may  be 
given  in  quantities  of  §j.  to  §ij.;  for  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  5j-;  for 
cats,  grs.  V.  to  grs.  xxx.,  given  in  powder  or  infusion  several 
times  daily,  conjoined  with  ginger,  gentian,  or  camphor,  or 
dissolved  in  spirit  of  ammonia. 

The  Valerianates,  as  above  indicated,  exhibit  the  actions 
of  their  bases,  but  not  those  of  valerian.  Where  it  is 
desired  to  conjoin  the  physiological  action  of  valerian  with 
iron,  zinc,  or  other  metallic  salt,  or  with  quinine,  the  oil  of 
valerian  should  be  prescribed  with  a  suitable  salt  of  the 
metallic  or  vegetable  base.  The  valerianates  have  been 
used  for  dogs  and  cats  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  nervous 
excitability,  in  doses  of  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  v. 


TURPENTINES 
Terebinthin^.     Nat.  Orel. — Coniferae. 

The  Coniferae  yield  the  following  drugs — 

I.  Oleo-resinous  juices  exuding  spontaneously  or  from 
incisions  made  into  the  trunks  or  branches,  consisting  of 
common  and  Venice  turpentines,  Canada  balsam,  frankin- 
cense, and  Burgundy  pitch, 

II.  Oil  of  turpentine  (Ci^Hig) — the  volatile  or  essential 
oil  procured  from  turpentines  by  distillation. 

III.  Hydrates  of  turpentine, — terebene,  terpene,  and  ter- 
pinol,  prepared  by  acting  on  oil  of  turpentine  with  acids. 

1\  .  Resins — the  residue  of  the  distillation  of  turpentine. 

V.  Tar  and  black  pitch — got  by  subjecting  the  roots  and 
wood  to  destructive  distillation.  Wood  wool  prepared  from 
pine  wood. 


BORDEAUX    AND    VENICE    TURPENTINES  591 


I.  The  Turpentines  or  Coniferous  Oleo-resins. 

The  terebinthinate  juices  while  recently  exuded  are  fluid, 
or  nearly  so ;  but  exposure  to  the  air  volatilises  and  oxidises 
their  essential  oil,  and  they  solidify.  They  have  a  peculiar, 
pungent,  bitter  taste  and  odour,  are  scarcely  soluble  in 
water,  partially  soluble  in  rectified  spirit,  dissolving  readil}^ 
in  oils,  ether,  and  alkaline  solutions;  are  inflammable,  and 
leave,  when  burnt,  a  finely-divided  residue  of  carbon  or  lamp 
black.  Several  of  the  more  important  varieties  demand 
notice. 

Common  Turpentine  is  obtained  throughout  the  Southern 
States  of  America,  from  Virginia  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
chiefly  from  the  Pinus  Tseda  and  P.  palustris,  australis, 
or  swamp  pine,  a  tree  sixty  or  seventy  feet  high,  having 
bright  green  linear  leaves  about  a  foot  in  length,  and 
collected  into  bundles  like  those  of  the  Pinus  sylvestris,  or 
Scotch  fir,  from  which,  throughout  Northern  Europe, 
turpentine  is  also  procured. 

Bordeaux  Turpentine,  chiefly  produced  in  the  south-west 
of  France,  from  Pinus  maritima  and  P.  pinaster,  is  got  by 
bleeding  or  hacking  the  bark,  and  conducting  the  juice 
into  suitable  vessels  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  tree. 

TurjDentine  from  different  sources  differs  somewhat  in 
appearance;  the  American  is  dextro-rotatory,  the  French 
Isevo-rotatory ;  it  is  semi-fluid,  its  consistence  varies  with  the 
temperature ;  it  gradually  solidifies  from  escape  and  oxidation 
of  the  volatile  oil ;  it  has  a  yellow  colour,  an  aromatic  odour, 
and  a  warm,  pungent  taste.  Unless  melted  and  strained, 
it  usually  contains  impurities.  Water  acquires  its  flavour, 
but  separates  only  traces  of  its  active  principles.  Rectified 
spirit  and  ether  dissolve  it;  eggs  and  mucilage  form  with 
it  emulsions  convenient  for  administration.  The  crude 
American  variety,  when  recent,  yields  15  to  25  per  cent,  of 
volatile  oil. 

Venice  Turpentine  (Terebinthina  Veneta)  is  chiefly  ob- 
tained in  the  Tyrol,  Switzerland,  and  Piedmont,  from  the 
common  larch,  Larix  Europgea — a  lofty  tree  with   graceful 


592  TURPENTINES 

drooping  branches,  and  leaves  at  tirst  in  fasciculpp,  like  the 
pine  tribe,  but  afterwards  becoming  solitary  by  elongation  of 
the  twigs.  Venice  turpentine  is  tenacious,  rather  opaque,  and 
fluorescent;  less  apt  than  common  turpentine  to  concrete 
with  keeping ;  has  a  pale  yellow  colour,  an  acrid,  bitter  taste, 
a  disagreeable  terebinthinate  odour,  and  contains  15  per  cent, 
of  oil  of  turpentine.  The  Venice  turpentine  of  the  shops 
almost  invariably  consists  of  about  three  parts  of  common 
resin  dissolved  in  one  part  of  oil  of  turpentine,  This  artificial 
mixture  is  distinguished  by  its  strong  odour,  and  its  more 
quickly  evaporating,  and  leaving  a  varnish  on  a  sheet  of 
paper,  on  which  the  natural  Venice  turpentine  remains 
viscid. 

Canada  Balsam,  chiefly  brought  from  Lower  Canada,  is 
obtained  by  puncturing  the  vesicles  lying  between  the  bark 
and  wood  of  Abies  balsamea.  It  is  a  pale,  greenish-yellow 
oleo-resin  of  the  consistence  of  thin  honey,  has  an  agreeable 
terebinthinate  odour,  and  a  slightly  bitter,  feebly  acrid  taste. 
On  exposure  it  dries  slowly  into  a  transparent  adhesive 
varnish,  and  solidifies  when  mixed  with  one-sixth  of  its 
weight  of  magnesia  and  water.  It  contains  15  to  18  per 
cent,  of  oil,  is  much  used  by  varnish-makers,  opticians,  and 
microscopists,  and,  with  collodion  and  castor  oil,  constitutes 
flexible  collodion.  It  is  sometimes  improperly  termed 
Balm  of  Gilead,  which,  however,  is  derived  from  an  Arabian 
balsamodendron.  Strasburg  turpentine  is  a  fluid,  citron- 
smelling  oleo-resin  obtained  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Alps  from 
Abies  picea.  Chian  or  Cyprus  turpentine,  from  the  island 
of  Scio,  nearly  resembles  Canada  balsam  in  its  properties 
and  uses ;  it  is  a  greenish-yellow,  liquid  oleo-resin  from  the 
Pistacia  terebinthus,  a  tree  of  the  mastic  order. 

Frankincense,  or  Thus  Americanum,  is  the  semi-opaque, 
soft,  concrete  turpentine  scraped  ofl'  the  trunks  of  Pinus 
palustris,  P.  Tseda,  and  other  American  Coniferae.  On  keep- 
ing it  becomes  dry,  brittle,  and  darker  in  colour.  A  similar 
concrete  turpentine  comes  from  the  south  of  France  under 
the  name  of  gallipot  or  barras. 

Burgundy  PncH  is  the  resinous  exudation  from  the  stem 
of  Picea  excelsa,  or  spruce  fir,  melted   and   strained.     It 


IRRITANTS,  STIMULANTS,  AND    ANTHELMINTICS         593 

consists  of  an  amorphous  resin,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  other 
isomeric  oils,  and  abietic  acid.  It  occurs  in  semi-opaque 
red-brown  masses,  breaks  with  a  shining  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  has  an  empyreumatic  turpentine  odour  and  aromatic 
taste.  The  substance  sold  as  Burgundy  pitch  is  generally 
made  by  melting  resin  and  palm  oil  and  stirring  in  some 
water.  True  Burgundy  pitch  and  its  imitations  spread  upon 
leather  are  used  for  stimulant  and  adhesive  plasters,  applied 
in  swellings  of  joints,  chest  affections,  and  rheumatism. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  turpentines  are  topical  irritants. 
When  swallowed  they  are  speedily  absorbed,  act  as  general 
stimulants,  and  are  discharged  by  the  kidneys,  bronchial 
membrane,  and  skin,  stimulating  these  channels  of  excretion. 
Their  uses  resemble  those  of  their  more  active  constituent, 
oil  of  turpentine.  In  percentage  of  oil,  and  hence  in  activity, 
they  stand  as  foUows :  Canada  balsam,  Venice  turpentine, 
common  turpentine,  and  frankincense.  They  are  occasionally 
used  as  stimulants  in  indigestion,  colic,  and  general  debility; 
as  laxatives,  especially  when  in  combination ;  and  as 
anthelmintics,  diuretics,  and  expectorants. 

Externally  applied,  they  are  stimulants,  astringents,  and- 
'  antiseptics,  and  are  used  for  making  up  diuretic  and 
stimulant  balls.  In  the  south  of  France  the  resinous  vapours 
of  the  Conifera3  have  been  employed  for  the  relief  of  bron- 
chitis, phthisis,  and  rheumatism  in  human  patients.  The 
growing  pine  forests,  and  the  oleo-resins  extracted  from 
them  in  presence  of  oxygen,  evolve  antiseptic  camphoraceous 
oils  and  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  which  purify  the  air  and 
destroy  disease  germs. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  and  cattle  take  §j.  to  giij. ;  sheep,  5j. 
to  5iij.;  pigs,  5j.  to  5ij. ;  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  Ix.  The 
maximum  doses  are  stimulant  and  antispasmodic;  the 
minimum,  frequently  repeated,  are  diuretic  and  expectorant 
They  are  administered  with  milk,  oils,  linseed  gruel,  mucilage 
eggs,  or  about  aV^^  P^^t  of  magnesia.  For  external  purposes 
they  are  made  into  liniments  and  ointments. 


2p 


594  TEREBINTfllN^    OLEUM 

II.  Oil  of  Turpentine.     Oleum  TerebiuLliinsB. 

The  oil  distilled  from  the  oleo-resin,  obtained  from  Pinus 
sylvestris,  and  other  species  of  pinus. 

The  crude  turpentines  when  heated,  as  they  usually  are,  by 
steam,  yield  15  to  25  per  cent,  of  oil  of  turpentine,  sometimes 
improperly  called  spirit  of  turpentine.  It  is  a  mixture  of 
several  hydrocarbons  having  the  composition  Cio^ie-  It  is 
limpid,  with  a  strong,  peculiar  odour  and  a  pungent,  bitter 
taste.  It  commences  to  boil  at  about  320°  Fahr.  According 
to  its  source,  it  varies  in  its  odour,  specific  gravity,  boiling 
point,  and  effect  on  polarised  light.  It  is  very  inflammable, 
burning  with  a  heavy  yellow  flame  and  producing  much 
smoke.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  6^  of  alcohol,  and 
readily  dissolved  in  ether,  chloroform,  glacial  acetic  acid, 
fixed  and  volatile  oils.  It  is  a  valuable  solvent  for  wax,  resins, 
fats,  many  alkaloids,  iodine,  and  phosphorus. 

It  is  the  representative  of  a  large  group  of  terpenes, 
including  the  volatile  oils  of  chamomile,  caraway,  juniper, 
lemons,  pepper,  savin,  thyme,  tolu,  and  valerian — all  of 
which  have  the  formula  C^,^Hjg.  In  common  Avith  other 
terpenes,  it  is  convertible  into  isomerides,  oxidises  on 
exposure  to  air,  forming  camphoric  peroxide ;  with  water 
produces  crystalline  hydrates;  and  with  hydrochloric  acid 
forms  crystalline  compounds.  By  this  action  of  hydrochloric 
acid  on  turpentine  artificial  camphor  is  produced. 

Terebene  (CioHig2H20),  a  mixture  of  dipentene  and  other 
hydrocarbons,  obtained  by  agitating  oil  of  turpentine  with 
successive  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  distilling 
in  a  current  of  steam;  is  less  disagreeable  and  acrid  to 
the  taste,  and  optically  inactive.  It  has  the  same  medicinal 
properties. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Oil  of  turpentine  has  the  group  actions 
of  a  volatile  oil.  It  is  an  antiseptic  topical  irritant  and 
disinfectant,  and  is  used  as  a  rubefacient  and  vesicant. 
Larsre  doses  are  irritant  and  narcotic.  Medicinal  doses  are 
antiseptic,  stimulant,  especially  of  mucous  and  skin  surfaces, 
antispasmodic,  hemostatic,  anthelmintic,  and  antiparasitic. 
It  is  also  prescribed  as  an  adjuvant  cathartic,  diaphoretic, 
and  diuretic. 


ANTISEPTIC   AND    GENERAL   STIMULANT  595 

General  Actions. — Like  other  volatile  oils,  it  is  an  active 
antiseptic.  In  destroying  bacteria  spores,  Koch  found  it 
more  effective  than  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  or  benzol.  It 
poisons  lice,  acari,  entozoa,  and  other  parasites,  whether 
lodged  in  the  skin,  bronchial  tubes,  or  bowels.  Applied  to 
the  skin  it  irritates,  and,  if  evaporation  be  prevented,  vesicates, 
and  even  ulcerates. 

When  swallowed  it  is  rapidly  absorbed,  diffused,  and 
excreted,  and  may  be  speedily  detected  in  the  sweat,  breath, 
and  milk,  and  in  the  urine,  to  which  it  imparts  the  odour  of 
violets.  Small  doses  stimulate,  large  doses  weaken  heart 
action ;  and  according  to  Binz  the  white  corpuscles  of  the 
blood  are  increased  in  number.  Full  doses  first  stimulate 
and  then  paralyse  vaso-motor  centres.  According  to  dosage 
and  stage  of  action,  it  thus  produces  a  rise  or  fall  of  blood- 
pressure,  quickening  or  slowing  of  the  pulse,  rise  or  fall 
of  temperature;  but  respiration  throughout  is  generally 
quickened.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  lungs,  acting  as  a 
stimulating  antiseptic  expectorant ;  by  the  skin,  promoting 
diaphoresis;  by  the  kidneys,  inducing  diuresis;  while  full 
doses,  especially  in  combination  with  laxatives,  are  cathartic. 

Toxic  Effects. — Large  doses  when  inhaled  irritate  the 
respiratory  mucous  membrane,  and  reflexly  cause  difficult 
breathing.  Large  doses  when  swallowed  cause  irritation,  and 
occasionally  ulceration  of  the  bowels.  A  large  dose  quickly 
swallowed,  as  in  the  case  of  alcohol,  produces  brief  primary 
stimulation  and  prolonged  subsequent  paralysis  of  the  central 
nervous  system.  Rabbits  and  kittens  were  paralysed  by  in- 
jection of  turpentine  emulsion  into  the  stomach.  The  motor 
centres  are  implicated  in  the  sam.e  order  as  in  poisoning 
with  members  of  the  alcohol  series,  those  of  the  brain  being 
first  affected,  those  of  the  cord  later,  and  those  of  the 
medulla  last.  A  dog  receiving  two  drachms,  intravenously, 
staggered,  was  convulsed,  circulation  and  respiration  failed, 
and  death  occurred  in  three  minutes  (Christison  On  Poisons). 
During  excretion  large  doses  cause  congestion  of  the  urino- 
genital  organs,  diminish  or  arrest  secretion  of  urine,  and 
induce  strangury  and  sometimes  hsematuria. 

Medicinal  Uses. — In   indigestion,  flatulence,  and   atonic 


596  TEREBINTHIN^    OLEUM 

diarrhfoa,  it  checks  undue  fermentation  and  acts  as  a  car- 
minative and  gastro-intestinal  stimulant  and  astringent. 
Although  an  uncertain  cathartic  Avhen  given  alone,  like 
many  other  volatile  oils  it  promotes  the  action  of  cathartics, 
with  which  it  is  usefully  conjoined  in  flatulent  colic,  and  in 
such  cases  it  is  also  used  in  enemata.  Alike  in  flatulent 
and  spasmodic  colic  in  horses,  it  is  frequently  given  combined 
either  with  linseed  oil  or  with  mucilage  and  aloes,  and  in 
spasmodic  cases  is  conjoined  with  opium. 

As  a  cardiac  and  general  stimulant  it  is  not  so  effective 
as  alcohol  or  ether.  But  stimulating  vaso-motor  centres 
and  contracting  arterioles,  it  checks  excessive  or  faulty 
mucous  discharges.  Thus,  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  nasal 
gleet,  terebene  gargles  and  turpentine  emulsions  and  inhala- 
tions prove  useful,  especially  when  seconded  by  turpentine 
liniments  applied  externally.  The  astringent  haemostatic 
effects  are  also  serviceable  in  purpura,  and  in  passive 
hiemorrhage  from  the  lungs,  stomach,  or  bowels,  as  Avell  as 
froui  the  kidneys,  although  in  renal  cases  the  drug  must 
be  used  cautiously  and  in  small  doses.  In  purpura  in 
horses,  ounce  doses  are  prescribed,  with  the  same  quantity 
of  ferric  chloride  tincture,  in  milk,  twice  or  thrice  daily. 
This  prescription,  Avith  two  drachms  potassium  chlorate,  is 
useful  in  many  cases  of  hasmoglobinuria.  Chronic  rheu- 
matism in  all  classes  of  patients  is  frequently  relieved  by 
conjoining  turpentine  with  salines,  and  in  such  cases  it  is 
also  usefully  applied  externally. 

Turpentine,  well  kept  and  fully  oxidised,  as  the  French 
variety  generally  is,  contains  formic,  acetic,  and  carbonic 
acids,  and  is  an  antidote  in  poisoning  with  phosphorus. 
Phosphorus  in  repeated  doses  produces  in  animals  fatty 
degeneration;  but  neither  this  nor  other  forms  of  phos- 
phorus poisoning  occurred  when  the  drug  was  given  with 
French  turpentine  (Kiihler).  Personne  gave  phosphorus  to 
five  dogs,  and  all  died.  To  five  others,  an  hour  or  two  after 
similar  lethal  doses,  he  gave  turpentine,  and  only  one  died. 
Of  five  dogs  to  which  he  gave  turpentine  iuniicdiately  after 
deadly  doses  of  phosphorus,  only  one  died  (Dr.  Ringer's 
Handbook  of  Therapeutics). 


ANTHELMINTIC    AND    PAEASITICIDE  597 

In  cattle  practice  full  closes  are  valuable  in  lioven. 
Chronic  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  especially  when  accom- 
panied by  flatulence,  are  usually  benefited  by  small  doses 
conjoined  with  lime-water,  aromatics,  or  opium.  When 
contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  was  subjected  to  curative 
treatment,  two  ounces  were  sometimes  prescribed  several 
times  daily.  In  parturient  apoplexy  it  is  given  with 
ammonium  carbonate ;  in  peritonitis  with  laudanum,  and  in 
such  cases  it  is  also  applied  as  an  external  stimulant.  Mr. 
A.  G.  Macgillivray,  Banff,  in  post-partum  haemorrhage  in 
cows,  gives  three  to  Ave  ounces,  with  eggs  and  ginger 
(Veterinary  Journal,  1888).  Frequently  repeated  doses, 
conjoined  with  iron  salts,  check  that  form  of  hematuria  in 
cattle  popularly  known  as  red-water. 

For  the  destruction  of  intestinal  worms  oil  of  turpentine 
is  generally  conjoined  with  a  laxative,  and  given  after  the 
bowels  have  been  emptied  by  a  cathartic,  and  the  patient 
has  been  fasted.  Although  it  removes  round  Avorms,  it  is 
not  in  horses  a  certain  remedy  for  tape-worms,  but  its 
efficacy  is  increased  by  combination  with  male  fern.  A 
tolerably  good  tseniacide  for  the  horse  consists  of  two  ounces 
of  turpentine  and  one  ounce  of  male  fern  extract,  dissolved 
in  a  pint  of  linseed  oil.  For  tape- worms  in  dogs,  areca  nut, 
male  fern,  and  cusso  are  more  effectual  than  turpentine. 

For  destroying  strongyles  infesting  the  air-passages  of 
calves  and  lambs,  turpentine  has  been  widely  used.  In 
some  sheep-breeding  districts  of  England,  thriftless,  cough- 
ing lambs,  throughout  the  summer  months,  at  intervals  of 
a  week  or  ten  days  are  given  turpentine  drenches,  with 
the  view  of  killing  both  thread  and  tape  worms :  and  such 
treatment  certainly  greatly  diminishes  the  scouring  and 
mortality  to  which  lambs  in  some  localities  are  liable. 
Six-month  calves  take  half  an  ounce,  lambs  of  the  like 
age  a  drachm,  of  oil  of  turpentine,  conveniently  mixed 
with  milk,  and  administered  by  the  mouth.  Two  or  three 
doses,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  days,  usually  effect  a 
cure.  Turpentine  inhalations,  although  fairly  effectual,  are 
troublesome  to  manage.  For  calves  intratracheal  injection 
of  turpentine  has  been  introduced   by   Mr.  J.   Hutton,  of 


598  OIL    OF    TURPENTINE 

Kelso,  who  makes  a  small  incision  in  the  skin,  half-way 
down  the  neck,  and  between  two  rings  of  the  trachea,  and 
with  a  suitable  syringe  injects  f5i-  to  f^ij-  oil  of  turpentine, 
with  f5ss,  each  of  carbolic  acid,  chloroform,  and  glycerin, 
which  ensures  solution  of  the  carbolic  acid.  No  serious 
irritation  results.  A  few  paroxysms  of  coughing  occasion- 
ally occur.  Brought  into  actual  contact  with  the  parasites, 
the  vermicide  promptly  destroys  them  {Vetermarian,  1885). 

Gapes  in  poultry,  caused  by  the  Syngamus  trachealis,  is 
successfully  treated  by  a  similar  mixture,  used  diluted  with 
four  or  five  parts  of  milk  or  bland  oil,  two  or  three  drops 
being  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  ailing  fowl.  A  similar 
dressing  is  sometimes  applied  around  the  throat,  but,  al- 
though in  part  absorbed,  is  not  so  effectual  as  when 
swallowed. 

Externally,  oil  of  turpentine  is  used  as  an  antiseptic, 
stimulant,  and  counter-irritant.  Rubbed  undiluted  into  the 
skin  of  horses,  it  quickly  causes  topical  irritation,  restless- 
ness, and  much  excitement,  continuing  for  twenty  or  thirty 
minutes,  and,  if  used  largely  and  repeatedly,  it  vesicates, 
and  may  blemish.  Cattle  are  not  so  sensitive  to  its  irritant 
effect,  and  for  them  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  increase 
the  activity  of  other  vesicants.  A  piece  of  flannel  wrung 
out  of  hot  water,  and  sprinkled  with  turpentine  oil,  is 
frequently  applied  as  a  counter-irritant.  A  continuous 
moderate  action  is  more  serviceable  than  a  single  violent 
effect.  For  inveterate  eczema  and  psoriasis,  after  removal 
of  the  scales  with  soft  soap  and  water  or  alkaline  dressings, 
turpentine,  diluted  with  one  or  two  parts  of  oil  or  glycerin 
and  water,  sometimes  beneficially  stimulates  the  hyper- 
trophied,  weakened  skin,  and  promotes  cure. 

It  is  used  as  a  stimulant  for  rheumatic  swellings,  more 
particularly  of  cattle  and  sheep ;  for  sprains  and  bruises 
after  the  first  pain  and  tenderness  have  been  subdued  by 
fomentation ;  for  controlling  congestion  arising  from  frost- 
bite, which  is  not  uncommon  in  the  limbs  of  horses  used 
for  night  work ;  for  promoting  absorption  of  small  cysts ;  for 
healing  the  troublesome  chronic  sores  occurring  about  the 
heels  of  draught-horses ;  for  arresting  necrosis  of  dogs'  ears ; 


DOSES    AND    ADMINISTRATION  599 

and  for  relieving  tedious  foot-rot  in  sheep.  For  such  cases 
it  is  usually  mixed  with  two  or  three  parts  of  vaseline,  oil, 
or  glycerin.  A  similar  mixture  destroys  lice  and  other  skin 
vermin,  as  well  as  the  fungus  of  ringworm.  An  occasional 
sprinkling  over  dogs'  beds  keeps  them  free  of  fleas.  It  is 
often  added  to  stavesacre,  tobacco,  and  other  antiparasitic 
dressings.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  various  mix- 
tures used  by  shepherds  to  protect  their  flocks  from  flies, 
and  to  kill  maggots.  For  such  purposes  three  ounces  oil 
of  turpentine,  one  ounce  each  of  sweet  oil,  common  salt, 
and  mucilage,  and  half  a  drachm  corrosive  sublimate,  are 
mixed  in  a  quart  of  water. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses  and  cattle,  as  a  stimulant  and 
anti-spasmodic,  the  dose  is  fgj.  to  f§ij. ;  as  a  diuretic,  fgss. 
to  f§j.  As  an  adjuvant  cathartic  or  anthelmintic  the  dose 
is  about  f§ij.,  combined  with  aloes  in  solution,  with  castor 
or  linseed  oil,  with  iron  salts,  quassia,  gentian,  or  other 
bitters.  Full-grown  cattle  take  double  these  doses.  Sheep 
and  pigs  receive  f5j.  to  f5iv- ;  dogs,  TI[xx.  to  f5j.  It  is 
administered  dissolved  in  bland  oils,  shaken  up  with  linseed 
gruel  or  milk,  or  made  into  an  emulsion  with  mucilage  or 
eggs.  Aromatics,  bitters,  or  ethers  are  sometimes  added. 
Intratracheally,  5j-  to  5ij-,  mixed  with  an  equal  measure  of 
olive  oil,  may  be  administered  to  horses  affected  with  catarrh. 

For  inhalation  half  a  bucket  of  boiling  water  is  placed 
under  the  patient's  nostrils,  and  an  ounce  of  turpentine 
placed  in  it ;  or  it  may  be  introduced  into  the  steam-kettle, 
which  is  almost  as  serviceable  in  the  treatment  of  bronchitis 
in  animals  as  in  man.  For  enemata,  turpentine  is  usually 
diluted  with  fifty  or  sixty  parts  of  oil;  or  it  is  mixed  with 
two  or  three  parts  of  oil  or  mucilage  to  ensure  solution, 
and  then  added  to  the  soap  and  water.  In  diarrhcea  or 
dj'sentery  it  is  conjoined  with  laudanum  and  starch  gruel. 

For  external  purposes  it  is  usually  applied  with  linseed 
oil,  soft  soap,  or  ammonia  liniment.  Convenient  stimulant 
dressings  are  made  with  equal  quantities  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
bland  oil,  and  soft  soap,  or  two  to  three  ounces  of  oil  of 
turpentine  are  added  to  a  pint  of  soap  liniment.  As  a 
stimulant  for  rheumatism,  equal  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine 


600       OIL    OF   PINE — TEREBENE — TERPENE-HYDRATE 

and  laudanum  are  mixed  with  two  or  three  parts  of  linseed 
oil  or  soft  soap.  For  dogs,  an  active  embrocation  is  prepared 
with  an  ounce  each  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  medicinal 
ammonia,  and  six  to  ten  ounces  of  olive  oil. 

Oil  of  Scotch  Fir  (oleum  pini  sylvestris)  is  prepared  by 
distilling  the  fresh  leaves  of  the  Scotch  fir  or  Pinus  syl- 
vestris. It  has  most  of  the  properties,  and  is  applied  to 
many  of  the  uses  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

Terebene  being  less  acrid  than  oil  of  turpentine,  and  less 
liable  to  act  on  the  kidneys,  is  sometimes  substituted  for 
it,  especially  as  an  internal  stimulant  and  antiseptic  in 
excessive  mucous  discharges,  and  for  relieving  flatulence. 
Externally,  it  is  applied  as  a  stimulant,  antiseptic,  and 
deodoriser. 

Oil  of  Pine,  oleum  pini  (pinol  or  pumuline),  the  oil  dis- 
tilled from  the  fresh  leaves  of  Pinus  Pumilio,  is  used  as  an 
inhalation  in  bronchial  catarrh  and  in  laryngitis. 

Terpene  Hydrate  (C^^Hgg'iHO),  prepared  by  passing  a 
current  of  air  through  a  mixture  of  four  parts  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, one  part  nitric  acid,  and  three  parts  rectified  spirit. 
It  is  crystalline,  has  an  agreeable  balsamic  odour  and  taste ;  is 
soluble  in  220  parts  of  cold  water,  twenty-two  parts  of  warm 
water,  and  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  turpentine,  and 
oils.  Its  general  actions  resemble  those  of  oil  of  turpentine. 
One  to  two  drachms  may  be  swallowed  by  small  dogs  with- 
out causing  gastric  derangement;  two  to  three  drachms, 
quickly  produce  intoxication  with  restlessness,  uncertain 
gait,  impaired  vision,  and  dreaming,  followed  in  a  few 
hours  by  sound  sleep.  It  has  been  prescribed  in  bronchitis, 
especially  in  dogs,  to  stimulate  secretion  in  the  earlier 
stages,  and  in  the  later  chronic  stages  to  liquefy  and 
diminish  excessive  discharges.  The  doses  for  horses  or 
cattle  are  grs.  xxx.  to  5ij- ;  for  dogs,  grs.  x.  to  grs.  Ix.,  re- 
peated two  or  three  times  daily,  and  given  with  alcohol, 
glycerin,  or  syrup,  in  drench  or  in  the  patient's  food. 
Terpinol,  prepared  by  boiling  terpene  in  water  acidulated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  is  a  mobile  liquid,  with  a  strong 
aromatic  odour:  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  ether.    Its  actions  are  similar  to  those  of  terpene. 


RESIN  601 

III.  Resin,  Rosin,  Resin  a. 

The  crude  turpentines  contain  75  to  90  per  cent,  of  resin 
or  colophony,  developed  by  a  process  of  oxidation.  Crude 
turpentine,  when  distilled  with  a  little  water,  which  the  resin 
retains,  leaves  a  residue  of  yellow  or  white  resin.  When  the 
water  is  removed,  the  resin  becomes  transparent,  and  when 
more  strongly  heated  is  still  clearer,  and  is  known  as  black 
or  fiddler's  resin.  These  turpentine  resins  are  types  of  a 
considerable  group  of  resins,  derived  chiefly  from  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  distinguished  by  their  appearance,  fusibility, 
inflammability,  acidity  to  test-paper ;  burning  with  a  smoky 
flame ;  insoluble  in  water,  and  soluble  in  alcohol,  volatile  oils, 
and  alkalies.  They  unite  with  fats,  wax,  and  spermaceti,  and 
are  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  yellow  soap.  Resin 
has  the  formula  C^JUqoO^.  Coarsely  powdered,  and  shaken 
with  warm  dilute  alcohol,  it  undergoes  hydration,  and  yields 
80  to  90  per  cent,  of  abietic  or  sylvic  acid  (C^^Hg^Of;).  Bor- 
deaux resin  or  gallipot  contains,  besides  the  isomeric, 
pimaric  acid. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Resin  is  a  gentle  stimulant,  astringent, 
and  diuretic.  Two  to  four  ounces,  swallowed  by  horses  or 
cattle,  cause  diuresis.  It  is  added  to  diuretic  masses  to 
increase  their  consistence.  Externally,  it  is  used  as  a  stimu- 
lant, astringent,  and  styptic.  In  castration,  a  pinch  applied 
to  the  severed  cord,  and  melted  by  the  hot  iron,  helps  to  seal 
bleeding  vessels.  It  is  largely  used  to  impart  firmness  and 
adhesiveness  to  stimulant  plasters.  Resin  ointment  is  made 
with  eight  parts  each  of  resm,  yellow  wax,  and  olive  oil,  and 
six  of  lard,  melted  with  gentle  heat,  strained  while  hot 
through  flannel,  and  stirred  constantly  while  it  cools.  This 
simple  ointment  is  much  used  as  a  lubricant,  and  mild 
stimulant  for  wounds,  ulcers,  blistered  surfaces,  and  for 
giving  bulk  and  consistence  to  other  ointments. 

IV.   Tar,  Oil  of  Tar,  and  Pitch. 

Tar,  or  Fix  liquida,  is  a  thick,  viscid,  brown-black,  aromatic 
liquid,  obtained  from  the  wood  of  Pinus  sylvestris  and  other 
pines  by  destructive  distillation.     Mineral  or  Barbados  tar 


602  TAR,  OIL   OF   TAR,  AND   PITCH 

has  already  been  noticed.  Coal  tar,  obtained  from  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal,  is  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  gas.  Two  descrijJtions  of  wood  tar  are  in  use — 
one  got  from  hard  exogens,  such  as  oak,  birch,  and  ash,  as  a 
residual  product  in  the  making  of  charcoal  for  gunpowder ; 
and  the  other  an  empyreumatic  variety  imported  from 
Stockholm,  Archangel,  and  America,  is  got  by  roasting  billets 
of  the  roots,  branches,  and  refuse  coniferous  timber  stacked 
in  shallow  pits  dug  on  a  bank  or  inclined  plane.  This  old 
process  is  now  superseded  by  distillation  of  the  refuse  wood 
in  cast-iron  stills,  whereby  nearly  double  the  yield  of  tar  is 
obtained ;  14  per  cent,  is  got  from  air-dried  stems,  16  to  20 
per  cent,  from  roots.  When  wood  is  thus  distilled  the  con- 
densed products  separate  into  two  layers,  the  upper  a  mixture 
of  methyl-alcohol,  pyroligneous  acid,  acetone,  etc.,  in  water ; 
the  lower  wood  tar. 

Tar  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  oils,  and  alkaline  solutions, 
but  not  in  water,  which,  agitated  with  it,  acquires,  however, 
its  odour,  taste,  and  brown  colour,  and  constitutes  tar  water, 
once  regarded  as  a  valuable  medicine.  Tar  consists  of  pyro- 
ligneous acid,  methyl-alcohol,  creosote,  and  various  phenols, 
with  toluene,  xylene,  and  other  hydrocarbons. 

Tar  when  distilled  yields  oil  of  tar  (oleum  picis  liquidoe), 
an  empyreumatic  acid  liquid,  which,  although  colourless  when 
first  distilled,  speedily  becomes  yellow  or  brown,  and  is 
soluble  in  alcohol.  It  contains  the  more  volatile  hydro- 
carbons of  the  tar.  There  remains  in  the  retorts  pitch,  or 
pix  nigra,  a  black,  bituminous  substance,  solid  and  brittle, 
with  a  shining  fracture,  dissolved  by  the  same  solvents  as 
tar,  and  consisting  of  modified  resin,  and  a  colourless,  in- 
odorous,^ crystalline  substance,  melting  at  194°  Fahr.,  called 
retinc  (CjgHjg)  (Fliickiger), 

Actions  and  Uses. — Tar  is  antiseptic,  stimulant,  diuretic, 
diaphoretic,  expectorant,  and  parasiticide.  Its  active  prin- 
ciples being  diffusible  phenols,  it  acts  not  only  when  applied 
externally,  but  produces  most  of  its  effects  when  given  inter- 
nally. The  urine  of  horses  receiving  tar  water  keeps  un- 
changed for  several  days.  It  is  still  occasionally  prescribed 
for  horses  with  chronic  cough  and  bronchitis,  where  the 


TAR    AN    ANTISEPTIC    STIMULANT  603 

discharges  are  copious.  It  is  used  both  internally  and  exter- 
nally as  a  cutaneous  stimulant  and  antiseptic  in  the  squam- 
ous stages  of  grease  and  other  forms  of  eczema,  in  psoriasis, 
and  in  pityriasis,  the  scaly  surfaces  being  coated  daily  with 
undiluted  tar,  the  dressing  after  several  days  washed  off 
with  soft  soap  and  water,  and  any  refractory  spots  dressed 
Avith  mercurial  ointment.  In  chronic  eczema  one  part  of 
tar  is  usefully  added  to  four  of  zinc  oxide  ointment.  Tar 
water  is  a  popular  but  serviceable  lotion  for  indolent  ulcera- 
tions and  haemorrhoids.  For  thrush  and  canker  of  the 
horse's  foot  tar  is  used  either  alone  or  with  copper  sulphate, 
sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  and  other  agents. 

Mixed  with  equal  parts  of  fatty  matters  or  soft  soap,  to 
impart  proper  consistence,  it  forms  an  excellent  stopping  for 
horses'  feet,  keeping  the  hoof  moist  and  soft.  As  a  hoof 
dressing,  Mr.  Miles,  in  his  useful  pamphlet  on  the  Foot  of  the 
Horse,  recommends  a  quarter  of  a  pound  each  of  tar,  bees- 
wax, and  honey,  a  pound  and  a  half  of  lard,  and  three  ounces 
of  glycerin ;  the  lard  and  bees-wax  are  melted  together,  the 
lard,  tar,  and  glycerin  stirred  in,  and  stirring  continued  until 
the  mass  begins  to  set.  For  foot-rot  in  sheep,  tar  has  the 
several  advantages  of  stimulating  healthy  growth  of  horn, 
deodorising,  and  preventing  attacks  of  flies.  It  is  used 
in  securing  wounds,  binding  broken  horns,  and  making 
adhesive  plasters. 

Oil  of  tar  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  oil  of  turpentine. 
Its  empyreumatic  constituents  confer  antiseptic  properties ; 
it  cures  mange  and  scab,  destroys  other  parasites,  is  some- 
times added  to  sheep  dips,  but  has  the  disadvantage  of 
discolouring  the  wool,  does  not  mix  well  with  the  other 
ingredients,  while  large  doses  or  strong  solutions  are  apt  to 
poison.  It  is  applied  in  both  varieties  of  ringworm,  but  is 
seldom  so  successful  as  iodine. 

Pitch  is  used  as  a  mild  stimulant  in  thrush,  canker,  and 
sand-crack  in  horses ;  in  foot-rot  in  sheep ;  and  to  give 
adhesiveness  to  plasters  and  charges. 


604  ARECA — ARECOLINE 

ARBCA 

Arec^  Semina.     The  seed  of  Areca  Catechu.     Betel-Nut. 
Nat.  Ord. — Palmacse.     (Not  official.) 

The  catechu  or  betel- nut  palm  is  a  straight,  slender  tree, 
forty  or  lifty  feet  high,  growing  on  the  Cororaandcl  and 
Malabar  coasts,  and  throughout  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia. 
Within  a  fibrous  fruit  lies  the  hard,  ovoid,  red-brown  seed, 
of  the  size  and  appearance  of  a  nutmeg.  When  ground,  the 
powder  is  brown,  astringent,  and  partially  soluble  in  hot 
Avater  and  spirit.  It  contains  besides  tannin,  the  alkaloids, 
arecoline,  arecaine,  arecaidine,  and  guvacine.  Arecoline 
(Cgll^gNOg),  the  chief  alkaloid,  is  strongly  alkaline,  liquid, 
colourless,  and  volatile,  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform.  With  acids  it  forms  salts,  of  which  the  most 
important  is  the  hydrobromide. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Arecoline  is  a  powerful  sialogogue,  dia- 
phoretic, intestinal  stimulant  and  vermifuge.  In  physio- 
logical actions  it  is  allied  to  eserine,  pilocarpine,  and 
pelletierine.  Like  eserine  it  contracts  the  pupil  and 
stimulates  peristalsis.  Exerting  more  energy  than  pilo- 
carpine it  stimulates  the  secretory  nerves  of  glands,  and 
under  its  influence  the  salivar}',  skin,  and  intestinal  secre- 
tions are  much  increased.  It  stimulates  unstriped  muscle 
and  promotes  the  discharge  of  urine.  Large  doses  act 
on  striated  muscle,  causing  twitching  and  spasm,  followed 
by  partial  paralysis.  Medicinal  doses  diminish  the  force 
and  number  of  the  pulsations,  and  excessive  doses  paralyse 
the  heart.  In  horses  respiration  is  increased  by  small  doses, 
while  large  and  repeated  doses  lessen  the  activity  of  the 
respiratory  nervous  centre  inducing  dyspnoea  and  suftbca- 
tion.  "Arecoline  has  been  used  with  excellent  results  in 
the  treatment  of  acute  laminitis  and  colic  in  horses  and  of 
constipation  in  cattle.  Its  value  as  a  remedy  for  laminitis 
— first  ascertained  by  Frohner — has  been  well  attested  by 
Schumacher,  Paimans,  Gobbels,  and  others.  Frohner  con- 
siders that  it  produces  a  true  deviation  of  the  blood  and 
promotes  resorption  of  the  inflammatory  redema,  and 
Schumacher  asserts  that  it  shortens  the  duration  of  the 


ARTEMISIA  605 

disease.  In  colic  and  foecal  impaction  it  is  almost  as  power- 
ful as  eserine,  and  stronger  and  more  rapid  than  pilocarpine 
though  not  so  lasting  in  its  effects  {Veterinarian,  1896-98). 

Areca  nut  is  an  astringent  resembling  catechu,  and,  when 
freshly  powdered,  an  effective  vermicide,  especially  for  dogs, 
proving  destructive  alike  to  tape-  and  round-worms.  Its 
effects  on  horses  and  cattle  are  less  satisfactory.  Mr.  Hanley 
{Veterinarian,  1862)  records  the  case  of  a  greyhound  bitch, 
which  passed  in  fifteen  minutes,  after  a  dose  of  the  nut,  a 
tapeworm  13  yards  and  2  feet  long.  Such  rapid  expulsion 
of  tapeworms  is  not,  however,  always  attainable,  and  it  is 
usually  desirable  to  conjoin  with  the  areca  flix.  to  Tlixv.  of 
male  fern  extract.  This  combination  Professor  Williams  states 
is  the  most  effectual  remedy  for  tapeworm  in  dogs.  If  the 
parasites  are  not  removed  a  second  dose  of  the  mixture 
should  be  given  two  or  three  days  later.  Tsenaline,  a 
registered  liquid  preparation  containing  the  tseniafuge  prin- 
ciples of  freshly  ground  areca  nut,  is  a  convenient  and 
efficient  vermicide. 

Doses,  etc.— Areca  nut.  Dogs,  grs.  x.  to  5ij.;  horses, 
5iv.  to  5vi.  The  dose  of  the  powder  for  the  dog  is  about 
2  grains  for  every  pound  of  the  animal's  weight  (Mayhew). 
It  is  administered  in  linseed  oil,  soup,  mucilage,  or  milk. 

Arecoline  hydrobromide.  Horses,  gr.  f  to  grs.  1| ; 
dissolved  in  T\[QO  to  71[90  of  distilled  water,  and  injected 
subcutaneously  or  into  the  jugular  vein.  In  laminitis  the 
dose  is  repeated  daily  for  four  or  five  days.  In  coHc  a  single 
injection  may  suffice.  To  contract  the  pupil  a  1  per  cent, 
solution  of  the  hydrobromide  may  be  employed. 

ARTEMISIA 
Artemisia  Absinthium.     Wormwood.     (Not  official.) 
Artemisia  Maritima.     Santonica.     Nat.  OrcZ.— Compositse. 
Santonin.    A  crystalline  principle  prepared  from  Santonica. 
(B.P.) 
The  Artemisia  are  low  shrubby  plants,  characterised  by 
their  aroma  and   bitterness.     They  belong  to  the  natural 
order  Compositse,  which  comprises  the  familiar  southern- 


606  SANTONIN 

wood  and  tansy,  the  mildly  anodyne  lettuce,  and  the  harm- 
less dandelion. 

The  dried  Artemisia  absinthium  contains  a  volatile  cam- 
phoraceous  oil,  absinthol,  and  a  bitter  extract,  yielding  the 
neutral  crystalline  absinthin,  which  is  a  narcotic  poison  and 
spinal  stimulant,  causing  in  dogs  and  rabbits  trembling, 
stupor,  and  epileptiform  convulsions,  which  may  prove  fatal. 
In  medicinal  doses,  it  is  an  aromatic  bitter  tonic,  and  a 
popular  remedy  for  worms.  It  is  the  chief  active  constituent 
of  the  liqueur  absinthe. 

Santonin.  The  unexpanded  minute  flower-heads  of 
Artemisia  maritima  contain  a  volatile  oil,  a  resin,  and 
about  two  per  cent,  of  a  crystalline  neutral  principle,  san- 
tonin (CjjHjyOg).  It  is  almost  insoluble  in  cold  water, 
soluble  in  four  parts  chloroform,  in  boiling  alcohol,  fixed  oils, 
and  alkaline  solutions,  and  hence  in  the  intestinal  juices. 
It  is  rendered  yellow  by  sunlight,  and  gives  a  violet  colour 
when  added  to  a  warm  alcoholic  solution  of  potassium.  It 
imparts  a  blood-red  colour  to  the  urine.  Large  doses  cause 
in  dogs  giddiness,  vomiting,  and  convulsions.  It  is  a  vermi- 
cide, without  effect  on  taeniae,  but  destructive  to  round  and 
thread  worms — given  for  the  former  by  the  mouth,  for  the 
latter  by  enemata,  and  most  active  when  combined  with  castor 
oil.  It  is  less  effective  in  horses  than  in  pigs  and  dogs,  for 
which  the  dose  is  3  to  10  grains,  conjoined  with  aloes  or  jalap. 
Half  an  ounce  mixed  with  the  food  serves  as  a  vermicide  for 
fifteen  young  pigs.  As  in  human  practice,  it  is  effectual  in 
checking  incontinence  of  urine  in  young  patients,  for  this 
purpose  being  equal  to  belladonna  and  superior  to  nux- 
vomica.  The  B.P.  santonin  lozenge  containing  1  grain  of 
the  drug,  forms  a  very  convenient  worm  medicine  for  some 
canine  patients. 

Santoninoxim  is  derived  from  santonin,  for  which  it  is 
sometimes  substituted,  as  larger  doses  may  be  given  without 
nuich  risk  of  poisoning.    It  is  said  to  kill  the  worms  outright. 


STAVESACRE — CUSSO  607 

STAVESACRE    SEEDS 
Staphisagrle  Semina.     The  dried  ripe  seeds  of  Delphinium 
Staphisagria  (B.P.).     JVaf.  Orel. — Ranimculacefe. 

Stavesacre,  or  larkspur,  is  a  stout  biennial  herb,  two  to 
four  feet  high,  growing  throughout  the  south  of  Europe. 
Its  officinal  oily  seeds  are  brown,  wrinkled,  irregularly 
triangular,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  and  scarcely  so 
broad,  and  have  a  bitter,  acrid,  and  nauseous  taste.  They 
contain  about  one  per  cent,  of  several  alkaloids,  soluble  in 
ether  and  acetic  acid,  the  most  important  being  delphinine, 
which  resembles  aconitine  and  veratrine,  slows  the  pulse  and 
respiration,  and  paralyses  the  spinal  cord ;  and  staphis- 
agrine,  resembling  curare,  paralysing  the  motor  nerves  and 
arresting  respiration. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  seeds  are  used  for  the  destruction 
of  lice,  and  hence  have  been  popularly  termed  louse  seeds. 
Their  action  is  also  exerted  on  the  acari  of  mange  and  scab. 
For  such  purposes  one  part  of  bruised  seeds  is  boiled  for  two 
hours  with  twenty  to  thirty  parts  of  water,  making  up  the 
water  to  the  quantity  originally  used.  Such  a  solution 
rubbed  into  the  skin  not  only  kills  pediculi,  but  also  destroys 
their  eggs.  Ointments  and  liniments  are  made  with  one  part 
of  powdered  seeds  heated  with  six  or  eight  of  vaseline  or  oil. 
Strong  preparations  too  freely  applied,  absorbed  from  denuded 
surfaces  or  licked,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  by  dogs,  are  liable  to 
nauseate  and  prostrate.  Occasionally  they  are  conjoined 
with  sulphur  and  tar. 

CUSSO 

K0U.SS0.       Brayera.       The    dried    pannicles  of    pistillate 

flowers  of  Brayera  anthelmintica  (B.P.).  Nat.  Orel. — 
Rosaceae. 

Kousso  consists  of  bundles,  rolls,  or  clusters  of  pannicles  of 
small  reddish-brown  flowers.  Its  active  principle  is  koussin — 
a  neutral  crystalline  glucoside,  with  a  bitter  taste,  insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol  and  alkaline  solutions.  It 
also  contains  resin,  gum,  tannic  acid,  and  a  volatile  oil. 


608  MALE    FERN 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  narcotises  and  kills  intestinal 
worms,  and  in  fasting  dogs,  two  consecutive  doses,  given  with 
an  interval  of  two  hours,  and  followed  by  a  purgative,  bring 
away  tape-worms.  Although  it  scarcely  causes  catharsis, 
full  doses  nauseate  dogs  and  cats,  and  sometimes  excite  colic. 
Doses — sheep,  3j"^'-  to  §j. ;  lambs,  grs.  Ixxx.  to  grs.  cl. ; 
dogs,  according  to  their  size,  take  grs.  xl.  to  to  3iy->  usually 
given  in  infusion,  most  effectually  used  unstrained,  sweetened 
with  honey  or  treacle,  and  the  taste  veiled  by  a  little 
peppermint  water.  Koussin  is  occasionally  given  to  dogs  in 
doses  of  grs.  V.  to  grs.  xx. 

MALE  PERN 

FiLix  Mas.  The  rhizome  of  Aspidium  Filix-mas.  Collected 
late  in  the  autumn,  divested  of  its  roots,  leaves,  and  dead 
portions,  and  carefully  dried.  Should  not  be  kept  more 
than  a  year  (B.F.).     Nat.  Orel. — Filicinse. 

The  male  fern  grows  wild  throughout  most  temperate 
regions,  on  the  sides  of  roads  and  in  open  woods,  especially 
where  the  soil  is  light.  Its  root  stock  is  perennial,  about  a 
foot  long  and  two  inches  thick ;  is  scaly,  tufted,  greenish- 
brown,  and  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground  by  numerous  black 
root  fibres.  The  dried  root  has  a  disagreeable  odour,  and  a 
sweet,  astringent,  nauseous  taste.  Besides  the  usual  plant 
constituents,  it  contains  about  4  per  cent,  of  resin,  6  of  a 
green  fixed  oil,  a  small  amount  of  volatile  oil,  Avith  8  per 
cent,  of  the  crystalline  filicic  acid  (C^^Hj^O^),  which  is  its 
most  active  constituent.  The  root  is  preserved  in  stoppered 
bottles,  and  the  supply  renewed  annually.  Deterioration 
from  keeping,  and  the  substitution  of  the  roots  of  inactive 
ferns,  in  great  part  explain  the  depreciatory  accounts 
sometimes  given  of  its  efficacy.  The  green  parts  are  most 
active,  and  should  alone  be  used. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Male  fern  is  irritant,  vermicide, 
laxative,  and  in  large  doses  causes  hiemorrhagic  gastro- 
enteritis.  It  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  remedies  for  tape- 
worm, especially  in  dogs,  and  Kuchenmeister  considers  it 
quite  as  poisonous  to  the  genus  Bothriocephalus.     Dr.  John 


EUPHORBIUM  609 

Harley  believes  that,  like  ergot,  it  stimulates  the  involuntary 
muscular  fibres  of  any  hollow  viscus  in  which  it  is  placed, 
and  thus  explains  the  vomiting  and  intestinal  peristalsis 
which  full  doses  produce  when  swallowed,  and  the  contrac- 
tions induced  when  it  is  injected  into  the  urinary  bladder. 
Professor  Frohner  made  various  experiments  with  the 
ethereal  extract.  He  poisoned  a  small  dog  with  TTI^  xxx.,  a 
dog  of  40  lbs.  with  f5v.,  a  sheep  of  88  lbs.  with  f5vi.,  a  cow 
of  660  lbs.  with  about  fgiij. 

Doses,  etc. — The  powdered  male  fern  rhizome  is  given  to 
horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of  §iv.  to  §vi. ;  sheep,  §j.  to  §iv. ; 
dogs  and  cats,  §i.  to  §ii.  But  the  powder  is  inconveniently 
bulky,  and  less  certain  than  the  B.P.  ethereal  or  liquid 
extract.  The  dose  of  the  extract  for  horses  or  cattle  is  f5ij. 
to  f5vi. ;  for  sheep  and  pigs,  f5i.  to  f5ij. ;  for  dogs  or  cats,  fH^x. 
to  f5j.  It  is  given  sometimes  with  half  a  dose  of  turpentine 
in  a  little  oil,  milk,  or  gruel,  flavoured  with  ginger  or  pepper- 
mint, when  the  bowels  have  been  emptied  by  a  laxative  and 
several  hours'  fasting.  Professor  Williams  states  that  the 
extract,  with  half  a  dose  of  areca-nut,  constitutes  the  most 
effectual  remedy  for  tape-worm  in  dogs.  If  the  parasite  is 
not  expelled,  the  medicine  may  be  repeated  in  three  days. 
Kaufmann  recommends  doses  to  be  given  in  the  morning,  at 
noon,  and  at  night.  The  worms  narcotised,  relinquish  their 
hold,  and  are  swept  out  by  a  laxative,  administered  a  few 
hours  after  the  last  dose  of  extract. 


EUPHORBIUM 

An  acrid  resin  obtained  from  Euphorbia  resinifera  (Berg.). 
Nat.  Orel. — Euphorbiaceae.    (Not  official.) 

The  Euphorbiacese  include  the  shrubs  yielding  croton  and 
castor  oil,  the  Brazilian  tree  producing  danda  or  assu  juice, 
and  cascarilla  bark.  The  cactus-like  plants  yielding  medi- 
cinal euphorbium  grow  in  the  kingdom  of  Morocco  and  in 
the  region  skirting  the  Atlas  range.  From  incisions  made 
into  their  angular,  jointed,  prickly  stems  and  branches,  an 
acrid,  milky,  resinous  juice  exudes,  and  concretes  in  irregular, 

2q 


610  HELLEBORE 

dull-yellow  tears,  which  are  gathered  in  September,  are 
about  the  size  of  large  peas,  often  hollow,  and  perforated 
with  little  holes.  Euphorbiiini  has  an  acrid,  persistent  taste, 
is  without  odour,  but  is  so  irritant  that  a  mere  trace  of  the 
powder  in  contact  with  the  nostrils  provokes  immediate 
violent  sneezing.  The  powder  is  grey,  and  insoluble  m  water ; 
but  its  active  resinous  principle  dissolves  in  alcohol,  ether, 
and  oil  of  turpentine.  When  heated  it  melts,  swells  up,  and 
burns  with  a  pale  flame  and  an  agreeable  odour.  It  contains 
38  per  cent,  of  an  amorphous,  acrid  resin  (CgoHgoO^),  22  of 
the  colourless,  tasteless  euphorbon,  allied  to  lactucerin,  a 
constituent  of  lettuce  (Fliickiger  and  Hanbury). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Euphorbium  is  an  energetic  irritant, 
vesicant,  and  pustulant.  Introduced  into  the  stomach  or 
areolar  tissues,  rubbed  into  the  skin,  or  inhaled  into  the 
nostrils,  it  causes  violent  and  sometimes  fatal  inflammation. 
Two  ounces  given  internally  caused  fatal  gastro-enteritis  in  a 
horse ;  four  drachms  retained  in  the  stomach  of  a  large  dog 
had  the  like  effect  in  twenty-six  hours  (Orfila).  So  intensely 
irritating  is  euphorbium,  that  the  Avorkmen  employed  in 
grinding  it,  although  wearing  masks  or  handkerchiefs  over 
their  faces,  often  suffer  severely  from  headache,  inflamma- 
tion of  the  eyes,  and  sometimes  even  delirium. 

It  is  occasionally  added  to  blisters,  but  the  ordinary 
ointment  made  with  fatty  matters  is  apt,  especially  in 
horses  and  dogs,  to  inflame  the  deeper  layers  of  the  skin, 
destroy  the  hair  roots,  and  induce  sloughing  and  blemishing. 
Kaufmann  states  that  a  tincture  containing  one  part  to 
sixteen  of  spirit  may,  however,  be  used  as  an  energetic 
vesicant  for  horses  without  injuring  the  hair  roots.  Unlike 
cantharides,  it  has  no  tendency  to  act  on  the  kidneys. 


HELLEBORE 
Black  Hellebore.  Dried  rhizome  and  rootlets  of  Hclleborus 
niger.     Nat  Ord. — Ranunculacese.     (Not  oflicial.) 

The  Helleborus  niger,  Christmas  rose,  or  bear's  foot,  is 
cultivated  in  this  country,  and  is  indigenous  to  many  parts  of 
Continental  Europe;  the  chief  supplies  come  from  (Jermany. 


KAMALA  611 

It  has  a  perennial,  black,  knotted,  scaly  rhizome,  one  to 
three  inches  long  and  scarcely  half  an  inch  thick,  from  which 
descend  numerous  dark-coloured  rootlets,  having:  a  faint, 
unpleasant  odour,  and  an  acrid,  bitter  taste.  The  plant 
generally  is  acrid,  but  the  rhizome  and  rootlets  are  most 
active.  The  rhizomes  of  Helleborus  viridis  and  foetidus, 
often  mixed  with  those  of  the  niger,  are  very  similar  in 
action.  Hellebore  contains  a  bitter,  neutral,  non-volatile, 
irritant  glucoside,  helleborin  (C3gH^.30g);  a  slightly  acid, 
irritant  glucoside,  helleborein  (C^gH^^O^j) ;  other  crystalline 
principles,  and  an  organic  acid,  probably  equisetic  (Fllickiger). 
Actions  and  Uses. — Black  hellebore  is  an  acrid  irritant, 
but  scarcely  so  active  as  veratrum  album,  or  white  hellebore. 
It  is  emetic,  drastic  purgative,  anthelmintic,  and  parasiticide. 
Full  doses  produce  in  all  animals  gastro-enteritis,  with  cardiac 
depression.  Two  drachms  swallowed  by  a  medium-sized  dog 
killed  him  in  a  few  hours,  and  smaller  quantities  have  proved 
fatal  in  a  shorter  time  when  applied  to  wounds  (Christison). 
Two  or  three  drachms  produce  in  horses  colic  and  enteritis ; 
two  or  three  ounces  cause  death  in  forty  to  fifty  hours ; 
one  to  three  drachms  induce  similar  effects  among  sheep 
and  goats  (Hertwig).  It  is  not  prescribed  in  regular  practice. 
Even  as  a  constituent  of  blistering  ointments,  it  must  be 
used  with  caution,  as  it  is  Hable  to  act  with  unexpected 
violence.  An  ounce  of  powdered  hellebore  and  two  ounces 
of  alum,  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  hot  water,  are  used  to 
destroy  caterpillars  infesting  gooseberry,  rose,  or  other  trees. 

KAMALA 

A  powder  consisting  of  the  minute  glands  and  hairs  obtained 
from  the  surface  of  the  fruits  of  Mallotus  philippinensis. 
Nat.  Ord. — Euphorbiacese.     (Not  official.) 

The  granular,  brick-red,  resinous  powder,  which  constitutes 
kamala,  is  obtained  from  the  capsules  of  an  evergreen  small 
tree  indigenous  to  Australia,  India,  and  Abyssinia.  It  yields 
an  active  yellow  crystalline  substance — rottlerin. 

Actions  and  Uses. — It  is  a  drastic  purgative  and  vermi- 
cide.   For  the  destruction  of  tape- worm  it  is  nearly  as  active 


812  ERGOT  OF   RYE 

as  areca-nut  and  male  shield  fern.     The  dose  for  a  dog  is 
5ss.  to  3i.,  administered  in  thick  gruel,  treacle,  or  linseed  oil. 

ERGOT  OF  RYE 
Ergota.     Spurred  or  Horned  Rye.     Ergot.     The  sclerotium 
of  Claviceps  purpurea,  originating  in  the  ovary  of  Secale 
cereale  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Graminacese. 

Ergot  attacks  not  only  rye,  but  the  other  Graminaceai,  the 
Cyperacea3,  and  palms.  The  earliest  symptoms  occur  about 
the  time  of  blooming,  when  the  ears  of  the  rye  exhibit  drops 
of  yellow,  sweet,  fungous  slime,  called  honey-dew,  which 
attracts  ants  and  beetles,  and  which  after  a  few  days  dries 
up.  The  soft  ovaries  of  the  grains  attacked  are  meanwhile 
covered  and  filled  by  white,  spongy,  felted-together  cells — the 
mycelium  (or  spawn)  of  the  Claviceps  purpurea.  The  grain  is 
disintegrated ;  at  its  base  the  mycelium  cells  separate,  swell, 
solidify,  and  form  a  compact,  dark  violet  body,  which,  as  it 
grows  in  a  curved,  horn-like  shape,  protrudes  from  the  pales, 
and  constitutes  the  ergot.  The  further  history  of  this 
biennial  fungus,  investigated  by  Tulasne,  shows  that  it 
reaches  its  fully-developed  sclerotium  or  ergot  state  in  July ; 
it  should  be  gathered  in  August  or  September,  before  any 
putrefaction  appears ;  it  usually  remains  in  a  quiescent  state 
during  winter ;  on  moist  mould,  in  March  or  April,  it  pro- 
duces fruit  heads  of  the  perfect  fungus,  the  Claviceps 
purpurea,  which,  after  a  few  weeks,  is  again  ready  to  distri- 
bute its  earlier  spores.  Close,  damp  weather  and  undrained 
soils  favour  development  and  distribution  of  these  ergot 
spores  as  of  other  fungi.  The  injury  done  to  the  rye  crop 
by  ergot  varies  much ;  sometimes  only  a  few  grains  in  each 
head  are  diseased,  sometimes  scarcely  one  is  altogether 
sound;  five  to  ten  on  an  average  are  affected.  It  abounds 
both  in  grain  and  grasses  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  where  it  is  stated  that  as  much  as  1  lb. 
has  been  got  from  100  lbs.  of  hay.  It  should  be  collected 
before  the  plants  are  cut. 

Properties. — Ergot  of  rye  is  cylindrical,  or  somewhat 
triangular,  curved,  resembling  a  cock's  spur  tapering  towards 


STIMULATES   AND   CONTRACTS   MUSCULAR    FIBRE        613 

the  ends;  it  varies  in  length  from  one- third  of  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a  half,  and  in  breadth  from  one  to  four  lines ; 
is  marked  by  a  longitudinal  furrow  on  each  side,  often 
irregularly  cracked;  has  at  one  end  a  pale-grey,  fragile 
excrescence,  the  shrivelled  remains  of  the  style,  and  is  covered 
by  the  grey,  powdery  conidia  or  spores.  It  is  dark  violet- 
black  externally  and  pinkish- white  within.  Its  odour  is 
peculiar  and  disagreeable ;  its  taste,  at  first  sweet,  becomes 
bitter  and  shghtly  acrid.  When  dry  it  is  inflammable,  hard, 
and  brittle ;  when  moist,  or  long  exposed,  it  becomes  soft, 
darker  in  colour,  and  covered  with  acari.  Its  structure  is 
made  up  of  felted  thread-like  cells,  amidst  which  lie  drops 
of  oil.  Ergot  should  be  free  from  mustiness ;  it  deteriorates 
by  keeping,  and  by  exposure  to  damp  (B.P.).  Infused  in 
boiling  water,  it  forms  a  claret-coloured  solution,  retaining 
the  odour,  taste,  and  actions  of  ergot. 

Ergot  consists  of  about  30  per  cent,  of  a  non-drying  fixed 
oil,  which  has  no  special  action;  a  peculiar  sugar  termed 
mycose ;  lactic,  acetic,  and  formic  acids ;  colouring  matters  ; 
and,  according  to  Kobert,  of  Strasburg,  three  active  principles 
—an  alkaloid,  cornutine,  and  sphacelinic  and  ergotinic 
acids.  Another  base,  ergotinin,  has  been  described:  but  is 
inert.  Amine  and  ammonia  bases  are  formed  normally,  and 
are  also  produced  by  decomposition. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Ergot,  cornutine,  and  sphacelinic  acid 
stimulate  and  contract  involuntary  muscular  fibre,  and 
hence  diminish  the  blood-stream  passing  through  the 
arterioles.  Large  or  continued  doses  thus  produce  ergotism. 
Medicinal  doses  are  given  to  contract  the  uterus,  and  also 
the  blood-vessels  in  cases  of  haemorrhage. 

General  Actions.— The  physiological  effects  of  the  three 
active  principles  of  ergot  are  thus  described  by  Dr.  Lauder 
Brunton : — 

Cornutine  causes  spastic  rigidity  in  frogs,  lasting  many 
days,  even  when  given  in  very  minute  doses  (J,  of  a  milli- 
gramme). In  warm-blooded  animals  half  a  milligramme 
causes  salivation,  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  and  active  movements 
of  the  uterus,  which  are  clonic  and  not  tonic.  The  vessels 
are  contracted  and  blood-pressure  raised. 


614  ERGOTISM 

Sphacelinic  acid  causes  at  first  great  spasmoclic  contrac- 
tion of  the  blood-vessels,  with  rise  of  blood-pressure,  and 
subsequently  gangrene.  The  heart  is  unaffected.  Tetanus 
of  the  uterus  is  produced.  Cornutine  and  sphacelinic  acid 
are  evidently  the  principles  which  cause  uterine  contraction 
(Robert). 

Ergotinic  acid  causes  ascending  paralysis  of  the  spinal 
cord  and  brain  both  in  frogs  and  mammals,  Avith  loss  of 
voluntary  motion,  paralysis  of  the  vaso-motor  centre,  and 
fall  of  blood-pressure,  while  respiration  and  reflex  irritability 
continue.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  the  power  of  increasing 
uterine  contractions,  and  hence  cannot  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  constituent  of  ergot. 

The  fresh  extract,  injected  into  animals,  causes  inco- 
ordination, cutaneous  ana)mia,  anaesthesia,  and  paralysis, 
and  in  large  doses  death  due  to  paralysis  of  respiration. 
The  voluntary  muscles  are  unaffected ;  the  motor  nerves  are 
not  paralysed,  but,  on  the  contrary,  have  their  power  some- 
what increased ;  the  sensory  nerves  are  paralysed;  but  it  is 
uncertain  whether  this  action  is  central  or  perijiheral.  The 
spinal  cord  is  paralysed  (Brunton).  The  action  of  the  heart 
is  weakened ;  the  pulse-rate  slowed.  Blood-pressure  is  first 
lowered  and  then  raised.  Respiration  in  dogs  is  first 
quickened,  but  in  most  animals  it  is  slowed  from  the 
beginning.  All  unstriped  muscular  fibre  is  contracted; 
the  calibre  of  blood-vessels  is  hence  diminished,  as  may  be 
readily  seen  in  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot;  the  iris  is 
contracted;  intestinal  peristalsis  is  increased;  the  urinary 
bladder  is  emptied,  and  the  contents  of  the  pregnant  uterus 
expelled.  The  contractions  of  the  uterus  are  continuous 
and  tetanic,  are  usually  produced  in  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes,  and  last  about  an  hour.  They  result  mainly  from 
general  contraction  of  unstriped  muscular  fibre,  but  are 
also  believed  to  be  in  part  determined  by  stimulation  of  the 
uterine  centre  in  the  spinal  cord. 

Ergot,  given  experimentally  in  large  or  continued  doses, 
or  the  protracted  use  of  ergoted  grain,  causes  ergotism, 
which  is  characterised  by  gastro-intcstinal  derangement, 
nausea,  diarrhaa  and  vomiting  in  animals  capable  of  emesis, 


CHRONIC   POISONING  615 

and  from  the  impaired  circulation  and  nutrition  affecting 
different  areas,  subsequently  assumes  two  forms — (1)  dry 
gangrene,  chiefly  involving  the  extremities,  ears,  and  tail; 
(2)  inco-ordinate  spasms,  and  sometimes  epileptiform  con- 
vulsions. This  latter  form  is  believed  to  result  from  irritation 
and  paralysis  of  the  sensory  centres  of  the  spinal  cord. 

Ergot  of  rye,  resembles  maize  ergot — a  fungus  occurring 
on  Indian  corn,  recognised  by  the  U.S.A.  Phar.,  and  probably 
containing  the  same  active  principles  as  ergot.  Savin  and 
thuja  also  cause  uterine  contractions.  Digitalis  and  its 
analogues  contract  the  involuntary  fibres  of  arterioles. 
The  physiological  antagonists  of  ergot  are  ethers  and 
amyl-nitrite. 

Toxic  Effects  are  not  so  marked  on  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
and  rabbits  as  on  men  and  dogs.  Thirty  cows  amongst 
them  took  daily  with  impunity  37  lbs.  for  three  months ; 
two  milk  cows  had  between  them  9  lbs.  daily,  with  no 
further  evil  effect  than  that  the  butter  was  badly  tasted. 
Twenty  sheep  amongst  them  ate  daily  for  four  weeks  9  lbs. 
without  injury  (Phcebus  and  Pereira).  Dogs  receiving  six 
to  twelve  drachms  suffered  from  vomiting,  tenesmus,  pro- 
stration of  muscular  power,  enfeebled  pulse,  convulsive 
twitchings,  spasms,  and  coma  (Tabourin).  Three  ounces 
proved  fatal  to  a  terrier  bitch  in  twenty  hours. 

Chronic  poisoning  occurs  especially  in  patients  placed  in 
unfavourable  sanitary  surroundings.  Dr.  Samuel  Wright 
(Edinhurgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  vols.  Hi.,  liii., 
and  liv.)  found  that  ergot,  given  for  several  weeks  to  dogs 
and  rabbits,  caused  nausea,  impaired  appetite,  a  weak, 
irregular  pulse,  soon  becoming  intermittent,  diarrhoea; 
excessive  foetor  of  the  secretions  and  excretions,  paralysis, 
particularly  of  the  hind  extremities,  enlargement  of  the 
liver,  contraction  of  the  spleen,  impairment  of  the  special 
senses,  wasting,  and  general  debility.  Gangrene  of  the 
extremities  is  not,  however,  produced  so  readily  as  in  man. 
Dogs,  cats,  and  rabbits  showed  great  aversion  to  it,  even 
when  it  was  mixed  with  sound  grain,  or  considerably  diluted 
with  water;  and,  although  pressed  by  hunger,  would  scarcely 
eat  it  of  their  own  accord.     Ergot  of  maize,  according  to 


616  ERGOT   AN    ECBOLIO 

Roulin,  is  common  in  Columbia,  and  its  continued  use  is 
stated  to  cause  shedding  of  tlie  hair,  and  even  of  the  teeth, 
both  of  man  and  beast.  Mules  freely  fed  on  it  lose  their 
hoofs,  and  fowls  lay  eggs  without  shells. 

Abortion  attributed  to  ergoted  grasses  occurs  amongst 
cows,  ewes,  and  deer  in  many  grass  districts  of  England  and 
Ireland,  especially  in  wet  seasons.  The  hay  from  pastures 
subject  to  ergot  is  seldom,  however,  so  injurious  as  the 
grass,  for  it  is  generally  cut  before  the  fungus  is  matured. 
Cows  abort  from  this  cause  more  frequently  than  ewes  or 
deer ;  for  they  are  more  prone  to  eat  the  coarser,  longer 
ergoted  grasses,  and,  moreover,  are  often  pregnant  in  the 
later  months  of  summer,  when  ergot  occurs.  Experi- 
mentally, abortion  has  been  produced  in  guinea-pigs,  sows, 
bitches,  cats,  cows,  and  ewes,  rabbits,  and  poultry  (Stille, 
Therapeutics).  Youatt  declared  that  he  had  never  knoAvn 
ergot  fail  in  its  action  on  the  pregnant  uterus  either  of 
monogastrics  or  ruminants.  The  negative  results  obtained 
by  some  experimenters  may  be  explained  by  their  having 
used  ergot  which  had  been  too  long  kept. 

Medicinal  Uses. — As  a  parturient,  ergot  is  seldom  needed 
in  the  lower  animals.  The  foal  or  calf,  coming  naturally  at 
the  full  period,  if  assistance  is  requisite,  is  generally  brought 
away  by  judicious  traction.  It  is  sometimes  useful  in 
uterine  inertia,  where  the  throes  are  languid  and  occurring 
at  long  intervals,  where  the  animal  has  been  in  labour  for 
some  considerable  time,  where  no  obstruction  is  present, 
and  where  the  os  uteri  is  considerably  dilated.  It  is  un- 
suitable where  there  is  malformation  either  of  the  mother 
or  foetus,  where  the  position  of  the  fretus  prevents  its  ready 
expulsion,  and  sometimes  also  in  first  pregnancies,  where  the 
uterus,  roused  to  continuous  tetanic  contractions,  is  more 
liable  to  be  injured  or  torn.  After  parturition,  if  the  uterus 
remain  flaccid,  and  especially  if  haemorrhage  occur,  as 
occasionally  happens  both  in  coavs  and  ewes,  ergot  eti'ectually 
contracts  the  organ,  and  thus  arrests  the  bleeding.  In  such 
cases  it  may  be  given  by  the  mouth,  or,  where  prompt 
effects  are  sought,  it  is  injected  subcutaneously,  or  into  the 
substance  of  a  muscle.    It  is  sometimes  prescribed  to  remove 


SAVIN  617 

uterine  cysts  and  hasten  expulsion  of  the  fcetal  membranes, 
which  in  the  lower  animals  may  usually,  however,  be  readily 
removed  by  the  hand.  Given  either  by  the  mouth  or  injec- 
tion, it  is  useful  in  all  animals  in  haemoptysis,  and  sometimes 
in  hasmatemesis  and  other  hsemorrhages.  It  is  of  no  avail  in 
purpura.  Professor  Robertson  recommended  it  in  cerebro- 
spinal meningitis  in  horses ;  and  several  practitioners  have 
tried  it,  but  without  much  success,  in  parturient  apoplexy 
in  cows.  The  reduction  of  fibroid  and  other  tumours  has 
sometimes  been  effected  by  injecting  them  with  ergot. 

In  addition  to  the  powdered  drug  the  following  official 
preparations  are  used  : — Extractum  Ergotse  (Ergotin) ;  Ex- 
tractum  Ergotfe  Liquidum ;  Infusum  Ergota3  (1  to  20  of 
boiling  water) ;  Tinctura  Ergotte  Ammoniata ;  and  Injectio 
Ergotse  Hypodermica  (made  with  ergot-extract). 

Doses,  etc. — Ergot  freshly  powdered,  as  an  ecbolic  for  the 
mare  or  cow,  §ss.  to  §ij. ;  for  sheep  about  5ij- ;  for  swine  and 
bitches  5ss.  to  5j-;  Extract  of  Ergot  (Ergotin),  horses  and 
cattle,  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  Ixxx. ;  dogs,  grs.  v.  to  grs.  x. ;  in  drench 
or  electuary,  and  repeated  as  may  be  required.  The  liquid 
extract  may  be  prescribed  for  horses  and  cattle  in  doses  of 
1T|_lx.  to  5ij ;  for  dogs  IT^x.  to  TT^xxx.  Of  the  tincture  horses 
and  cattle  may  be  given  5iv.  to  §j.  or  more.  The  B.P.  hypo- 
dermic injection  of  ergot  contains  33  grains  of  the  extract 
in  110  minims.  For  the  mare  or  cow  the  dose  is  "nj^GO  to 
TT^lOO  injected  subcutaneously  or  into  the  substance  of  the 
gluteal  muscles.     The  smaller  dose  should  first  be  tried. 


SAVIN 

Sabine  Cacumina.  Fresh  and  dried  tops  of  Juniperus 
Sabina,  collected  in  spring  from  plants  cultivated  in 
Britain.     Nat.  Ord. — Coniferpe.    (Not  official.) 

.Juniperus  Sabina  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  common  through- 
out Middle  and  Southern  Europe,  and  cultivated  in  this 
country.  The  tops  or  young  branches,  with  their  attached 
leaves,  when  fresh  are  green,  but  become  yellow  when  kept; 


618  SAVIN 

have  a  strong,  heavy,  disagreeable  odour,  and  a  bitter,  acrid, 
resinous  taste.  They  communicate  their  properties  to  water, 
spirit,  and  the  fixed  oils,  and  owe  their  activity  to  about 
three  per  cent,  of  a  colourless  or  pale  yellow  volatile  oil, 
prepared  from  the  fresh  tops  by  distillation,  isomeric  with 
oil  of  turpentine  (C^oHjg),  and  associated,  as  constantly 
occurs  in  plants,  with  a  more  oxidised  oil  (Cj^H^gO).  From 
the  berries  ten  per  cent,  of  these  oils  is  said  to  be  obtained 
(Phillips). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Savin  is  a  topical  irritant,  antiseptic, 
rubefacient  and  vesicant.  Administered  internally,  moderate 
doses  are  anthelmintic,  and  diuretic ;  they  increase  appetite, 
promote  digestion,  and  stimulate  the  urino-genital  organs. 
Large  doses  produce  gastro-enteritis.  Excretion  occurs  by 
the  skin,  pulmonary  membrane,  and  kidneys.  Savin  re- 
sembles the  turpentine  yielding  coniferse,  and  especially  the 
other  junipers. 

Toxic  Effects. — Hertwig  gave  horses  half  a  pound  twice 
daily  for  six  or  eight  days  without  effect;  Professor  Sick 
administered  small  doses  for  half  a  year  without  notable 
symptoms;  but  these  observations  probably  underrate  its 
activity.  Mr.  Rose  records  the  poisoning  of  five  horses,  of 
which  one  died  immediately,  and  two  after  five  days ;  the 
others  recovered,  after  sufi'ering  from  diarrhoea,  intense  thirst, 
quickened  pulse  and  breathing,  with  great  prostration 
(Veterinary  Record,  1850).  Two  drachms  kill  rabbits  in 
a  few  hours,  producing  extreme  congestion  of  the  intestines, 
kidneys,  and  bladder.  Orfila  records  that  four  drachms 
destroyed  dogs  in  thirteen  hours,  when  the  gullet  was  tied 
to  prevent  vomiting;  and  similar  effects  followed  when 
powdered  savin  was  applied  to  a  wound  or  introduced  under 
the  skin.  Vomiting,  purging,  gastro-intestinal  inflamma- 
tion, and  collapse  Avere  produced.  The  kidneys  and  bladder 
were  irritated,  usually  causing  copious  discliarge  of  bloody 
urine. 

The  uterus  is  also  irritated,  and  savin  has  been  ignorantly 
used  to  produce  abortion  and  hasten  parturition.  Two  cases 
of  abortion  in  mares  heavy  in  foal  are  recorded  in  the 
VeteriTiarian  for  1855.     In  these  cases  the  continued  use 


COLCHICUM  619 

of  savin  destroyed  both  foals,  and,  being  still  persevered  with, 
caused  their  expulsion  apparently  ten  or  twelve  days  later. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Savin  cannot  be  safely  used  to  produce 
abortion  or  hasten  parturition.  Unlike  ergot,  it  does  not 
directly  contract  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  uterus.  It 
stimulates  the  uterus,  and  expels  its  contents  only  as  a 
result  of  irritation  of  the  intestines  and  urinary  organs.  It 
is  occasionally  used  chopped  with  fodder  for  the  destruction 
of  intestinal  worms ;  but  other  remedies  are  safer  and  more 
cer*-ain.  If  used  at  all,  the  best  form  is  the  essential  oil. 
Infusions  of  the  tops  in  an  alkaline  ley,  and  the  essential  oil, 
are  occasionally  applied  as  antiseptics  and  stimulants  to 
warts  and  mdolent  wounds. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  the  volatile  oil  as  an  anthelmintic — the 
only  purpose  for  which  savin  is  administered — horses  or 
cattle,  f5iij-  to  f5iv;  dogs,  Tliiii.  to  T\[y.  dissolved  in  any  mild 
fixed  oil  or  in  mucilage.  For  external  application,  infusions 
and  ointments  are  used.  Equal  parts  of  savin  and  verdigris 
ointments  form  a  popular  stimulant  dressing  for  foot-rot  in 
sheep.  An  infusion,  one  of  savin  to  one  hundred  of  water, 
is  sometimes  injected  into  the  uterus  to  promote  expulsion 
of  retained  foetal  membranes. 


COLCHICUM 

CoLCHici  CoRMUS.  Colcliicum  Corm.  The  fresh  corm  of 
Colchicum  autumnale.  Meadow  Safiron.  Collected  in 
early  summer;  and  the  same,  stripped  of  its  coats, 
sliced  transversely,  and  dried  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding^  150°  Fahr. 

CoLCHici  Semina.  The  dried,  ripe  seeds  of  C.  autumnale 
(B.P.).     Kat  Ord.—Cohhicacesd. 

The  meadow  saffron  grows  wild  throughout  Middle  and 
Southern  Europe,  and  on  English  lawns  and  coarse,  wet 
pastures,  in  mild,  moist  localities,  and  is  cultivated  in  gardens. 
It  has  an  annual  stem ;  lilac  or  purple  flowers,  numerous 
round,  red-brown,  bitter,  acrid  seeds  about  the  size  of  millet ; 


620  COLCHICUM 

and  a  bulbous  root,  which  when  about  a  year  old,  reaches 
the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  matures  in  July. 

The  conns  arc  used  both  fresh  and  dried.  Dried  slices  are 
kidney-slia])ed,  about  one  and  a  half  inch  lone;',  and  an  inch 
broad,  are  greyish-white,  dry,  firm,  and  starchy,  with  a  bitter, 
acrid  taste.  They  yield  their  active  principles  to  alcohol 
and  vinegar.  They  contain  about  70  per  cent,  of  water,  and 
18  of  starch  and  gum,  with  jVtli  of  1  per  cent,  of  a  bitter, 
crystallisable,  poisonous  alkaloid,  colchicine  (C^-H^j^NO-).  It 
is  conjoined  with  gallic  acid,  is  present  in  other  parts  of  the 
plant,  and  is  nearly  a  hundred  times  more  active  than  the 
fresh  bulbs.  Soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  slightly  soluble 
in  glycerin;  with  acids,  forms  crystalline  salts.  Sulphuric 
acid  colours  it  yellow-brown,  nitric  acid  dyes  it  violet,  passing 
through  various  hues  to  yellow.  The  corms  also  contain 
traces  of  the  allied  alkaloid  veratrine. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Colchicum  irritates  most  textures  with 
which  it  comes  into  contact.  Large  doses  are  gastro- 
intestinal irritants  and  cardiac  depressants.  Medicinal  doses 
are  emetic,  cathartic,  and  cholagogue.  Its  diuretic  and 
diaphoretic  actions  are  uncertain.  It  resembles  Veratrum 
album,  V.  viride,  and  cevadilla. 

Toxic  Effects. — The  corm,  whether  used  green  or  dry,  the 
seed,  any  active  preparation,  and  still  more  notably  colchicine, 
are  in-contact  irritants.  Owing  to  the  active  principle 
being  slightly  soluble  they  have  little  action  on  the  sound 
skin.  When  swallowed,  a  sense  of  acridity  is  produced  in 
the  mouth  and  throat,  and  the  flow  of  saliva  is  increased. 
Passing  into  the  stomach  and  bowels  they  cause  colic, 
tenesmus,  and  diarrhoea,  and  in  carnivora  nausea  and  vomit- 
ing. Absorption,  however,  is  slow.  The  gastro-intestinal 
irritation  is  succeeded  by  cardiac  depression,  resembling  that 
caused  by  veratrine  and  aconite,  while  full  or  frequently 
repeated  doses  induce  collapse.  The  brain,  motor  nerves, 
and  mu.scles  are  unaffected;  the  spinal  cord  and  sensory 
nerves  are  paralysed. 

Mr.  Broad  in  the  Veteritiarian,  185G,  records  two  cases  of 
horses  dying  from  eating  with  their  hay  the  stalks,  leaves, 
and  seeds  of  colchicum.   Colic,  tympanites,  and  great  dulness 


AN    IN-CONTACT    IRRITANT  621 

supervened,  with  death  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  on  post- 
mortem examination  'inflammation  and  patches  of  erosion' 
were  found  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach.  Mr. 
Broad  also  mentions  the  poisoning-  of  eight  two-year-old  in- 
calf  heifers,  which  suftered  from  hoven,  purging,  feeble  pulse 
and  coma.  Three  died  in  about  twenty  hours,  and  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  stomachs  exhibited  patches  of 
inflammation  and  erosion. 

M.  Barry  (Rccueil  de  Medicine  VeUrinaire,  1862)  records 
the  case  of  a  cow  and  heifer  in  Aisne,  which  ate  some  cut 
grass  containing  a  considerable  amount  of  meadow  safiron. 
In  a  few  hours  they  had  violent  colic,  profuse  and  bloody 
diarrhoea,  tenderness  of  the  abdomen,  coldness  of  the  surface, 
and  prostration.  The  cow  recovered ;  the  heifer  died  from 
irritation  and  exhaustion  in  three  days.  A  number  of  cows 
ate  small  quantities  of  colchicum,  suffered  from  colic  and 
diarrha?a,  but  recovered  when  treated  with  emollient 
drenches  and  mild  saline  mixtures.  Three  cattle  having 
eaten  colchicum  are  reported  {Veterinarian,  1864)  to  have 
suftered  from  dulness,  stupor,  grinding  of  the  teeth,  dilated 
pupils,  imperceptible  pulse,  relaxed  bowels,  cold  extremities, 
and  thirst,  but  no  griping  pains,  or  quickened  breathing. 
They  were  successfully  treated  by  laxatives  and  stimulants. 

Dogs  and  cats  are  more  susceptible  than  horses  or 
ruminants.  Two  drachms  of  the  dried  bulb  caused  in  doo-s 
vomiting,  bloody  evacuations,  diuresis,  tremors  of  the  limbs, 
depression  of  the  heart  action,  and  death  in  five  hours.  A 
tenth  of  a  grain  of  colchicine  given  to  a  cat  occasioned  saliva- 
tion, vomiting,  purging,  staggering,  extreme  languor,  colic, 
and  death  in  twelve  hours.  Rabbits,  as  well  as  frogs  and 
other  cold-blooded  animals,  are  stated  to  be  less  susceptible 
to  the  drug. 

As  antidotes  the  stomach  must  be  emptied ;  full  doses  of 
tannin  form  an  insoluble  compound  with  the  colchicine; 
white  of  egg  and  other  demulcents  are  freely  given,  and 
stimulants  if  there  be  collapse. 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  fresh  corm  given  in  large  doses  by 
Professor  Rutherford  to  fasting  dogs,  and  its  expulsion  by 
vomiting  prevented,  increased    secretion  of  bile,  and   also 


622  CAMPHOR 

purged  powerfully.  But  action  on  the  liver  and  gastro- 
intestinal membrane  is  more  safely  effected  by  other 
medicines.  Small  doses,  conjoined  witli  alkalies  or  salines, 
are  occasionally  given  to  horses  in  rheumatism  and  influ- 
enza, especially  in  subacute  cases  in  which  the  inflammation 
appears  to  move  from  joint  to  joint.  Foreign  authorities 
prescribe  it  in  constitutional  ophthalmia.  Professor  Williams 
has  used  it,  conjoined  with  potassium  iodide,  in  pleurisy,  in 
rheumatic  pericarditis,  and  sometimes  in  pneumonia  when 
the  kidneys  were  torpid.  It  is  excreted  in  great  part  by  the 
kidneys,  and  when  not  quickly  removed  by  the  bowels  it 
increases,  alike  in  health  and  disease,  both  the  organic  and 
inorganic  constituents  of  the  urine. 

Doses,  etc. — The  powdered  corm  or  seed  as  a  diuretic  for 
horses,  5ss.  to  3j.;  for  cattle,  5j-  to  5ij. ;  for  sheep,  grs.  x.  to 
grs.  XXV.;  for  dogs  and  pigs,  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  viij.,  given  with 
salines.  A  convenient  solution  is  made  with  one  part  of 
colchicum,  six  or  eight  of  vinegar,  and  a  little  spirit.  Col- 
chicine dissolved  in  100  parts  of  water  and  alcohol  may  be 
given  hypodermically  or  intratracheally  in  doses  of  gr.  i.  to 
gr.  ij.  to  horses,  and  gr.  -j-Vth  to  gr.  ^th  to  dogs.  The  tincture 
is  made  with  four  ounces  of  colchicum  seeds  to  the  pint  of 
alcohol  (45  per  cent). 


CAMPHOR 

Camphora.  a  white  crystalline  substance  obtained  from 
Cinnamomum  camphora,  purified  by  sublimation 
(B.P.).    Nat.  Ord. — Laurineaj. 

The  camphor  laurel  is  a  tall,  handsome  evergreen, 
cultivated  in  Japan  and  China,  and  in  many  European 
conservatories.  Its  wood  and  leaves  evolve  a  characteristic 
odour  when  bruised,  and  yield  about  ^^th  of  their  weight  of 
camphor,  which  is  sometimes  extracted  by  dry  distillation. 
In  Formosa,  whence  comes  most  of  the  camphor  imported 
to  this  country,  the  branches  are  cut  into  chips  and  boiled 
with  water  in  wooden  troughs;  along  with  the  steam  the 
volatile  camphor  rises  and  condenses  in  earthen  pots  placed 


ANTISEPTIC,   STIMULANT,   AND    ANALGESIC  623 

over  the  troughs,  and  on  reaching  this  country  is  purified  by 
mixing  with  a  little  charcoal,  sand,  lime,  and  iron  filings, 
and  re-subliming. 

Properties. — Camphor  occurs  in  solid,  colourless,  trans- 
parent, crystalline  pieces,  of  tough  consistence ;  also  in 
rectangular  tablets  or  pulverulent  masses  known  as  '  flowers 
of  camphor  '  (B.P.).  It  has  a  bitter,  pungent,  cooling  taste, 
and  a  strong,  peculiar,  aromatic  odour.  It  floats  on  water, 
its  specific  gravity,  varying  with  the  temperature,  is  about 
0'995.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  volatilises;  heated,  it  subHmes 
without  residue,  and  burns  readily  with  a  bright  but  smoky 
flame.  It  is  diflicult  to  powder,  unless  when  mixed  with 
alcohol,  ether,  or  chloroform.  It  dissolves  readily  in  ether, 
in  about  its  own  weight  of  rectified  spirit,  in  one-fourth  part 
of  chloroform,  four  parts  olive  oil,  two  parts  oil  of  turpentine, 
eight  times  its  weis^ht  of  milk,  and  in  700  times  its  weie'ht  of 
water.  Camphor  (C^oH^gO)  is  an  oxide  of  terpene  (C^oH^g) — 
the  chief  constituent  of  oil  of  turpentine,  chamomile,  carda- 
moms, cloves,  hops,  juniper,  savin,  or  valerian.  Associated 
with  the  terpene  in  these  oils  is  an  oxidised  product  or 
stearoptine  corresponding  with  the  colophony  of  turpentine. 
Continuously  heated  with  nitric  acid,  camphor  oxidises,  and 
is  converted  into  camphoric  acid  (Cj^^H-^gO^).  Triturated 
with  chloral  hydrate,  menthol,  phenol,  or  thymol,  it  forms 
a  liquid. 

Borneo  camphor  (C^QH^gO)  is  an  alcohol  derived  from  the 
wood  of  Dryobalanops  aromatica,  and  is  distinguished  from 
laurel  camphor  by  its  softness,  friability,  and  opacity,  its 
higher  density,  and  its  somewhat  alliaceous  odour.  From 
Borneo,  Formosa  and  other  parts  of  China,  fluid  camphor 
oils  are  obtained  from  several  different  trees.  Artificial 
camphor  (C^oH^gHCL)  is  got  by  the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid 
on  oil  of  turpentine.  Camphora  monobromata  (C\,^HjgBrO) 
resembles  bromine  rather  than  camphor  in  its  actions,  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  the  bromides,  but  is  not  so 
efficient. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  camphors  in  large  doses  are 
irritant  and  narcotic.  Medicinal  doses  are  antiseptic, 
stimulant,    antispasmodic,   anodyne,   aphrodisiac,   and   dia- 


624  CAMPHOR 

phoretic.  Externally,  they  are  occasionally  employed  as 
antiseptics,  parasiticides,  counter  -  irritants,  and  to  relieve 
itching  in  various  skin  diseases. 

General  and  Toxic  Effects. — The  camphors,  physiologi- 
cally, are  volatile  oils.  Like  other  bodies  of  the  group  they 
are  topical  irritants,  and  large  doses  stimulate  and  sub- 
sequently narcotise  the  central  nervous  system.  They 
frequently  produce  convulsions.  Those  which  contain  the 
most  hydrogen,  as  the  Borneo,  the  monobromata,  as  well 
as  menthol  (C\oH2(,0),  are  least  convulsant.  In  fine  powder 
or  solution  they  are  quickly  absorbed ;  are  oxidised  in  great 
part  into  camphoric  acid ;  stimulate  the  brain,  spinal  cord, 
heart,  and  respiratory  functions:  and  are  excreted  by  the 
skin  and  bronchial  membrane,  and  in  less  amount  by  the 
kidneys  (Bartholow).  Moiroud  records  that  two  ounces  pro- 
duced in  horses  convulsive  movements  and  acceleration  of 
the  pulse,  unaccompanied,  however,  by  fatal  results.  Hert- 
wig  mentions  that  two  to  four  ounces  given  to  horses  and 
cattlC;  two  to  four  drachms  to  sheep,  and  one  to  three  drachms 
to  dogs,  accelerate  respiration  and  pulsation,  communicate 
a  camphoraceous  odour  to  the  breath,  heighten  sensibility, 
and  occasionally  induce  convulsions.  Dogs,  besides,  exhibit 
imperfect  power  of  controlling  the  movements  of  their  limbs, 
and  when  the  doses  amount  to  three  or  four  drachms  in- 
sensibility and  death  ensue.  The  vapour  of  camphor  destroys 
fleas,  bugs,  moths,  and  spiders,  exciting,  enfeebling,  and 
stupefying  them.  It  has  considerable  antiseptic  power. 
Koch  found  that  one  part  to  2500  of  water  hindered 
development  of  anthrax  bacilli. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Camphor  is  a  nervine  stimulant,  and 
hence  usefully  controls  reflex  excitability  in  gastro-intestinal, 
respiratory,  urino-genital,  and  cutaneous  irritability.  It  is 
used,  especially  in  young  animals,  as  a  gastric  stimulant 
and  antiseptic.  In  diarrhoea  it  is  given  with  aroinatics 
and  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid,  or  with  ether  and 
laudanum.  Professor  Robertson  prescribed  it  with  opium 
in  enteritis  in  horses.  Many  veterinarians  give  it  freely  in 
catarrhal  cases  presenting  increased  secretion  and  dyspnoea, 
conjoining  it   with   salines,  ammonia  salts,  or  belladonna. 


A    NERVE    AND    GASTRIC   STIMULANT  625 

In  chronic  bronchitis  in  horses,  Professor  Eobertson  pre- 
scribed it  with  squill,  and  in  convalescence  from  catarrhal 
complaints  used  a  bolus  consisting  of  a  drachm  each  of 
camphor,  gentian,  ginger,  and  myrrh.  For  influenza  and 
other  exhausting  diseases,  whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  a 
stimulating  draught  is  often  made  with  two  drachms  each 
of  camphor  and  ammonium  carbonate,  and  an  ounce  of 
ether,  given  in  ale  or  cold  gruel.  Sore-throat  and  irritable, 
spasmodic  cough  are  relieved  by  placing  on  the  tongue,  at 
intervals  of  two  or  three  hours,  or  as  required,  an  electuary 
made  with  equal  parts  of  belladonna  extract,  borax,  and 
camphor,  reduced  to  a  paste  with  ammonium  acetate  solu- 
tion, and  mixed  with  eight  or  ten  parts  of  honey  or  treacle. 
Small  doses  prescribed  with  belladonna  lessen  urino-genital 
irritability,  resulting  from  cantharides  or  other  causes.  Its 
aphrodisiac  effects  are  not  very  notable  in  veterinary  patients. 
It  does  not,  as  has  been  popularly  believed,  diminish  the 
lacteal  secretion. 

For  dogs,  a  mixture  containing  grs.  v.  each  of  camphor 
and  belladonna  extract,  with  fgj.  of  ammonium  acetate  solu- 
tion, in  two  ounces  of  water,  is  prescribed  to  relieve  cough 
and  bronchial  irritation.  Professor  Williams  recommends 
camphor  and  sweet  spirit  of  nitre  for  allaying  the  restless- 
ness and  convulsions  of  chorea. 

Externally,  it  is  applied  either  in  oil,or  weak  spirituous  solu- 
tion, to  allay  itching  in  chronic  eczema  and  urticaria.  Dissolved 
in  oil  or  mixed  with  vaseline,  it  is  used  to  destroyskin  parasites, 
and  to  prevent  attacksof  flies.  It  is  aconstituentof  soap, opium, 
belladonna,  chloroform,  turpentine,  and  other  liniments. 

Aqua  Camphorae  is  made  with  70  grains  of  camphor 
dissolved  in  four  drachms  of  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  and 
added  to  one  gallon  of  water. 

Camphorated  oil  consists  of  one  part  of  camphor  in  four 
of  olive  oil. 

Compound  liniment  of  Camphor  is  made  with  twenty 
parts  camphor,  forty  strong  solution  of  ammonia,  one  of  oil 
of  lavender,  and  120  of  rectified  spirit. 

Spirit  of  Camphor  consists  of  one  part  camphor  dissolved 
in  nine  parts  alcohol  (90  per  cent.). 

2  R 


626  S  ANITAS 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses,  5j-  to  5ij-;  for  cattle,  3ij-  to  5^v. ; 
for  sheep  and  pigs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xl. ;  and  for  dogs,  grs.  v. 
to  grs.  X.  When  used  for  anodyne  purposes,  it  is  con- 
veniently made  into  an  emulsion  with  eggs,  or  dissolved 
in  milk  or  oil.  For  external  use,  it  is  dissolved  in  ten 
parts  of  alcohol,  in  diluted  acetic  acid,  linseed  oil,  or  oil 
of  turpentine. 

SANITAS 
Sanitas  occurs  in  the  form  of  oily  and  Avatery  fluids,  pre- 
pared by  oxidation  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  containing 
camphoraceous  bodies  and  hydrogen  peroxide. 

A  current  of  air  is  driven  by  an  engine,  for  about  120 
hours,  through  a  series  of  Doulton's  stoneware  receivers, 
surrounded  by  vats  of  water,  maintained  by  steam  at  a 
temperature  of  140°  Fahr.  In  each  receiver  are  placed 
thirty  gallons  of  American,  Russian,  or  Swedish  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  about  double  that  amount  of  water.  The 
oil  gradually  becomes  darker  in  colour,  its  specific  gravity 
and  boiling  point  are  raised,  and  it  acquires  a  balsamic 
odour  resoTiibling  camphor  and  peppermint.  As  the  process 
continues,  the  turpentine  (Ci(,H^(.)  is  oxidised,  producing 
camphoric  peroxide  (CjoHjg03),  which  is  gradually  converted 
into  another  antiseptic  camphoric  substance  (C-^oH-y^O.,),  and 
the  soluble  hydrogen  peroxide  which  passes  into  solution 
in  the  water. 

The  several  essential  oils  of  the  terpene  series  (Cj^H^g), 
as  Avell  as  cymene  (Cj^H^^)  and  menthene  (C^qH^j,),  undergo 
similar  oxidation,  and  give  rise  to  the  same  products.  In 
this  way  pine  forests,  especially  during  sunshine  following 
rain,  render  the  atmosphere  not  only  pleasantly  balsamic 
but  antiseptic,  more  highly  ox3^genated,  and  curative  for 
throat  and  lung  complaints.  The  Eucalyptus  globulus  in 
like  manner  pours  forth  these  antiseptic  and  highly  oxy- 
genated volatile  products,  which  are  antidotes  to  malaria, 
and  sometimes,  it  is  said,  even  arrest  the  progress  of  pul- 
monary consumption ;  while,  on  a  smaller  scale,  every  plant 
or  flower  producing  an  essential  oil  exerts  similar  oxygenat- 


SANITAS   AND    HYDROGEN   PEROXIDE  627 

ing  and  purifying  effects  (Nature's  Hygiene,  by  C.  T.  King- 
zett,  F.I.C,  F.C.S.). 

When  the  manufacture  of  Sanitas  is  completed,  there 
floats  on  the  surface  of  the  aqueous  solution  a  yellow-brown, 
dense,  oxidised  oil  of  turpentine,  consisting  chiefly  of  cam- 
phoric peroxide,  which  is  stated  to  have  an  oxidising  strength 
equal  to  that  of  a  ten  volume  solution  of  hydrogen  peroxide. 
This  Sanitas  oil,  mixed  with  a  suitable  mineral  or  other 
basis,  constitutes  a  useful  disinfecting  and  deodorant  powder. 
It  is  introduced  into  various  soaps,  conferring  disinfectant 
properties,  and,  mixed  wdth  vaseline,  oils,  or  fats,  forms 
serviceable  antiseptic  liniments  and  ointments.  Melted 
with  Dammar  resin  and  parafiin  wax,  a  mixture  is  obtained 
which  is  used  to  impregnate  muslin,  forming  an  antiseptic 
gauze.  Disinfectant  desiccants  are  prepared  by  admixture 
wdth  chalk  or  starch.  The  watery  solution,  cleared  by 
filtration,  and  known  as  Sanitas  fluid,  consists  chiefly  of 
thymol,  a  proportion  of  the  camphoraceous  constituents 
which  characterise  the  oil,  and  hydrogen  peroxide. 

The  B.P.  Solution  of  Hydrogen  Peroxide  is  a  clear,  odour- 
less liquid,  with  a  bitter  taste.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  water, 
and  should  contain  from  nine  to  eleven  volumes  of  available 
oxygen.  It  is  a  powerful  oxidising  agent,  and  a  valuable 
antiseptic  for  abscess  cavities,  ulcers,  and  suppurating 
wounds.  A  five  to  ten  per  cent,  solution  in  water  has  been 
employed  to  disinfect  the  facial  sinuses  after  trephining, 
and  to  irrigate  the  uterus  after  extraction  of  retained  foital 
membranes. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Sanitas  oil  and  fluid  are  volatile,  oxidis- 
ing, non-poisonous  antiseptics,  disinfectants,  and  deodorants. 
Their  several  constituents  in  various  ways  attack  and 
destroy  organised  ferments,  and  the  lower  forms  of  vege- 
table and  animal  life.  Sanitas  preparations  have  an  agree- 
able aromatic  odour,  are  not  corrosive,  and  do  not  stain  or 
injure  clothing  or  other  textile  fabrics.  Their  power  of 
checking  fermentation  has  led  to  the  administration  of  the 
fluid  to  calves  fed  on  milk,  and  suflering  from  dyspepsia  or 
diarrhoea ;  an  ounce  is  prescribed  with  six  ounces  of  water, 
and  may  be  conjoined  with  spirit,  ether,  or  chloroform. 


628  SANITAS    OIL    AND    FLUID 

Useful  antiseptic  lotions  for  wounds,  ulcers,  and  bruises 
are  prepared  with  one  part  of  the  fluid,  diluted,  according  to 
circumstances,  with  four  to  ten  parts  of  water.  Ointments 
and  liniments  arc  prepared  with  about  the  same  proportions 
of  oils  and  fats.  When  wounds,  for  ten  days  or  longer,  have 
been  treated  with  carbolic  or  other  irritant  dressings,  granula- 
tion and  skin  growth  often  proceed  more  satisfactorily  with 
the  substitution  of  the  milder  Sanitas.  In  sore-throat, 
catarrh  of  the  sinuses  of  the  head,  aphtha,  and  foot-and- 
mouth  complaint,  solutions  and  sprays  are  often  useful,  and, 
being  devoid  of  irritant  efi[ects,  are  also  serviceable  for  rectal, 
uterine,  and  vesical  injections.  Sanitas  solutions  and  soaps 
not  only  cleanse  and  disinfect,  but  gently  stimulate  the  skin, 
abate  itching,  remove  scurf,  and  promote  healing  in  prurigo, 
chronic  eczema,  and  similar  skin  complaints.  Sanitas  fluid, 
diluted  with  twenty  to  fifty  parts  of  tepid  water,  is  serviceable 
for  sponging  febrile  patients,  and  for  disinfecting  animals 
affected  with  contagious  disease.  In  canine  practice,  the 
fluid  diluted  with  four  to  six  parts  of  water,  is  used  in  canker 
of  the  ear,  ulceration  of  the  mouth,  eczema,  and  as  a  uterine 
injection  after  parturition.  Sanitas  oil  destroys  the  parasites 
of  scab  and  mange,  as  well  as  lice,  fleas,  and  maggot's,  and 
arrests  the  cryptogamic  growth  of  ringworm.  Even  in  con- 
centrated form,  there  is  no  risk  of  its  exciting  uadue  irrita- 
tion, or  inducing  from  its  absorption  injurious  constitutional 
effects,  such  as  are  apt  to  follow  the  free  use  of  strong 
carbolic  preparations. 

Sanitas  powder  and  sawdust  are  used  with  good  effect 
for  disinfecting  and  deodorising  stables,  kennels,  cow- 
sheds, and  piggeries.  Sprinkled  upon  the  floors,  they  also 
purify  the  air  of  slaughter-houses,  menageries,  manufactories, 
and  exhibitions ;  while  on  shipboard  they  destroy  unpleasant 
odours,  and  substitute  their  own  camphoric  aroma.  These 
preparations  are  largely  used  in  hospitals  and  by  medical 
officers  of  health. 


THYMOL 


THYMOL 


629 


Thymol— a  crystalline  substance,  obtained  from  tlie  volatile 
oils  of  Thymus  Vulgaris  and  Carum  Copticura.    Purified 
by  recrystallisation  from  alcohol  (B.P.). 
Thymus  vulgaris  {Nat  OnZ.— Labiate)  is  a  bushy  ever- 
green shrub  found  in  dry  situations  throughout  Southern 
Europe.    It  derives  its  aroma  from  an  essential  oil  separable 
into  two  parts— (1)  the  fluid  thymene,  which  is  isomeric 
with  oil  of  turpentine  (CioH,,);  and  (2)  the  solid  thymol 
(CcH3.C3H,.CH3.0H). 

Thymol  occurs  in  large  oblique  prisms,  with  a  pungent, 
aromatic  taste.  It  requires  for  solution  1500  parts  of  water, 
190  of  glycerin  or  two  of  olive  oil;  and  is  freely  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform.  It  sinks  in  cold  water,  but 
heated  to  110'  to  125'  Fahr.,  it  melts  and  floats  on  the 
surface. 

Actions  and  Uses. —  Thymol  is  antiseptic,  disinfectant, 
diaphoretic,  diuretic,  and  vermicide.  Large  doses  paralyse 
the  nerve  centres  of  the  cord  and  medulla.  It  has  most  of 
the  characteristic  properties  of  a  volatile  oil.  Dr.  Lauder 
Brunton  states  that  its  physiological  actions  place  it  between 
oil  of  turpentine  and  carbolic  acid. 

Solutions  of  one  per  cent,  destroy  bacteria  and  prevent 
reproduction  of  their  spores.  Applied  to  the  skin  or  mucous 
surfaces  it  causes  irritation,  followed  by  anaesthesia.  When 
swallowed  it  is  slowly  absorbed.  Dogs  weighing  20  pounds 
and  rabbits  weighing  7  pounds,  receiving  respectively  60  and 
30  grains  injected  hypodermically,  exhibited  lowered  blood- 
pressure  and  muscular  weakness,  paralysis  of  respiration, 
and  coma ;  but  the  fatal  eff'ect  of  full  doses  was  frequently 
averted  by  artificial  respiration.  The  respiratory  mucous 
membrane  was  congested,  the  lungs  were  congested  and 
sometimes  consolidated,  the  kidneys  inflamed,  the  urine 
albuminous,  occasionally  bloody.  In  chronic  poisoning  tissue 
metabolism  appears  to  be  impaired,  and  there  is  fatty  de- 
generation of  the  liver,  as  in  phosphorus  poisoning.  It  is 
excreted  chiefly  by  the  lungs  and  kidneys,  imparting  to  the 
urine  a  green  colour  by  direct,  a  brown  by  transmitted  light. 


630  TOBACCO 

Compared  with  carbolic  acid,  thymol  is  not  so  irritant, 
caustic,  or  poisonous ;  when  absorbed  it  does  not  cause 
preliminary  excitement,  but  from  the  first  paralyses  the 
nerve  centres ;  as  an  antiseptic  it  is  stated  to  be  more  power- 
ful and  permanent.  Its  high  price  precludes  its  use  as  an 
ordinary  antiseptic.  Concentrated  solutions  damage  in- 
struments. 

Medicinal  Uses. — It  has  been  prescribed  in  vesical  catarrh, 
horses  taking  grs.  x.  to  grs.  xxx. ;  dogs,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  v.  As 
a  vermicide  in  strongylosis  of  foals,  grs.  10  to  grs.  15,  dissolved 
'  in  glycerin  and  alcohol,  suspended  in  milk  or  mucilage,  or 
made  into  a  bolus  coated  with  keratin,  are  given  daily  for 
four  or  five  consecutive  days,  and  followed  by  a  laxative. 
But  its  chief  use  is  in  antiseptic  surgery.  Notwithstanding 
its  greater  cost,  it  is  sometimes  substituted  for  carbolic, 
salicylic,  and  boric  acids.  For  allaying  irritation  and  remov- 
ing scales  in  chronic  eczema  and  lichen,  1  to  2  grains  are 
dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  diluted  spirit,  or  of  potassium  car- 
bonate solution.  For  such  purposes  an  ointment  is  also 
used,  made  with  10  to  40  grains  to  the  ounce  of  vaseline. 
As  a  stimulating  antiseptic  in  sore-throat  and  ozfena,  it  is 
used  in  the  form  of  gargle,  spray,  or  inhalation.  It  is  the 
active  constituent  of  Volckmann's  antiseptic  fluid,  which, 
with  one  part  thymol,  contains  20  of  alcohol,  20  of  glycerin, 
and  960  of  water.  This  solution  prevents  the  development 
of  pyogenic  organisms. 

TOBACCO 

Tai?aci  Folia,     Tobacco  Leaves.     The  dried  leaves  of  Nico- 
tiana  Tabacum.    Nat.  Ord. — Solanaceas.    (Not  official.) 

Tobacco  derives  its  name  from  tabac,  the  instrument  used 
by  the  American  aborigines  for  smoking  the  leaf,  from  the 
island  of  Tobago,  or  from  the  town  of  Tobasco  in  New  Spain. 
It  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial  in 
America,  and  is  now  grown  largely  in  the  region  watered  by 
the  Orinoco,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  many  temperate 
and  sub-tropical  countries  of  both  hemispheres.  It  was 
unknown  in  the  Old  World — at  all  events  in  Europe— until 


TOBACCO  AND   NICOTINE  631 

after  the  discoveries  of  Columbus  ;  and  was  first  introduced 
into  England  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1586. 

The  Nicotiana  Tabacum,  which  yields  the  Virginian  and 
several  commercial  tobaccos,  is  an  herbaceous  plant,  three 
to  six  feet  in  height,  with  a  branching  fibrous  root,  a  tall 
annual  stem,  funnel-shaped,  rose-coloured  flowers,  and  large, 
moist,  clammy,  brown  leaves,  mottled  with  yellow  spots, 
covered  with  glandular  hairs,  and  distinguished  by  a  strong, 
peculiar,  narcotic  odour,  and  a  nauseous,  bitter,  acrid  taste. 
The  leaves  readily  communicate  their  properties  to  hot 
water  and  alcohol.  The  plant  is  cut  down  in  August,  and 
the  leaves  dried,  twisted,  and  carefully  packed,  with  great 
compression,  in  hogsheads.  For  many  purposes  the  n:iidrib 
is  removed,  and  occasionally  the  leaf  is  fermented,  in  order 
to  remove  albuminoids,  which,  when  smoked,  give  rise  to 
oils  and  unpleasant  products.  Sugar  and  liquorice  are 
sometimes  added  to  impart  mellowTiess  and  pliability. 

Commercial  tobaccos  contain  about  12  per  cent,  of  mois- 
ture, 20  to  25  of  lignin,  and  about  the  same  amount  of 
inorganic  matters,  chiefly  salts  of  potassium  and  calcium. 
The  chief  active  principle  is  nicotine  (C^^Hj^N.^) — a  colour- 
less, volatile,  inflammable,  oity  alkaloid,  with  an  acrid  odour 
and  taste.  It  occurs  in  combination  with  malic  and  citric 
acids,  constituting  5  to  7  per  cent,  of  the  dried  leaf.  It  is 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils. 
Tobacco  also  yields,  when  distilled  with  water,  a  crystalline 
volatile  oil — nicotianin,  or  tobacco  camphor — produced  from 
oxidation  of  the  nicotine.  Tobacco  slowly  burned,  as  when 
smoked,  is  decomposed,  and  the  smoke  contains  volatile 
fatty  acids  and  ethers,  traces  of  hydrocyanic  acid  and  am- 
monia, while  the  nicotine  in  great  part  is  converted  into 
alkaloids  of  the  benzine  series — pyridine  (C^H^N),  collidine 
(C^H^.N),  picoline  (CgH^N),  and  lutidine  (CVHgN.). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Tobacco  and  nicotine  are  in-contact 
irritants.  They  stimulate  and  then  paralyse  the  spinal  cord, 
the  motor  nerves  of  muscles,  especially  of  involuntary 
muscles,  and  the  nerves  of  secreting  glands.  They  enfeeble 
circulation,  cause  trembling,  staggering  gait,  convulsions, 
and  death  from  respiratory  failure.     Tobacco  is  rarely  pre- 


632  TOBACCO    AND    NICOTINE 

scribed  internally,  but  is  used  externally  as  an  antiparasitic. 
Nicotine  and  Nicotianin  are  antiseptic. 

General  Actions. — Stroni,'  solutions  are  in-contact  irri- 
tants of  mucous  and  denuded  skin  surfaces.  Partly  from 
this  topical  irritant  action  and  partly  from  stimulating 
motor  nerves  they  cause  vomiting  in  carnivora.  Large 
doses  in  all  animals  induce  gastro-enteritis  with  collapse. 
Nicotine  is  quickly  taken  up  from  absorbing  surfaces.  Dogs 
dressed  with  concentrated  decoctions  frequently  suffer  from 
nausea  and  vomiting,  while  human  patients  have  been 
poisoned  by  enemata.  Small  doses  cause  muscular  tremors ; 
larger,  produce  strychnine-like  clonic  spasms,  affecting  espe- 
cially the  involuntary  muscles  of  the  intestines,  bladder,  and 
uterus ;  still  larger  doses  are  followed  by  muscular  paralysis ; 
death  results  from  paralytic  asphyxia.  Small  doses  stimulate 
the  sensitive  fibres  of  the  vagus  roots,  and  also  its  endings 
in  the  heart  and  lungs,  slowing  the  pulse,  reducing  blood- 
pressure,  and  causing  dyspnoea.  But  larger  doses  both 
peripherally  and  centrally  paralyse  the  vagus,  quickening 
.  the  pulse,  and  increasing  blood-pressure.  The  cardiac  gan- 
glia, however,  are  not  paralysed  as  by  atropine.  Twofold 
stimulant  and  paralysant  effects  are  likewise  exerted  on  the 
vaso-motor  and  secretory  systems.  Small  to  moderate  doses 
increase  the  secretions  of  the  skin,  bowels,  and  kidneys. 

Toxic  Effects  are  produced  in  horses  by  9  ounces  of 
tobacco  ;  in  cattle  by  1  lb. ;  in  sheep  by  1  ounce ;  in  dogs  by 
1  to  2  drachms.  The  poisonous  dose  of  nicotine  for  horses 
and  cattle  is  5  to  6  minims,  for  dogs  1  to  3  minims.  One- 
tenth  part  of  those  doses  used  hypodermically  is  dangerous 
(Frohner  and  Kaufmann).  Hertwig  gave  horses  half  an 
ounce  to  an  ounce  of  the  powdered  leaves,  with  the  eft'ect  of 
lowering  the  pulse  three  to  ten  beats  per  minute,  and  render- 
ing it  irregular  and  intermittent;  while  a  repetition  of  such 
doses  increased  evacuation  both  of  faeces  and  urine.  Large 
doses,  especially  intravenously  injected,  accelerated  the  pulse, 
increased  the  action  of  the  bowels  and  kidneys,  and  caused 
irritability  and  restlessness.  A  healthy  middle-aged  cow 
received  two  ounces  dissolved  in  water,  in  divided  doses,  but 
given  within  two  and  a  half  hours.     The  temperature  of  the 


MOTOR  PARALYSANTS    AND    PARASITICIDES         633 

skin  was  heightened :  the  pulse  raised  from  65  to  VO ;  the 
breathing  quickened  and  somewhat  oppressed ;  the  pupil 
dilated,  while  perspiration  was  abundant.  Next  day  the 
animal  continued  dull,  but  by  the  third  day  she  was  per- 
fectly well.  An  ox  consumed  about  four  pounds  of  tobacco 
leaves,  and  speedily  became  very  restive,  ground  his  teeth 
and  groaned,  lay  with  outstretched  limbs  and  distended 
rumen,  passed  quantities  of  thin  foetid  faeces,  and  died  in 
eleven  hours  in  convulsions.  The  leaves  were  found  in  the 
alimentary  canal,  and  the  mucous  membrane,  especially  of 
the  fourth  stomach,  was  red  and  eroded,  particularly  where 
in  contact  with  the  tobacco.  Hertwig  further  mentions 
that  goats  are  similarly  affected  by  one  or  two  ounces,  and 
generally  die  in  about  ten  hours. 

Orfila  administered  to  a  dog  five  and  a  half  drachms 
powdered  tobacco  (rappee),  ensuring  its  retention  by  ligature 
of  the  oesophagus.  There  ensued  violent  efforts  to  vomit, 
nausea,  purging,  tremors  of  the  extremities,  giddiness, 
accelerated  respiration,  quickened  pulse,  convulsions,  stupor 
interrupted  by  spasms,  and  dependent  on  imperfect  oxygena- 
tion of  the  blood,  and  in  nine  hours  death.  A  decoction 
containing  half  a  drachm,  injected  into  the  rectum  of  a  dog, 
produced  similar  symptoms,  but  was  not  fatal.  Two  and  a 
half  drachms,  applied  to  a  wound,  destroyed  a  dog  in  an 
hour.  The  pupils  are  contracted,  and  in  fatal  cases  are 
insensible  to  light.  A  single  drop  of  nicotine  destroys  small 
dogs  and  rabbits  in  five  minutes,  producing  convulsions  and 
general  paralysis. 

Post-mortem  discloses  appearances  of  asphyxia;  and  in 
cases  where  the  crude  drug  has  been  swallowed,  and  has  not 
been  immediately  fatal,  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  exhibits 
evidences  of  irritation. 

The  treatment  of  poisoning,  when  the  crude  drug  has 
been  swallowed,  consists  in  the  use  of  the  stomach-pump  or 
emetics.  Tannin  renders  nicotine  insoluble.  Keeping  the 
patient  warm,  and  the  cautious  administration  of  stimulants, 
antagonise  nausea  and  depression;  while  artificial  respiration, 
and  the  careful  hypodermic  injection  of  strychnine,  overcome 
the  tendency  to  death  by  asphyxia. 


634  TOBACCO    AND    NICOTINE 

Tobacco  is  allied  to  several  other  motor  depressors  of 
the  Solanaceae,  notably  to  dulcamara  and  belladonna;  but  it 
does  not  produce  that  peculiar  disturbance  of  the  locomotor 
centres,  and  consequent  irregular  movements,  which  char- 
acterise belladonna,  while  it  increases,  instead  of  diminish- 
ing, cutaneous  and  other  secretions,  and  contracts  instead  of 
dilating  the  pupil.  It  resembles  lobelia  or  Indian  tobacco — 
the  dried  flowering  herb  of  Lobelia  inflata,  which  is  some- 
times prescribed  for  the  relief  of  spasmodic  asthma  in  dogs 
as  well  as  in  human  patients.  Tobacco  is  more  limited 
in  its  paralysant  effects  than  hemlock,  prussic  acid,  or 
physostigmine. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Tobacco  is  now  seldom  administered  in- 
ternally. There  are  many  much  better  emetics  than  the 
quid  of  tobacco  sometimes  given  to  the  dog,  and  numerous 
more  effectual  remedies  for  intestinal  worms.  Tobacco 
smoke  enemas  were  formerly  used  to  relieve  the  spasms  of 
colic;  but  chloroform,  chloral  hydrate,  opium,  and  other 
anodynes  are  more  effectual.  A  one  to  two  per  cent,  decoc- 
tion, used  as  an  enema,  brings  away  ascarides  lodged  in  the 
rectum.  An  infusion  made  with  four  ounces  black  tobacco 
and  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  strained  and  cooled,  has  been 
used  successfully  as  an  antidote  in  strychnine  poisoning. 

Externally,  it  is  used  to  kill  the  acari  of  mange  and  scab, 
and  also  lice,  fleas,  and  ticks,  but  it  does  not  effectually 
destroy  the  ova  of  these  parasites.  Strong  solutions,  liberally 
applied,  are  apt  to  cause  nausea,  trembling,  spasms,  and 
sometimes  death,  but  there  is  no  danger  in  the  careful  use 
of  decoctions  made  with  thirty  or  sixty  parts  of  water.  For 
such  purposes  the  leaves  are  boiled  for  half  an  hour  with 
a  limited  quantity  of  water,  and  the  decoction  diluted  as 
required.  For  sheep  dips  and  washes  two  to  five  per  cent, 
solutions  are  used,  their  efficacy  being  increased  by  addition 
of  soft  soap,  potash,  tar  oils,  and  occasionally  arsenic  or 
corrosive  sublimate.  Unless,  however,  the  refuse  juice  of 
the  manufactory  can  be  procured,  tobacco  is  too  costly  for 
sheep  dips.  Law's  sheep  dip  is  made  with  tobacco,  16  lbs.,  oil 
of  tar  3  pints,  soda  ash  20  lbs.,  soft  soap  4  lbs.,  water  60 
gallons.  Macerate  the  tobacco  in  three  successive  portions 
of  water  and  add  the  other  agents  to  the  fluid. 


CATECHU  635 

CATECHU 
Pale  Catechu.   Catechu  pallidum.   An  extract  of  the  leaves 

and  young  shoots  of  Uncaria  Gambler  (B.P.).    Nat.  Ord. 

— Rubiace?e. 
Black  or  Brown  Catechu.    Catechu  nigrum.    The  aqueous 

extract  of  the  wood  of  Acacia  Catechu,  of  Acacia  Suma, 

of  other  Leguminosse,  and  of  plants  of  other  natural 

orders.     (Not  official.) 

The  Uncaria  Gambler,  producing  the  pale  catechu  (cafe, 
a  tree;  chu,  juice),  is  a  stout  climbing  shrub,  inhabiting  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  cultivated  for  its 
astringent  juice.  A.  decoction  made  of  the  leaves  and  young 
shoots  is  evaporated,  worked  into  red-brown,  earthy-looking 
masses  or  cubes,  with  surfaces  about  an  inch  square. 

The  black  or  brown  catechu,  chiefly  brought  from 
Bengal  and  Burmah,  is  derived  from  several  trees,  largely 
from  the  Acacia  Catechu,  a  native  of  India  and  Africa.  The 
Acacia  Suma,  a  large  tree  gi'owing  in  Bengal,  Burmah,  and 
Southern  India,  has  a  white  bark  used  for  tanning,  and  red 
heart- wood,  from  which  catechu  is  also  made.  The  wood  of 
these  and  of  other  trees  is  cut  into  chips  and  boiled  with 
water,  the  decoction  concentrated  either  by  fire  or  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  and  the  extract  cut  or  moulded  into  square  cakes 
or  masses. 

The  pale  and  black  catechus  are  very  similar  in  com- 
position and  properties  ;  are  porous  and  opaque ;  brittle, 
breaking  with  a  granular  fracture;  under  the  microscope 
exhibit  minute,  needle-like  crystals  ;  are  without  odour,  but 
have  a  sweet  astringent  taste.  They  are  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  ether,  partially  soluble  in  cold  water,  entirely  dissolved 
by  boiling  water,  with  which  they  form  red-brown  solutions. 
They  consist  of  about  40  per  cent,  of  catechu-tannic  acid, 
which  is  soluble  in  cold  water ;  and  of  catechin  or  catechuic 
acid  (CjgHj^Oj),  which  is  also  a  modification  of  tannic  acid, 
deposits  in  acicular  crystals  from  boiling  watery  solutions  of 
catechu,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  They  further 
contain  the  yellow  colouring  matter  quercitin. 

Actions    and    Uses. — Catechu    is    astringent,   acting    by 


636  CATECHU 

contact  only.  It  forms  insoluble  compounds  with  albumin 
and  gelatin,  and,  like  other  tannin-containing  substances,  is 
used  in  making  leather.  It  is  less  astringent  than  oak  hark 
or  galls,  but  more  astringent  than  kino,  the  ins[)issate(l  juice 
obtained  from  incisions  made  in  the  trunk  of  Pterocarpus 
Marsupium;  than  rhatany,  the  dried  root  of  Krameria 
Triandra  or  of  K.  Argentea  ;  than  logwood,  the  sliced  heart- 
wood  of  Haematoxylon  Campechianum ;  or  than  bearberry 
or  uva-ursi  leaves  (p.  535). 

Catechu  is  administered  to  the  several  domestic  animals 
for  the  arrest  of  chronic  catarrhal  discharges  and  haemor- 
rhage, especially  from  the  throat  and  alimentary  canal.  The 
insoluble  catechin  beneficially  exerts  its  astringency  on  the 
relaxed,  over-secreting  surfaces  alike  of  the  small  and  large 
intestines.  In  persistent  diarrhoea  and  in  dysentery  it  is 
conjoined  with  aromatics  to  allay  flatulence  ;  with  opium  to 
relieve  irritability  and  spasm;  with  alkalies,  magnesia,  or 
chalk,  to  counteract  acidity.  A  convenient  prescription  for 
such  cases  consists  of  three  ounces  each  of  catechu,  prepared 
chalk,  and  ginger,  and  six  drachms  of  opium,  made,  as  is 
most  suitable,  into  either  mass  or  draught.  This  will  make 
eight  doses  for  a  horse,  six  for  a  cow,  and  eight  or  ten  for  a 
calf  or  sheep.  For  the  horse  the  dose  is  given  in  bolus  ;  for 
the  ruminant,  suspended  in  starch  gruel.  Catechu  is 
occasionally  applied  to  sluggish  wounds  and  ulcers,  to 
excoriations  on  the  udder  of  cattle,  and  for  the  several 
purposes  of  a  vegetable  astringent. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses,  5i-  to  5iij- ;  for  cattle,  5ij-  to  5vi. ; 
for  sheep  and  swine,  5i-  to  5ij-;  ^'^nd  for  dogs,  grs.  iv.  to  grs. 
XX.  These  doses  are  administered  three  or  four  times  a  day, 
with  sufficient  mucilage  or  gruel  to  cover  their  astringent 
taste.  An  infusion  is  readily  prepared  for  veterinary 
purposes  by  pouring  boiling  water  over  coarsely-powdered 
catechu,  digesting  by  the  fire  for  an  hour,  and  straining. 
Flavouring  ingredients  may  be  added  as  required.  The  B.P. 
orders  the  tincture  to  be  made  with  catechu,  in  coarse 
powder,  four  ounces ;  cinnamon  bark  bruised,  one  ounce ; 
alcohol  (60  per  cent.),  one  pint.  Compound  powder  of 
catechu,  is  composed  of  catechu,  4  ounces;  kino,  2  ounces; 


GALLS  637 

krameria  root,  2  ounces ;  cinnamon,  1  ounce ;  and  nutmeg, 
1  ounce.  All  powdered  and  mixed.  For  external  purposes 
the  powder,  infusion,  and  an  ointment  are  used. 


GALLS 
Galla.      Oak  Galls.      Excrescences  on  Quercus  infectoria 
resulting  from  the  puncture  and  deposition  of  an  egg  or 
eggs   of  Cynips   Galke   tinctorise   (B.P.).     Nat.   Ord. — 
Cupuliferse. 

Home-grown  galls  from  the  common  oak  (Quercus  robur) 
are  in  some  seasons  abundant  throughout  the  southern  and 
midland  counties  of  England,  but  seldom  contain  more  than 
half  the  tannic  acid  found  in  the  foreign. 

The  best  commercial  variety,  known  as  Levant  galls,  is 
imported  from  Syria,  Smyrna,  and  Constantinople;  the 
light,  hollow  Chinese,  Japanese,  or  East  Indian  galls,  are 
yielded  by  the  Rhus  semialata;  large  Mecca  galls,  called 
Dead  Sea  apples,  are  imported  from  Bussorah. 

Galls  var}^  from  the  size  of  a  bean  to  that  of  a  hazel-nut, 
are  round,  hard,  and  studded  with  tubercles ;  of  a  bluish- 
grey  colour  externally,  and  yellow  within.  An  inferior 
variety,  from  which  the  larva  has  escaped,  are  smoother,  of 
lighter  colour,  lower  density,  and  less  astringency.  Galls  are 
easily  reduced  to  a  yellow-grey  powder,  devoid  of  odour,  but 
having  an  intensely  astringent  taste.  The  active  principles 
are  dissolved  by  forty  parts  of  boiling  water  and  still  less 
of  diluted  alcohol.  Ferric  salts,  added  to  a  watery  solution, 
slowly  precipitate  the  dark-blue  or  black  iron  tannate,  the 
basis  of  writing  ink.  An  aqueous  solution  of  gelatin  throws 
down  a  grey  flocculent  precipitate  of  tanno-gelatin.  These 
reactions,  and  other  important  properties,  depend  on  the 
presence  of  tannin  or  tannic  acid,  which,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  galls,  ranges  from  15  to  70  per  cent.,  and  is 
associated  with  about  3  per  cent,  of  gallic  acid. 

Tannic  Acid,  or  tannin  (Ci^H^/)9.2H20),  is  the  glucoside  to 
which  oak  bark,  galls,  logwood,  and  many  vegetable  astrin- 
gents owe  their  properties.  The  tannic  acid  from  these 
several   sources   has,  however,  somewhat   different  charac- 


638  TANNIC    AND  GALLIC    ACIDS 

teristics,  and  generally  receives  such  special  designations  as 
gallo-tannic,  cincho-tannic,  catcchu-tannic  acids.  Gallo- 
tannic  acid  is  prepared  by  softening  powdered  galls  by 
keeping  them  for  two  days  in  a  damp  place,  digesting  them 
for  several  hours  simultaneously  with  water,  which  dissolves 
the  tannic  acid,  and  with  ether,  which  dissolves  colouring 
matter  and  gallic  acid.  The  mixture,  filtered  and  allowed  to 
stand,  forms  into  two  layers,  and  the  lower,  carefully 
evaporated,  yields  tannic  acid.  It  occurs  in  pale  yellow 
vesicular  masses,  or  thin  glistening  scales ;  has  a  strongly 
astringent  taste  and  an  acid  reaction ;  is  readily  soluble  in 
water,  dilute  alcohol,  and  slowly  in  glycerin ;  very  sparingly 
soluble  in  ether.  The  aqueous  solution  gives  an  olive-brown 
precipitate  with  ferric- chloride,  a  yellow-white  precipitate 
with  gelatin,  and  a  red  coloration  having  a  blue  fluorescence 
with  alkalies.  It  is  also  precipitated  by,  and  hence  is 
incompatible  with,  most  metallic  salts,  the  mineral  acids, 
and  the  vegetable  alkaloids.  In  several  ways  tannic  acid 
may  be  decomposed,  yielding  gallic  acid  and  glucose,  and 
hence  is  termed  a  glucoside. 

Gallic  Acid,  or  tri-hydroxy- benzoic  Jicid  (Cj;H2(0H)y 
C02H,H20),  may  be  prepared  by  the  action  of  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid  on  tannic  acid  or  powdered  galls.  It  occurs  in 
acicular  prisms,  or  silky  needles,  which  are  colourless  or 
pale  fawn.  It  requires  for  solution  about  one  hundred  parts 
of  cold  water,  three  of  boiling  water,  and  twelve  of  gl3^cerin ; 
but  is  more  soluble  than  tannic  acid  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
Its  aqueous  solution  gives  a  blue-black  j^recipitate  Avith  ferric 
salts.  Unlike  tannic  acid,  it  is  not  precipitated  by  isinglass, 
albumin,  hydrochloric,  or  sulphuric  acid.  Lime  water  browns 
tannic  acid  slowly,  browns  gallic  acid  immediately,  and  with 
pyrogallic  acid  yields  a  purple  red,  which  becomes  brown  as 
it  absorbs  oxygen  (Attfield). 

Actions  and  Uses. — Galls  and  tannic  acid  differ  only  in  the 
degree  of  their  action.  They  are  astringent  and  antiseptic. 
Galls  have  about  one  half  the  activity  of  tannic  acid.  As 
gallic  acid  does  not  coagulate  either  gelatin  or  albumin,  it  is 
scarcely  entitled  to  be  considered  an  astringent. 

Tannic  acid  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the  group  which 


ACTIONS    AND   USES  639 

includes  galls,  oak  bark,  catechu,  kino,  and  rhatany.  It  has 
little  effect  on  the  unbroken  skin ;  but  on  abraded,  atonic, 
and  hypersecreting  skin  and  mucous  surfaces  it  coagulates 
albumin,  causes  dryness  and  tanning,  with  some  contraction 
of  the  soft  textures.  But,  unlike  salts  of  lead,  silver,  or  other 
mineral  astringents,  it  does  not  contract  capillary  vessels. 
It  paralyses  sensory  nerves,  and  diluted  solutions  hence 
relieve  irritation.  It  coagulates  blood  and  arrests  bleeding. 
In  the  digestive  canal  it  combines  with  albuminoids  and 
alkalies,  jDrecipitates  pepsin,  and  neutralises  bacterial  secre- 
tions and  toxines.  It  is  slowly  and  partially  absorbed,  as 
gallic  acid  or  as  an  alkaline  tannate,  but  when  thus  neutral- 
ised it  can  have  little  astringent  or  ha3mostatic  power.  It  is 
excreted  as  gallic  acid,  or  as  some  oxidised  product  thereof 

Medicinal  Uses. — Tannic  acid  and  galls,  in  j^owder,  solution, 
or  spray,  are  applied  in  stomatitis,  and  relaxed  conditions  of 
the  pharynx  and  nasal  passages.  In  diarrhcea  and  dysentery 
the  slowly  dissolving  catechus  and  kino  are  sometimes  pre- 
ferred to  tannic  acid,  as  they  reach  the  intestines  and  exert 
their  in-contact  effects  before  they  are  neutralised.  They  are 
frequently  prescribed  with  chalk,  acids,  aromatics,  and  opium, 
and  given  either  in  bolus  or  mucilage.  For  arrest  of  internal 
ha3morrhage,  neither  tannic  nor  gallic  acid  is  so  effectual  as 
ergot,  ferric-chloride,  or  lead  acetate  and  opium.  Dr.  Stock- 
man's investigations,  reported  in  the  British  Medical  Journal, 
1886,  show  that  gallic  acid,  even  in  full  doses,  has  no  special 
general  astringent  action.  Both  tannic  and  gallic  acids 
are  used  as  antidotes  in  poisoning  by  alkaloids;  but  in 
combating  metallic  poisoning  they  are  not  so  serviceable 
as  eggs,  or  suitable  chemical  antidotes. 

Externally,  tannic  acid  is  used  with  glycerin  and  water  in 
the  weeping  stages  of  eczema ;  as  an  astringent  wash  with 
opium  in  prolapsus  of  the  uterus  and  rectum ;  while  it  also 
checks  the  discharge  and  allays  the  irritability  of  otorrhoea, 
which  is  common  in  dogs.  Tannic  acid  and  antipyrine,  ten 
parts  of  each,  with  100  of  alcohol,  form  an  excellent  applica- 
tion for  soft,  ulcerating,  bleeding  surfaces.  For  piles  in  dogs, 
gallic  acid  is  used  in  substance,  or  as  an  ointment,  opium 
being  added  if  there  is  much  irritability ;  and  such  applica- 


640        TANNIC   ACID,    PHEPARATIONS   AND    DOSES 

tions  arc  often  advantageously  alternated  with  calomel 
ointment.  Tannic  acid  is  useful  for  burns  mixed  with  boric 
ointment  and  sometimes  with  opium.  For  nasal  catarrh  it 
may  be  used  mixed  with  starch,  or  iodoform,  as  an  insuftia- 
tion. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  tannic  acid  horses  take  grs.  xxx.  to  5y'> 
cattle,  5iij ;  sheep  and  large  pigs,  grs.  xv.  to  5ij- ;  dogs,  grs.  ij. 
to  grs.  X.  Gallic  acid  is  used  in  the  same  doses ;  powdered 
galls  in  about  double  these  doses.  Glycerin  of  tannic  acid, 
made  l)y  stirring  one  part  of  acid  Avith  five  of  glycerin,  is  a 
soothing  antiseptic  astringent,  used  diluted  with  water  as 
required.  Gall  and  Opium  ointment  is  made  with  87  grains 
powdered  galls,  15  grains  opium,  and  148  grains  of  benzoated 
lard,  or  with  vaseline.  A  styptic  colloid  may  be  prepared 
with  one  of  timnin  and  eight  of  alcohol,  mixed  with  four  of 
collodion.  Pyrogallic  acid  is  an  antiseptic,  astringent,  and 
caustic,  recommended  in  cases  of  psoriasis  and  ringworm,  and 
for  tanning  and  shrivelling  carcinomatous  growths.  Jarisch's 
ointment  for  psoriasis  consists  of  60  grains  pyrogallic  acidj^ 
1  ounce  of  lard.  Tannalbin,  a  dried  albuminate  of  tannin,  has 
been  much  used  in  the  treatment  of  diarrhoea  and  dysentery 
in  young  animals.  It  is  a  light  brownish  poAvder,  without 
odour  or  taste,  insoluble  in  water  and  unaffected  by  the  gastric 
juice.  In  the  intestine  it  is  slowly  dissolved,  exerting  an 
astrinsrent-disinfectant  action  on  the  mucous  membrane.  It 
contains  about  50  per  cent,  of  tannin.  Doses, — horses  and 
cattle,  5j-  to  3iv. ;  foals  and  calves,  grs.  xx.  to  grs,  xl. ;  three 
times  daily,  in  gruel,  milk,  or  electuary.  Tannigen  (di-acetyl- 
tanuin),  prepared  by  the  action  of  acetic  anhydride  on  tannin, 
dissolved  in  glacial  acetic  acid,  is  a  yellowish-grey  powder, 
odourless  and  tasteless,  insoluble  in  water,  freely  soluble  in 
alcohol.  Passes  through  the  stomach  unchanged  and  acts 
as  an  intestinal  astringent.  Recommended  as  a  remedy  for 
parasitic  intestinal  catarrh  in  foals.  Doses, — grs.  xx.  to  5j., 
in  boiled  milk  or  linseed  tea. 


BENZOIN  641 

CHRYSAROBIN 
Araroba.     Crude  Clirysarobin.     Goa  powder.     A  substance 
found  .in  cavities  in  the  trunk  of  Andira  araroba,  dried 
and  powdered,  and  imported  from  Brazil.     Nat.  Ord. — 
Leguminosffi  (B.P.). 

Chrysarobin,  obtained  from  Araroba  by  extracting  with 
hot  chloroform,  evaporating  and  powdering,  occurs  as  a 
crystalline,  brownish-yellow  powder,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  chloroform,  and  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol.  By 
oxidation  it  yields  chrysophanic  acid,  Oj^HgOg,  which  is  a 
constituent  of  rhubarb,  stains  yellow,  and  is  less  irritant 
than  chrysarobin. 

Both  chrysarobin  and  chrysophanic  acid  are  irritant  and 
parasiticide,  are  seldom  given  internally,  but  are  applied, 
usually  in  the  form  ot  a  2  to  5  per  cent,  ointment,  in  the 
second  squamous  stages  of  eczema,  and  in  psoriasis  and 
ringworm. 

BENZOIN 

Benzoinum.  a  balsamic  resin  obtained  from  Styrax  Benzoin 
and  probably  from  other  species  of  Styrax  (B.P.). 
Nat.  OrcZ.^Styracese. 

The  styrax  benzoin  abounds  in  Siam,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo, 
Incisions  are  made  into  the  bark,  when  the  thick,  white, 
resinous  juice  exudes,  and  concretes  in  tears,  which  are 
subsequently  made  into  larger  masses,  and  imported  in 
wooden  cases.  The  colourless  or  reddish  tears  are  imbedded 
in  an  amber-brown  transparent  resin.  Inferior  qualities  are 
dark-brown  or  nearly  black,  and  devoid  of  amygdaloid 
structure. 

Benzoin  is  brittle  and  easily  pulverised,  softens  readily 
when  warmed,  and  when  further  heated  yields  fumes  of 
benzoic  acid.  It  is  slightly  heavier  than  water;  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  in  solution  of  potassium  hydroxide.  Besides 
traces  of  volatile  oil,  benzoin  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of 
three  resins,  distinguished  by  differences  of  solubility, 
and    from    14    to    20    of    the    acrid,    crystalline,    benzoic 

2s 


642  BENZOIN — BENZOIC   ACID  — BENZOATES 

acid,  HC7H5O2.     Some  samples  contain  as  much  as  10  per 

cent,  of  the  allied  cinnaniic  acid. 

Benzoic  acid  is  obtained  from  benzoin  by  sublimation.  It 
may  also  be  obtained  from  toluene,  from  hippuric  acid,  and 
from  other  organic  compounds  (B.P.).  It  occurs  in  light, 
feathery  crystals,  which  are  soluble  in  400  parts  of  cold  or 
seventeen  parts  of  boiling  water,  in  three  parts  alcohol 
(90  per  cent.),  five  parts  glycerin,  seven  of  chloroform,  and 
in  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils ;  also  in  solution  of  the  alkalies 
and  of  calcium  hydroxide  forming  benzoates.  Ammonii 
benzoas  is  a  crystalline  salt  produced  by  neutralising 
benzoic  acid  with  solution  of  ammonia.  Soluble  in  six  parts 
of  water,  twenty-two  of  rectified  spirit,  and  in  eight  of 
glycerin.  Sodii  benzoas,  obtained  by  neutralising  benzoic 
acid  with  sodium  carbonate,  is  soluble  in  two  parts  cold 
water,  and  in  twenty  four  of  rectified  spirit. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Benzoin,  benzoic  acid,  and  its  salts 
are  stimulant,  expectorant,  diuretic,  antiseptic,  and  anti- 
pyretic. Benzoin,  although  less  frequently  employed  now 
than  formerly  in  the  treatment  of  disease  of  the  air 
passages,  is  still  useful  as  an  antiseptic  expectorant  in 
bronchitis  and  especially  in  chronic  catarrh  of  aged  dogs. 
It  may  be  administered  by  the  mouth  or  added  to  the 
steam-kettle  and  used  as  an  inhalation.  It  is  excreted 
mainly  in  the  urine,  part  of  the  benzoic  acid  being  converted 
in  the  kidneys  into  hippuric  acid.  Freely  applied  to  recent 
bleeding  wounds,  it  forms  an  antiseptic  coagulum  and  serves 
the  purpose  of  a  temporary  styptic  dressing. 

Benzoin  is  extensively  used  in  the  form  of  Friar's 
balsam,  or  its  pharmaceutical  imitation,  tinctura  benzoini 
composita,  which  is  thus  prepared : — Take  of  benzoin,  2 
ounces,  storax,  1^  ounces,  balsam  of  tolu,  ^  ounce,  socotrine 
aloes,  160  grains,  alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  16  ounces:  macerate 
for  two  days,  filter,  and  add  sufficient  alcohol  to  produce  one 
pint.  This  tincture  is  an  excellent  stimulant  and  antiseptic 
for  wounds,  simple  ulcers,  and  various  skin  complaints  in 
all  classes  of  patients. 

Benzoated  lard  is  made  with  210  grains  of  benzoin  to 
each  pound  of  lard. 


STYRAX TOLU    AND    PERU  BALSAMS  643 

Benzoic  acid  lowers  abnormal  temperature,  promotes  the 
elimination  of  incompletely  oxidised  matters,  renders  alkaline 
urine  acid  and  disinfects  the  urinary  tract.  It  is  used  in 
the  treatment  of  influenza  and  similar  conditions,  and  as  an 
antiseptic  diuretic  in  cystitis.  Sodium  benzoate  is  less 
irritating  and  more  soluble  than  the  acid,  for  which  it  is 
sometimes  substituted.  Commended  as  a  remedy  for  joint 
disease  in  foals,  it  abates  the  fever,  and  reduces  the  swelling 
of  the  limbs  in  strangles  and  pneumonia.  According  to  Dr. 
Rutherford,  it  is  a  powerful  hepatic  stimulant.  It  is  excreted 
in  the  urine  as  a  soluble  hippurate.  A  2  per  cent,  solution 
is  a  good  preservative  for  scalpels,  forceps,  needles,  etc.,  in 
daily  use.  Instruments  may  be  kept  in  the  solution  for 
months  without  oxidising. 

Doses,  etc. — of  benzoin  for  horses  and  cattle,  3iv.  or  more ; 
dogs,  grs.  V.  to  grs.  x, ;  in  bolus  or  electuary.  Benzoic  acid, 
horses  and  cattle,  grs.  xxx.  to  grs.  Ix.,  dogs,  gr.  i.  to  grs.  v., 
in  bolus,  pill,  or  drench.  Hypodermically,  horses  may  be 
given  grs.  vi.  benzoic  acid  dissolved  in  two  drachms  of  a 
solution  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  w\ater.  Intratracheally, 
two  drachms  to  half  an  ounce  of  a  one  per  cent,  aqueous 
solution  may  be  used.  Benzoate  of  sodium  is  prescribed  in 
considerably  larger  doses,  and  generally  in  drench. 

Styrax  or  Prepared  Storax,  a  balsam  obtained  from  the 
trunk  of  liquidambar  orientalis,  and  purified  by  solution  in 
alcohol,  filtration  and  evaporation.  Contains  styrol,  cinnamic 
acid,  styracin  and  various  resins.  Storax  is  a  constituent  of 
the  compound  tincture  of  benzoin,  and  is  occasionally 
employed  as  a  mild  stimulant,  expectorant  and  parasiticide. 
For  mange,  lice,  or  fleas  in  dogs,  it  is  used  mixed  with  an 
equal  part  of  sweet  oil. 

Balsam  of  Tolu. — The  product  of  the  myroxylon  toluifera, 
contains  a  volatile  oil,  various  resins,  benzoic  and  cinnamic 
acids.  Soluble  in  alcohol,  benzol  and  chloroform.  It  is 
stimulant  and  expectorant. 

Balsam  of  Peru,  obtained  from  myroxylon  Pereirte, 
contains  about  60  per  cent,  of  a  volatile  oil,  various  resins 
and  acids.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  olive  oil ;  soluble  in 
alcohol   and    in    chloroform.      It    is    an   expectorant   and 


G44  BARLEY 

parasiticide.  The  volatile  oil  is  toxic  to  the  acari  of  mange 
for  which  a  dressing  is  made  with  one  part  balsam  of  Peru 
and  eight  of  lard, 

MARSH  MALLOW  ROOT 
ALTHiEA  Radix.      Dried  root  of  Althaea  officinal  is.      Nat. 
Orel. — Malvaceae.     (Not  official.) 

The  Malvaceae  are  rich  in  mucilage,  and  several  yield 
tenacious  fibres,  from  which  cordage  is  obtained.  The 
species  Gossypium  have  their  seeds  surrounded  by  delicate, 
flattened,  twisted  hairs,  Avhich  constitute  raw  cotton,  and 
the  seeds  by  expression  yield  the  bland  cotton  seed  oil  often 
substituted  for  olive  oil.  The  marsh  mallow  grows  both 
in  this  country  and  on  the  Continent,  generally  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  rivers  and  salt  marshes.  Mucilage  is 
yielded  by  most  parts  of  the  plant,  notably  by  the  two  and 
three  year  old  roots,  which  contain  about  35  per  cent,  each 
of  mucin  and  starch,  and  a  little  uncrystallisable  sugar. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Marsh,  and  also  common  mallow 
roots,  are  digested  with  boiling  water,  and  the  mucilage 
thus  extracted,  which  resembles  that  of  linseed,  is  used  as  a 
demulcent. 

BARLEY 

HoRDEUM.      Pearl    Barley.      Malt.      Yeast.      Nat    Ord. — 
Graminacese. 

Barley  (Hordeum  distichon)  is  used  as  food  for  most  of 
the  domesticated  animals ;  and,  when  stripped  of  its  outer 
husk,  is  recognised  as  pearl  barley.  Ground  to  meal,  it  is 
used  for  making  poultices  and  infusions.  Good  barley-meal 
contains  68  per  cent,  of  starch,  14  glutin  and  albumin,  2  fatty 
matter,  2  saline  matter,  and  14  water.  When  moistened  and 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  about  100°  Fahr.,  barley  ger- 
minates, the  starch  in  great  part  being  converted  into  dextrin 
and  sugar,  and,  if  the  process  be  arrested  by  drying,  malt  is 
formed.  Decoctum  Hordei,  may  be  made  by  boiling  one  part 
of  washed  pearl  barley  with  15  parts  water  for  twenty  minutes, 
and  straining.     It  is  nutrient  and  demulcent. 


GUM   ACACIA — TRAGACANTH  645 

Malt — a  sweet,  mucilaginous  substance,  which  is  more 
easily  digested,  but  weight  for  weight  is  rather  less  nutritive 
than  barley — forms  a  palatable  and  digestible  article  of  diet 
for  sick  or  convalescent  horses,  and  is  used  for  making 
poultices  and  demulcent  laxative  drinks.  Barley-water, 
infusions  of  malt,  and  soft  mashes  prove  especially  serviceable 
in  febrile  cases,  both  in  horses  and  cattle.  Malt  extracts 
are  occasionally  prescribed  for  dyspeptic  calves  and  foals, 
and  when  well  prepared  are  rich  in  diastase,  and  hence 
useful  in  aiding  digestion  of  starch. 

When  a  solution  of  malt  is  fermented,  as  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  beer,  ale,  or  porter,  there  rises  to  the  surface  of  the 
liquor  a  yellow-brown  frothy  scum,  known  as  yeast  or  barm, 
readily  putrefying  when  moist,  but  when  carefully  dried 
remaining  for  a  long  time  unchanged,  and  owing  its  repro- 
ductive properties,  and  its  characteristic  power  of  converting 
cane  into  grape  sugar,  and  thence  into  alcohol,  to  the 
presence  of  ovoid,  confervoid  cells  of  Torula  cerevisia;. 
Yeast  is  occasionally  used  as  a  purgative,  especially  for 
cattle,  and  is  given  in  quantities  of  about  a  pint.  Antiseptic 
and  deodorising  poultices  are  made  by  stirring  together  one 
part  each  of  boiling  water  and  yeast  with  two  parts  of  bran 
9*^  linseed  meal,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand  near  a 
fire  until  it  rises,  when  it  is  fit  to  use. 


GUM  ACACIA-TRAGACANTH 

Acacia  Gummi.  A  gummy  exudation  from  the  stem  and 
branches  of  Acacia  Senegal,  and  of  other  species  of 
Acacia  (B.P.). 

Tragacantha.  Tragacanth.  A  gummy  exudation  obtained 
by  incision  from  Astragalus  gummifer,  and  some  other 
species  of  Astragalus  (B.P.),     Nat  Ord. — Leguminosee. 

Gum  is  obtained  from  many  plants,  notably  from  various 
species  of  Acacia.  These  are  stunted,  withered-looking  trees, 
occurring  in  tropical  countries,  most  prolific  when  old  and 
stunted,  and  during  dry,  hot  seasons.  In  June  and  July, 
from  natural  cracks  or  artificial  incisions  in  the  bark,  a  viscid 
juice  exudes,  and  concretes  into  round  masses  or  tears  vary- 


646  GUM    ACACIA — TRAGACANTH 

ing  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  walnut,  brittle,  usually  shining, 
colourless,  yellow  or  brown,  odourless,  and  of  a  bland,  sweet 
taste.  Gum  dissolves  in  water,  forming  an  adhesive,  viscid 
fluid  or  uuicilage. 

Gum  acacia,  or  gum  arable  is  chiefly  collected  in  Kor- 
dofan,  in  Eastern  Africa,  and  forwarded  from  Alexandria. 
When  imported,  it  is  picked  and  sorted,  usually  into  three 
dift'erent  qualities,  distinguished  by  the  size,  colour,  and 
transparency  of  the  tears.  It  is  soluble  in  about  its  own 
weight  alike  of  hot  and  cold  water,  is  insoluble  in  and  incom- 
patible with  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils.  Boiled  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  it  is  converted  into  gum  sugar ;  oxidised  by 
nitric  acid,  it  is  converted  into  mucic  acid.  It  consists  of 
arabin,  or  arable  acid  (C^.^Ho^On),  which  occurs  in  gum  as 
arabate  of  calcium,  magnesium,  and  potassium. 

Gum  Senegal  is  similar  to  gum  arable,  but  less  brittle,  and 
requires  four  or  five  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  it.  The  East 
Indian  gums  are  generally  dark-coloured,  more  difficult  of 
solution,  and  less  valuable.  The  gums  of  Australia  and  the 
Cape,  now  imported  in  considerable  quantity,  are  also  inferior 
to  gum  arable. 

Tragacanth  is  collected  in  Asia  Minor,  mostly  exported 
from  Smyrna,  and  occurs  in  thin,  semi-transparent,  tough, 
horny,  white-grey  or  yellow  lamelke  or  plates,  and  marked 
with  arched  or  concentric  ridges.  It  is  tasteless  and  odour- 
less. Although  readily  soluble  in  boiling  water,  it  is  sparingly 
soluble  in  cold  water,  which  swells  it  into  a  jelly  containing 
starch,  as  is  indicated  by  the  iodine  test.  Tragacanth  con- 
tains a  neutral  gum,  bassorin,  which,  gelatin-like,  swells  up, 
is  not  dissolved  either  by  hot  or  cold  water,  but  is  soluble  in 
alcohol. 

British  gum  or  dextrin  (C,.Hn^05)  much  used  in  calico 
printing,  is  made  by  treating  starch  with  dilute  nitric  acid, 
drying  it,  and  heating  it  to  about  240°  Fahr. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Gums  are  the  least  nutritive  of  the 
carbo-hydrates;  when  swallowed,  they  are  dissolved  by  the 
alimentary  secretions,  and  in  part  converted  into  sugar. 
They  are  occasionally  prescribed  for  eusheathing  the  mucous 
surfaces  in  catarrh  and  diarrhcea,  and  as  demulcent  injec- 


OLIVE    OIL  647 

tions  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  bladder,  but  for 
veterinary  purposes  are  usually  superseded  by  well-boiled 
linseed  or  starch  gruels.  For  making  emulsions,  electuaries, 
and  boluses,  gums  have  the  disadvantage  of  speedily  drying 
and  hardening. 

Doses,  etc. — Gums  may  be  taken  almost  ad  libitum. 
Horses  and  cattle  may  have  gij.  to  giij  ;  foals,  calves,  and 
sheep,  §i. ;  and  dogs,  grs.  xx.  to  grs.  xl.  An  ensheathing 
mucilage  is  made  with  one  part  gum  to  six  of  water. 


OLIVE   OIL 

Oleum  Oliv.e.    The  oil  expressed  from  the  ripe  fruit  of  Olea 
Europsea  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Oleacese. 

Several  varieties  of  the  evergreen  Olea  Europsea  grow 
abundantly  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Levant  and 
Mediterranean.  From  the  stem  a  resinous  juice  once  used 
in  medicine  can  be  got ;  the  leaves  are  bitter,  astringent,  and 
tonic;  the  olives  are  oval,  succulent,  purple  drupes,  about 
the  size  of  damsons,  and  containing  a  single  seed.  The  ripe 
pericarp  yields  about  70  per  cent,  of  oil,  of  which  the  finest, 
imported  from  Provence  and  Florence,  is  obtained  by  mode- 
rate pressure  of  the  freshly-gathered  fruit.  Inferior  qualities 
are  got  from  stale  or  damaged  fruit,  or  by  extra  pressure  of 
the  pulp. 

Properties. — Olive  oil  is  one  of  the  fixed,  fatty,  or  expressed 
oils  which  produce  on  paper  or  linen  a  greasy  stain,  not 
removed  by  heat,  and  are  glycerides  of  an  acidulous  radical, 
oleic,  palmitic,  or  stearic  acid,  and  the  basylous  glyceryl  or 
propenyl.  Olive  oil  contains  about  72  per  cent,  of  fluid  olein 
or  tri- olein,  03115(0^3113302)3,  holding  in  solution  about  28  of 
palmitin  and  allied  fatty  matters.  It  is  of  the  consistence 
of  syrup,  unctuous,  transparent,  odourless,  and  of  a  bland 
taste.  When  pure  it  is  pale  greenish-yellow ;  when  impure, 
yellow  or  brown.  Specific  gravity  0-914  to  0-919.  At  50° 
Fahr.  it  is  liable  to  become  of  a  pasty  consistence  ;  and  at 
32"  Fahr.  to  form  a  solid  granular  mass.  It  is  not  miscible 
with  water,  is  scarcely  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  dissolves  in  one 


648  LINSEED 

and  a  half  parts  of  ether.  It  is  a  capital  solvent  for  cantha- 
ridin,  atropine,  and  morphine.  Exposed  to  air,  it  oxidises, 
thickens,  and  slowly  becomes  rancid,  but  does  not  dry  up. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Olive  oil  is  nutrient,  laxative,  and 
emollient.  Like  other  bland  oils,  small  quantities  are  easily 
digested  and  assimilated,  aid  cell  development,  and  by  oxi- 
dation support  animal  heat.  Larger  quantities,  such  as  one 
to  two  pints  for  horses  or  cattle,  and  two  to  three  ounces  for 
dogs,  are  laxative.  An  ounce  each  of  olive  oil  and  castor 
oil  form  a  mild  laxative  for  the  dog.  Like  other  fluid  fats, 
when  injected  into  the  veins,  it  fatally  obstructs  capillary 
circulation.  Half  an  ounce  injected  into  the  jugular  speedily 
destroys  a  dog.  As  a  demulcent  and  emollient,  it  is  used  in 
poisoning  by  irritants  and  corrosives;  it  antagonises  the 
action  of  alkalies  by  forming  soaps,  and  retards  solution 
and  absorption  of  arsenic.  Small  doses  are  occasionally 
given  to  horses  and  other  animals  to  soothe  the  irritable 
mucous  membrane  in  chronic  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  and  to 
dissolve  the  cholesterin  of  gall-stones.  Not  drying  or  readily 
becoming  rancid,  it  is  a  soothing  protective  for  irritable  or 
abraded  surfaces,  but  for  such  purposes  the  cheaper  rape, 
lard,  or  linseed  oil,  and  vaseline,  are  usually  substituted. 


LINSEED 

LiNUM.  Flax  or  Lint  Seeds.  The  dried  ripe  seeds  of 
Linum  usitatissimum  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Linaccio. 

LiNUM  CoNTUsuM.  Crushed  linseed.  Linseed  reduced  to 
a  coarse  powder  (B.P.). 

Linseed  Oil.  Oleum  Lini.  The  oil  expressed  from  linseed 
at  ordinary  temperatures  (B.P.). 

Linseed  Cake.     The  residue  left  after  expression  of  the  oil. 

Linseed  Meal.     Farina  Lini. 

The  Linum  usitatissimum,  or  common  flax,  cultivated  in 
Britain  and  other  European  countries,  yields  several  im- 
portant articles.  The  stem  affords  lint  and  tow ;  the  seeds, 
crushed,  and  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure,  yield  linseed 


LINSEED    OIL  649 

oil ;  the  residual  cake  is  a  valuable  feeding  stuff,  and  when 
reduced  to  powder  constitutes  linseed  meal. 

The  fibrous  stem  is  utilised  by  steeping  in  water,  generally 
used  hot ;  starch  and  cellulose  are  got  rid  of  by  scutching ; 
the  fibres  are  hackled  and  carded — the  shorter,  coarser 
portions  forming  tow;  the  liner,  when  bleached,  are  made 
into  linen.  Soft,  loosely  woven  linen,  when  scarified,  and 
the  cut  fibres  scraped  into  gauzy  down,  constitutes  surgeons' 
lint.  Both  lint  and  tow,  as  well  as  jute  (the  prepared  fibre 
of  hemp),  are  employed  as  protectives  for  wounds.  When 
saturated  with  hot  or  cold  water  they  prove  cleanly  sub- 
stitutes for  poultices.  For  cleansing  wounds  they  are  pre- 
ferable to  sponges,  which  are  apt  to  retain  and  distribute 
septic  germs,  while  the  rag,  lint,  or  tow  is  thrown  away 
after  use.  These  fibrous  materials,  saturated  with  carbolic 
or  other  antiseptic  solutions,  are  used  for  antiseptic  dressings. 
Oakum,  consisting  of  detached  fibres  of  old  ropes,  when 
treated  with  Stockholm  tar,  is  also  a  cheap  antiseptic 
dressing. 

Lint  seeds  are  about  two  lines  long,  smooth,  and  shining, 
of  a  brown  colour  and  oval  shape,  flattened  laterally,  and 
pointed  at  one  extremity.  They  are  inodorous,  but  have 
an  oily,  mucilaginous  taste.  They  consist  of  about  20  per 
cent,  of  mucilage,  wholly  present  in  the  envelope  of  the 
seed,  and  hence  only  properly  extracted  by  prolonged 
steeping  or  slow  boiling ;  20  of  albuminoids,  a  little  sugar, 
25  to  30  of  oil,  contained  in  the  albumen  and  embryo ; 
5  to  6  of  mineral  matters,  chiefly  phosphates,  mostly  stored 
in  the  husks ;  5  to  8  of  fibre,  and  8  to  10  of  water.  Crushed 
linseed  should  yield  not  less  than  30  per  cent,  of  oil  when 
exhausted  by  carbon  bisulphide.  The  seeds,  ground  and 
pressed  without  the  aid  of  heat,  produce  about  25  per 
cent,  of  oil  of  the  best  quality ;  steam  heat  extracts  25  to 
35  per  cent.  The  residual  linseed  cake,  or  oilcake,  con- 
tains 10  to  13  per  cent,  of  oil. 

Linseed  oil  is  viscid,  has  a  pale-yellow  colour,  a  faint 
but  distinct  odour,  and  a  bland  taste.  Specific  gravity 
0930  to  0"940.  It  consists  largely  of  olein,  or  of  a  variety 
recognised  as  linolein.     Although  it  does  not  solidify  until 


650  LINSEED 

cooled  to  —15°  or  —20°  Falir.,  at  ordinary  temperatures 
it  oxidises  and  becomes  viscous,  hence  receiving  the  title 
of  a  drying  oil.  This  drying  property  is  much  increased 
by  boiling,  or  heating  it  with  litharge  or  black  oxide  of 
manganese.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  ten  parts 
alcohol  (90  per  cent.),  in  one  and  a  half  of  ether,  and  in 
oil  of  turpentine.  Boiled  with  alkaline  solutions  it  forms 
soaps.  Mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  lime  Avater  it  forms 
Carron  oil,  a  useful  dressing  for  burns  and  scalds.  Exposed 
for  some  time  to  a  high  temperature  it  becomes  a  dark, 
tenacious  mass,  which,  when  mixed  with  lamp-black  con- 
stitutes printers'  ink.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
rapeseed  oil,  but  is  more  commonly  of  inferior  quality  from 
rancidity,  from  preparation  at  a  high  temperature,  or  from 
presence  of  impurities. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Linseed  and  linseed  cakes  are  valuable 
feeding  stufts  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and,  in  restricted  amount, 
for  horses.  As  fat  producers  they  represent  about  two  and 
a  half  times  the  value  of  starch  or  sugar.  They  are  emul- 
sionised  mainly  by  the  pancreatic  and  biliary  fluids;  they 
are  absorbed  chiefly  by  the  lacteals,  and  their  combustion 
develops  heat  and  force.  In  moderate  amount  they  favour 
assimilation  alike  of  carbohydrates  and  proteids,  with  which 
they  are  generally  given. 

Well- boiled  linseed  gruel,  or  crushed  linseed  cake  digested 
in  hot  water,  is  a  palatable,  digestible  nutrient  for  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  not  only  in  health,  but  notably  in  catarrhal 
and  other  inflammatory  attacks,  in  tuberculosis,  rheumatism, 
chronic  skin  complaints,  and  during  convalescence  from  re- 
ducing disorders.  In  such  cases  it  proves  both  food  and 
medicine.  In  febrile  cases  many  horses  will  sip  cold  linseed 
tea  when  they  will  scarcely  eat  or  drink  anything  else. 
Where  the  patient  is  exhausted,  the  linseed  tea  is  given 
with  milk,  eggs,  or  beef-tea,  or  with  alcoholic  or  other 
stimulants.  Horses  that  are  bad  feeders,  with  unthrifty 
coats,  and  horses  affected  with  roaring  or  thick  wind,  are 
usually  nmch  benefited,  especially  while  living  mostly  on 
oats .  and  hay,  by  about  a  pound  daily  of  broken  linseed 
cake.     For  healthy  hunters  and  carriage  horses  the  con- 


NUTRIENT,  MUCILAGINOUS  DEMULCENT  651 

tinned  use  of  linseed  cake  proves,  however,  too  fattening 
and  often  causes  itching.  Young  herbivora  reared  on  skim 
milk  frequently  have  linseed  gruel  mixed  with  it  to  furnish 
requisite  fatty  matters,  and  also  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  tough,  indigestible  curd.  Linseed  gruel,  or  a  few  ounces 
of  crushed  cake  given  daily  to  calves  or  lambs,  as  soon  as 
they  will  eat  it,  not  only  economically  favours  growth  and 
early  maturity,  but  is  tolerably  effectual  in  warding  off 
attacks  of  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  anaemia. 

A  mucilaginous,  demulcent  decoction,  made  with  about 
one  part  of  steeped  seed  to  fifteen  or  twenty  parts  boiling 
water,  is  useful  in  irritable  conditions  of  the  throat,  respir- 
atory passages,  bowels,  kidneys,  and  bladder;  in  poisoning 
with  irritants  and  corrosives;  and  as  a  convenient  vehicle 
for  the  administration  of  nauseous  or  acrid  medicines. 

Crushed  linseed  makes  good  poultices,  especially  when 
mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  bran  or  oatmeal ;  but  the 
bruised  linseed  cake  is  cheaper,  less  apt  to  become  rancid, 
and  equally  effectual  in  retaining  heat  and  moisture.  The 
common  mass  employed  for  making  up  balls  and  pills 
usually  consists  of  equal  quantities  of  linseed  meal  and 
treacle. 

Linseed  Oil  has  been  used  dietetically;  but  neither  for 
cattle  nor  sheep  does  it  serve  so  well  as  properly  prepared 
linseed  or  linseed  cake.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  being 
too  laxative,  and  it  increases  rather  than  diminishes  the 
quantity  of  ordinary  food  consumed.  As  an  adjuvant  feed- 
ing stuff  for  animals  in  health,  I  have  found  it  inferior  to 
linseed  cake,  beans,  or  oats.  One  to  two  ounces  repeated 
daily  are,  however,  often  beneficial,  in  sore-throat  and 
bronchitis  in  horses,  and  especially  for  subjects  that  will 
not  take  linseed  gruel  or  mashes. 

Linseed  oil,  in  quantity  too  large  to  be  digested,  acts  as 
a  cathartic ;  it  is  also  emollient.  It  closely  resembles  rape- 
seed,  almond,  and  other  fixed  oils ;  but  is  scarcely  so  actively 
cathartic  as  castor  oil. 

As  a  laxative  it  usually  produces  tolerably  full  and 
softened  evacuations,  without  nausea,  griping,  or  super- 
purgation.     It  is  prescribed  for  young  and  delicate  horses, 


652  LINSEED    OIL    LAXATIVE    AND    EMOLLIENT 

and  pregnant  mares,  and  for  all  subjects  in  influenza,  pur- 
pura, and  other  debilitating  disorders ;  in  diarrhcea,  hernia, 
and  irritable  states  of  the  intestine,  as  well  as  in  over- 
loaded, torpid  bowels,  where  aloes  and  other  active  purga- 
tives, especially  if  repeated,  might  cause  dangerous  symptoms. 
It  is  serviceable  in  warding  off  attacks  of  lymphangitis, 
hsemoglobinuria,  cedema  and  itching  of  the  limbs,  which 
are  liable  to  occur  when  hard-worked  horses  have  several 
days'  rest.  In  the  treatment  of  colic  it  is  generally  com- 
bined with  a  stinuilant  and  anodyne.  A  draught  in  common 
use  consists  of  one  pint  of  linseed  oil  with  an  ounce  each 
of  ether  and  laudanui%  both  being  doubled  in  acute  cases 
and  in  large  horses.  In  colic,  aloes,  however,  generally 
acts  better  than  linseed  oil;  but  for  laxative  enemas  the 
oil  is  preferable. 

Two  or  three  ounces  of  linseed  oil,  or  of  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  linseed  and  olive  oils,  given  daily  in  mash,  often 
suffice,  with  the  use  of  encmata,  to  maintain  the  bowels  of 
horses  in  a  sufficiently  relaxed  state  throughout  catarrhal 
and  other  febrile  attacks.  This  treatment  is  also  specially 
suitable  in  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  and  bladder,  when 
it  is  desirable  to  rest  these  organs,  and  promote  excretion 
by  the  bowels  and  skin.  An  ounce  or  two  of  oil  combined 
with  lime-water  given  daily  to  broken-winded  subjects  often 
advantageously  relieves  the  distressing  breathing. 

In  cattle  and  canine  practice  linseed  oil  is  much  used  as 
a  purgative,  especially  for  young  and  weakly  patients,  in 
advanced  pregnancy,  in  gastro-intestinal  derangements,  in 
irritant  poisoning,  where  saline  or  other  active  purgatives 
have  been  given,  and  their  repetition  is  inexpedient,  and  as 
a  convenient  menstruum  for  the  administration  of  croton  oil 
and  oil  of  turpentine.  For  calves  and  lambs  it  is  milder  and 
safer  than  salts.  For  dogs,  especially  when  young,  when  the 
dicjestive  ort^ans  are  in  an  irritable  state,  and  exhaustinij 
disease  has  reduced  strength,  it  is  a  suitable  laxative,  and 
more  effectual  when  mixed  with  an  equal  amount  of  castor 
oil.  As  a  lubricant  and  emollient  linseed  oil  is  useful  in 
choking;  mixed  with  well-boiled  starch  gruel,  and  injected 
into  the  rectum,  it  allays  irritation;   softening  the  hard, 


LIQUORICE   ROOT  653 

cracked,  or  scaly  skin,  it  is  applied,  with  an  alkaline  solution, 
in  psoriasis,  impetigo,  and  eczema.  Its  analgesic  effects  are 
increased  by  admixture  with  lead  acetate  solution.  For 
emollient  dressings,  to  be  used  for  a  considerable  time,  vase- 
line and  benzoated  almond,  or  cocoa-nut,  oil  are,  however, 
preferable,  as  they  are  not  drying  or  prone  to  rancidity.  The 
drying  properties,  possessed  in  common  Avitli  poppy  and  cod- 
liver  oils,  render  linseed  oil  less  suitable  than  lard  or  olive, 
almond,  rape,  or  colza  oil,  for  making  ointments  and  lini- 
ments. Friction  with  oil  often  reduces  swollen  joints  and 
bursas.  Flannel,  soaked  in  hot  linseed  oil,  is  sometimes 
applied  for  the  relief  of  rheumatism..  The  '  black  oil '  used 
in  many  parts  of  England  for  bruises,  strains,  and  wounds,  is 
made  with  a  pint  of  linseed  or  other  oil,  two  ounces  oil 
of  turpentine,  adding  six  drachms  diluted  sulphuric  acid, 
and  leaving  the  bottle  unstoppered  until  the  heat  evolved  by 
admixture  of  the  acid  has  passed  away. 

Doses,  etc. — As  a  cathartic,  horses  take  Oss.  to  Oj.;  cattle, 
Oj.  to  Oij.;  sheep  and  pigs,  fgvi.  to  fgx. ;  dogs,  fgi.  to  fgij.; 
cats,  f5i. ;  administered  shaken  up  with  linseed  gruel,  mucil- 
age, milk,  treacle,  lirae-water,  or  spirit  and  water.  For 
horses  or  cattle  it  is  sometimes  mixed  with  a  well-made 
bran  mash. 

LIQUORICE  ROOT 

Glycyrrhiz^  Radix.  The  peeled  root  and  peeled  subter- 
ranean stem  of  Glycyrrhiza  glabra  and  other  species. 
(B.P.).    Nat.  Ord. — Leguminosse. 

The  perennial  herbaceous  plants  yielding  liquorice  grow  in 
the  temperate  countries  of  Continental  Europe.  Their  roots 
and  underground  stems  arrive  at  perfection  about  the  third 
year,  and  produce  a  yellow  powder  having  a  sweet  taste,  and 
soluble  in  water,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  alcohol.  Besides 
asparagin,  gum,  starch,  sugar,  malic  acid,  and  a  resinous  oil, 
to  which  it  owes  its  sub-acrid  taste,  liquorice  contains  about 
G  per  cent,  of  a  sweet,  yellow  glucoside,  termed  glycyrrhizin. 
The  natural  juice  or  watery  infusion,  concentrated  until  it 
becomes  solid,  forms  the  extract  or  black  sugar. 


654  STARCH 

Actions  and  Uses. — Liquorice  resembles  sugar  and  treacle 
in  its  dietetic  and  medicinal  uses.  Powdered,  it  is  oc- 
casionally used  as  as  a  demulcent  in  irritation  of  the  pul- 
monar}^  mucous  membrane,  for  making  up  boluses  and 
covering  the  disagreeable  taste  and  odour  of  various  drugs. 
The  laxative  compound  liquorice  powder,  composed  of 
senna,  liquorice  root,  fennel,  sulphur,  and  sugar,  is  some- 
times prescribed  for  calves,  lambs,  and  dogs.  The  dose  is 
5j.  to  5iv. 

STARCH 

Amylum.  The  starch  procured  from  the  grains  of  common 
wheat,  Triticum  sativum ;  maize,  Zea  Mays ;  and  rice, 
Oryza  sativa  (B.P.).     Nat.  Ord. — Graminaceae. 

Starch  is  an  important  member  of  that  dietetic  series  of 
carbo-hydrates,  including  gums  and  sugars,  which  contains 
at  least  six  carbon  atoms  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the 
proportion  to  form  water.  Starch  is  largely  present  in  the 
cereal  grains,  in  the  stems  of  man}^  plants,  and  in  tubers, 
being  stored  in  the  seeds  and  tubers  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  young  plants.  Wheat  flour  contains  about  70  per  cent, 
of  carbo-hydrates,  chiefly  starch,  which  receives  the  special 
title  of  amylum,  10  of  proteids  with  water,  and  ash.  Oat- 
meal contains  63  of  starch  and  about  12*6  of  proteids,  with 
traces  of  a  bitter  amor]3hous  alkaloid  ;  barley,  C4  starch,  12 
proteids ;  rice,  83  starch,  5  proteids ;  potatoes,  21  starch, 
2-8  proteids.  From  any  of  these  sources  pure  starch  is  got 
by  fine  division  of  the  grain  or  root ;  sometimes  facilitating 
separation  of  other  plant  constituents  by  fermenting;  wash- 
ing the  starch  granules  from  fibrous  matters,  straining,  and 
drying.  The  white  starch  used  for  medicinal  and  dietetic 
purposes  is  dried  in  powder  or  granules.  The  blue  preferred 
for  the  laundry  is  in  blocks,  splits  as  it  dries  into  colunmar 
masses,  is  coloured  by  addition  of  a  little  indigo,  and  generally 
contains  about  18  per  cent,  of  water. 

Arrowroot  is  the  starch  of  the  Maranta  arundinacea; 
sago,  the  granular  starch  from  the  sago  palm  ;  tous-les-mois, 
the   large   ovular  granules   from   the   rhizomes   of  several 


A    NUTRITIVE    CARBO-HYDRATE  655 

species  of  Canna ;  tapioca  or  cassava  is  prepared  from  the 
expressed  juice  of  the  roots  of  Manihot  utilissima.  Corn 
flour  or  Oswego  is  the  flour  of  Indian  corn  deprived  of  gluten 
by  a  weak  sohition  of  soda. 

Starch  consists  of  round  or  oval  granules  comprising  a 
cell-wall  enclosing  concentric  layers  of  graniilose.  The  large 
grains  from  potatoes  are  about  -^^th  of  an  inch  in  their 
long  diameter,  the  small  rounded  grains  of  rice  measure 
■;;  ^\  0 th  of  an  inch.  Starch  grains  from  various  sources  differ 
in  appearance  when  examined  under  the  microscope.  Wheat 
starch  presents  a  mixture  of  large  and  small  granules,  which 
are  lenticular  in  form,  and  marked  with  faint  concentric  strioe 
surrounding  a  nearly  central  hilum.  The  maize  granules 
are  more  uniform  in  size,  frequently  polygonal,  smaller  than 
those  of  wheat,  having  a  very  distinct  hilum,  but  without 
evident  concentric  striae.  Rice  granules  are  extremely 
minute,  and  nearly  uniform  in  size,  polygonal,  the  hilum 
small  and  without  stride  (B.P.). 

Starch  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  has  the  specific  gravity 
1-5,  and  hence  is  deposited  when  mixed  with  water.  The 
cell- wall  consisting  of  cellulose  and  the  contained  granulose 
are  isomeric,  having  the  formula  usually  given  as  CgH^^iOg. 
When  mixed  with  water  above  120°  Fahr.,  the  starch  grains 
burst;  the  granulose,  escaping,  occupies  twenty  to  thirty 
times  its  previous  volume,  and  forms  the  viscid  gelatinous 
mucilage  used  by  the  laundress.  A  solution  of  starch  Avhen 
cold  gives  the  characteristic  blue  compound  with  solution 
of  iodine.  Starch,  Avhen  boiled  with  diluted  sulphuric  or 
nitric  acid,  is  converted  into  the  isomeric  but  more  soluble 
dextrin  or  British  gum,  one  variety  of  which  is  coloured  red 
by  iodine.  With  further  action  of  a  weak  acid  and  heat, 
dextrin  takes  up  water  and  is  converted  into  maltose  (Cj^H^g 
Ojj.HoO),  and  eventually  into  dextrose  (CgH^oOg). 

When  starch  foods  are  eaten  the  salivary  and  intestinal 
ferments  graduall}-  crack  the  granules,  and  quickly  convert 
the  starch  through  several  forms  of  dextrin  into  maltose, 
and  eventually  into  dextrose.  These  changes  are  also 
readily  produced  by  mixing  starch  paste  with  crushed  malt, 
the  diastase  of  which  develops  the  fermentative  changes. 


C56  STARCH    DEMULCENT    AND    EMOLLIENT 

Animal  starch,  or  glycogen  (CgHjoOg),  present  in  the  liver,  in 
blood,  and  in  muscle,  exhibits  most  of  the  characters  of 
vegetable  starch. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Starch  foods  are  rapidly  digested, 
especially  when  cooking  or  fermentation  has  cracked  the 
starch  cells,  or  when  they  have  been  thoroughly  insalivated. 
Like  other  such  proximate  principles,  pure  starch  cannot, 
however,  alone  support  life  for  any  lengthened  period.  A 
properly  balanced  dietary  for  horses  or  cattle  should  con- 
tain one  part  of  proteids  and  five  to  eight  parts  of  starch 
or  other  carbo-hydrates.  Active  exertion,  as  in  the  case  of 
hard- worked  horses,  or  abnormal  secretion,  as  of  heavily- 
milking  cows,  causes  great  expenditure  of  albuminoids,  which 
must  be  replaced  by  the  food.  Growing  animals,  in  order  to 
build  up  their  tissues,  require  relatively  larger  supplies  of 
albuminoids  than  suffice  for  adults.  The  starches — mostly 
converted  into  sugar — are  consumed  in  the  body  more 
quickly  and  fully  than  fats.  During  their  oxidation  they 
are  the  great  source  of  animal  heat,  especially  in  herbivora. 
They  prevent  wasteful  consumption  of  the  more  costly 
albuminoids  and  fats.  Under  favourable  conditions,  carbo- 
hydrates, in  excess,  are  also  believed  to  be  directly  concerned 
in  the  formation  of  fat,  and  Pasteur  states  that  they  furnish 
glycerin — the  basis  of  neutral  fats.  For  nutritive  purposes 
seventeen  parts  (Voit)  to  twenty-three  parts  (Rubner)  of 
carbo-hydrates  are  equivalent  to  ten  parts  of  fat. 

As  a  demulcent  and  emollient,  starch  mucilage  protects 
and  softens  irritable  surfaces.  In  diarrhoea  and  dysentery 
it  is  used  about  the  consistence  of  cream,  at  the  temperature 
of  100"  Fahr.,  either  alone  or  with  laudanum,  sugar  of  lead, 
or  other  astringent,  and  is  given  both  by  the  mouth  and 
rectum.  It  is  an  antidote  to  excessive  doses  of  iodine.  Dry 
starch  readily  absorbs  water,  and  hence  is  a  desiccant  for 
wounds,  forming  a  protective  covering.  Mixed  with  equal 
parts  of  zinc  oxide,  it  dries  and  soothes  the  weeping  earlier 
stages  of  eczema.  Conjoined  with  carbolic  acid,  or  boric 
acid  and  iodoform,  it  forms  a  convenient  desiccant  antiseptic. 
One  part  of  starch,  heated  with  five  of  glycerin  and  three  of 
water,  make  a  soothing  denmlcent.     Starch  is  used  for  mix- 


SUGAR  657 

ing  and  subdividing  medicines,  and  as  a  vehicle  for  their 
administration.  It  is  employed  to  stiffen  bandages  for 
fractures  and  other  surgical  purposes. 


SUGAR 

Sugar  exists  in  many  plants ;  is  prepared  in  France  and 
Germany  from  white  beet,  in  Asia  from  various  palms, 
and  in  America  from  sugar  maple  (Sorghum  saccharatum), 
and  maize.  The  sugar  used  in  this  country  is  chiefly  got 
from  the  sugar-cane  (Saccharum  officinarum),  which  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  has  a  perennial 
root,  and  a  jointed  annual  stem  six  to  twelve  feet  high. 
These  canes  are  crushed  between  heavy  rollers;  the  pale 
green  expressed  juice,  which  contains  nearly  twenty  per  cent, 
of  sugar,  is  mixed  with  a  little  slaked  lime  to  neutralise  acids 
and  precipitate  albuminoids,  and  concentrated  in  shallow 
vacuum  pans  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  140°  Fahr. ; 
the  coagulating  albumin,  entangling  impurities,  is  skimmed 
off;  the  syrup  is  cooled  in  wooden  vats,  and  dried  in  the  sun, 
yellow  dark-brown  crystals  of  raw  sugar  are  formed,  and 
there  drains  away  a  variable  quantity  of  brown  uncrystallised 
molasses.  A  hundredweight  of  raw  sugar  yields  about  80 
pounds  refined  sugar  and  16  pounds  treacle. 

There  are  two  classes  of  sugars — (1)  the  Sucroses  or  Sac- 
charoses, which,  when  dry,  have  the  formula  C12H22O1P  and 
(2)  the  Glucroses,  with  the  formula  CgH^g^e- 

Sucrose,  saccharose,  or  cane  sugar  {C^.2^.220^j),  like  sulphur 
and  arsenious  acid,  has  an  amorphous  and  a  crystalline  form, 
its  crystals  are  monoclinic  prisms;  specific  gravity  1606; 
it  phosphoresces  in  the  dark,  and  is  dextro-rotatory.  It  is 
hydroscopic,  soluble  in  one-third  of  its  weight  of  water  at 
60°  Fahr.,  but  insoluble  in  absolute  alcohol.  A  strong 
solution,  evaporated  and  heated  to  320°  Fahr.,  fuses,  and  the 
vitreous  mass  can  be  moulded  into  barley-sugar.  Between 
356°  and  374)°  Fahr.  sucrose  parts  with  two  molecules  of 
water,  loses  its  sweet  taste,  acquires  a  dark  colour,  and 
becomes  caramel,  which  is  used  by  confectioners  and 
distillers  as  a  colouring  agent. 

2t 


ti58  SUGARS 

Sucrose  in  plants  is  gradually  built  up  from  the  simpler 
glucose  (CgH^.^Oy),  and,  conversely,  when  acted  on  by  dilute 
acids  or  by  ferments,  such  as  diastase  or  yeast,  it  is  again 
converted  into  glucose.  Sucrose  undergoes  this  change 
before  it  yields  alcohol. 

Maltose  (CjgHgoO^j.HgO)  is  prepared  by  grinding  starch 
with  water,  warming  it  until  it  gelatinises,  and  heating  with 
crushed  malt,  the  diastase  of  which  sets  up  fermentation, 
causing  three  molecules  of  starch  to  appropriate  one  of 
water,  and  yield  one  molecule  of  maltose  and  one  of  dextrin. 
Maltose  is  also  formed  during  the  digestion  of  starch  by  the 
ferments  of  the  salivary,  intestinal,  and  pancreatic  juices. 
It  is  soluble  and  readily  fermented. 

Lactose,  or  milk  sugar  (C^.^HaaO^pHgO),  is  prepared  by 
evaporating  whey  to  a  syrup,  and  crystallising.  It  occurs 
in  translucent,  greyish-white,  hard  cylindrical  masses  of 
rhombic  prisms.  It  is  gritty,  and,  being  less  soluble,  is  not  so 
sweet  as  the  vegetable  sugars.  It  is  not  directly  fermentable. 
Homoeopathic  chemists  use  it  for  subdividing  medicines. 

Glucose,  dextrose,  or  grape  sugar  (Cj;H^.,0(.),  is  the  variety 
present  in  grapes  and  other  fruit,  and  in  honey.  It  is 
obtained  by  boiling  cane  sugar,  or  acting  upon  it  with 
alcoholic  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  is  formed  when 
starch  is  boiled  with  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid, 
and  is  the  variety  occurring  in  blood  and  urine.  It  is 
produced  when  glucosides,  such  as  salicin,  amygdalin,  digi- 
talin,  etc.,  are  boiled  with  diluted  acid.  It  is  neither  so 
sweet  nor  so  soluble  as  sucrose,  crystallises  in  six-sided 
scales,  is  not  charred  by  sulphuric  acid,  but  forms  with  it 
sulphosaccharic  acid.  It  produces  a  readily  crystallisable 
compound  with  common  salt. 

Laevulose,  also  termed  fructose,  is  isomeric  with  dextrose, 
and  is  associated  with  it  in  most  fruits.  By  keeping,  and 
especially  by  exposure  to  light,  the  more  soluble  Isevulose  in 
fruits  and  syrups  is  gradually  converted  into  the  more 
crystalline  dextrose.  These  two  sugars  are  distinguished 
by  the  manner  in  which  they  turn  a  ray  of  polarised  light. 
Laivulose  is  sweeter  than  dextrose,  and  less  fermentable. 

Molasses,  treacle,  theriaca,  or  sacchari   fa3x,  is  the  un- 


NUTRITIVE,  LAXATIVE,  DEMULCENT,  ANTISEPTIC         659 

crystallised,  fermentable,  syrupy  residue  from  the  prepara- 
tion and  refining  of  sugar.  It  has  a  brown  colour,  a  pleasant 
sweet  taste,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  about  I'i.  Molasses  is 
the  drainings  from  the  raw  sugar ;  treacle  the  darker,  thicker 
residue  from  the  moulding  process. 

Honey  or  mel,  the  saccharine  secretion  deposited  in  the 
honeycomb  by  the  hive  bee,  when  first  collected  is  yellow, 
translucent,  and  viscid,  and  consists  of  variable  proportions 
of  sucrose  and  Isevulose.  The  popular  household  expectorant 
oxymel  is  made  of  eight  parts  of  honey,  liquefied  by  heat, 
and  mixed  with  one  part  each  of  acetic  acid  and  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — The  sugars  are  members  of  the  carbo- 
hydrate series  of  dietetic  substances,  are  digestible  and 
nutritive ;  their  important  function  in  all  the  higher  animals 
is  the  support  of  animal  heat ;  they  moreover  economise  the 
proteids  and  fats,  and  directly  contribute  to  the  deposit  of 
fat.  They  are  laxatives,  demulcents,  and  antiseptics,  and 
used  pharmaceutically  as  excipients.  One  or  two  pounds 
given  to  horses  or  cattle,  eight  to  twelve  ounces  to  sheep  or 
dogs,  eight  to  ten  drachms  to  poultry,  increase  the  amount 
and  fluidity  of  the  faeces,  and  usually  also  augment  secretion 
of  urme.  As  a  demulcent  sugar  is  used  in  the  dry  stages  of 
catarrh,  in  poisoning  with  salts  of  mercury  and  copper,  and  as 
a  domestic  remedy  for  wounds,  and  for  removing  specks  from 
the  cornea.  Its  antiseptic  properties  recommend  it  for  pre- 
serving many  vegetable  and  some  soft  animal  substances, 
and  for  making  up  various  medicines.  It  increases  the 
solubility  of  calcium  salts  and  retards  oxidation  of  ferrous 
compounds.  The  syrupus  of  the  B.P,  used  for  flavouring, 
preserving,  and  suspending  medicines,  is  made  by  dissolving, 
with  the  aid  of  heat,  five  pounds  refined  sugar  in  two  pints 
distilled  water,  and  adding  after  cooling,  sufiicient  water  to 
make  the  weight  of  the  product  7i  lbs.    Specific  gravity  1-330. 

Molasses  and  treacle  are  often  substituted  for  sugar. 
They  are  palatable,  digestible,  laxative  articles  of  diet, 
useful  for  sick  and  convalescent  animals.  They  are  con- 
venient auxiliary  purgatives,  and  valuable  for  hastening 
the  action,  preventing  the  nausea,  and  covering  the  disagree- 
able flavour  of  active  cathartics.    When  fuU  doses  of  physic 


660  PETANELLT? 

have  been  given,  and  their  repetition  is  inexpedient,  large 
and  repeated  doses  of  treacle  encourage  the  action  of  the 
purgative,  especially  in  cattle  and  sheep.  As  a  soothing 
antiseptic  gargle  for  horses,  three  or  four  ounces  of  treacle 
and  an  ounce  of  borax  or  of  potassium  nitrate  or  chlorate 
are  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  a  few  ounces  slowly 
administered  every  hour  or  two.  When  cough  is  trouble- 
some an  ounce  of  belladonna  extract  may  be  added.  Treacle 
is  a  convenient  antiseptic  excipient  for  ball  masses,  impart- 
ing a  proper  consistence,  and  preventing  their  becoming  dry, 
hard,  or  mouldy.  The  common  mass,  so  largely  used  as  an 
excipient,  is  made  by  thoroughly  mixing  with  gentle  heat 
equal  weights  of  treacle  and  linseed  flour. 

Doses,  etc. — Of  sugar  and  treacle,  as  laxatives,  horses  and 
cattle  take  Ib.i. ;  sheep,  §v.  or  §vi. ;  pigs,  §ij.  to  §vi. ;  dogs, 
§i.  to  §ij.,  administered  with  aromatics  and  salines,  usually 
dissolved  in  water,  milk,  or  gruel,  or  mixed  with  a  mash. 

PETANELLB 

Petanelle  wool  fibre,  powder,  and  hygienic  clothing,  for 
veterinary  use,  are  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Pat^,  Burke  & 
Co.,  London,  Paris,  and  Elieims.  The  fibre  extracted  by  a 
patented  process  from  red  or  moss  peat,  is  sterilised,  under 
pressure,  by  means  of  moist  heat  at  a  temperature  of 
134°  Cent.,  and  then  dried.  It  is  aseptic,  antiseptic,  and 
deodorant,  and  is  used  as  a  wound-dressing  in  place  of 
carbolised  tow  or  other  similar  absorbent.  The  fibre  is 
eminently  porous,  very  compressible  and  elastic,  and  a 
powerful  absorbent  of  liquids  and  gases.  It  is  not  putres- 
cible ;  and  it  is  said  to  undergo  no  change  in  whatever 
medium  it  may  be  placed.  Applied  to  wounds  it  promotes 
healing,  and  frequent  renewal  of  the  dressing  is  unnecessary. 
Petanelle  powder  is  disinfectant  and,  according  to  Professor 
Bayne,  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London,  it  is  especially 
useful  as  a  deodorant.  The  rugs,  saddle-cloths,  and  bandages 
for  horses,  and  the  blankets  and  cushions  for  dogs  remain 
free  from  offensive  odour  after  long  use  (see  Veterinary 
Record,  1900). 


SUBSTANCES  DERIVED  FROM  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM    6C1 


CANTHARIDES 

Cantharis.  Blistering  or  Spanish  Fly.  The  dried  beetle 
— Cantharis  vesicatoria.  Class  —  Insecta.  Order  — 
Coleoptera. 

Cantharides  flies  are  found  in  most  parts  of  Southern 
Europe,  Germany,  and  Russia,  and  occasionally  along  the 
south  coast  of  England.  They  settle  on  such  trees  and 
shrubs  as  the  olive,  lilac,  privet,  ash,  elder,  honeysuckle,  and 
rose.  During  May  and  June,  after  nightfall  or  before  dawn, 
the  collectors,  with  their  faces  protected  by  masks  and  their 
hands  by  gloves,  shake  or  beat  the  insects  from  the  trees  on 
which  they  feed,  kill  them  by  exposure  to  the  fumes  of  oil  of 
turpentine,  or  by  immersion  in  boiling  water  or  vinegar,  and 
quickly  dry  them  in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat.  The  flies 
used  in  this  country  were  formerly  brought  from  Spain  (and 
hence  their  vernacular  name  of  Spanish  flies),  but  are  now 
chiefly  imported  from  Hungary,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Messina, 
usually  packed  in  barrels  or  cases  containing  from  100  to 
200  lbs. 

Properties,  etc. — The  insect  is  from  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  to  an  inch  long,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  broad,  with 
two  long  elytra  or  wing-sheaths  of  a  shining  coppery-green 
colour,  under  which  are  two  thin,  brownish,  gauze-like, 
membranous  wings.  The  body,  especially  along  its  under 
surface,  is  covered  with  grey- white  hairs;  the  head  is  large; 
the  antennae  or  horns  are  black  and  thread-like.  The  insect, 
which  lives  eight  to  ten  days,  deposits  its  larvse  in  the  earth, 
leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  It  has 
a  resinous,  acrid  taste,  and  a  disagreeable,  penetrating,  foetid 
odour.  Powdered  cantharides  is  freely  soluble  in  boiling 
water,  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and  fixed  and  A^olatile  oils. 
The  active  principle  being  volatile,  no  cantharides  prepara- 
tion should  be  heated  beyond  200°  Fahr.  Its  distinguishing 
tests  are  its  vesicant  action,  and  the  brilliant  green  appear- 
ance of  the  wing-sheaths. 

Cantharides,  besides  animal  matters,  acetic  and  uric  acids, 
contains  a  bland  oil,  a  foetid,  acrid,  volatile  oil,  and  about 


C62  CANTHARTDES 

2  per  cent,  of  a  fatty  crystallisable  principle  cantharidin 
(CjoHjoO^),  which  is  confined  to  the  soft  parts  of  the  body, 
and  is  present  particularly  in  the  blood  and  female  sexual 
organs.  It  is  slowly  deposited,  when  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  cantharides  is  concentrated.  When  pure,  it  crystallises 
in  colourless  scales  or  prisms,  melts  at  482°  Fahr.,  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  ether, 
chloroform,  and  oils ;  y^  of  a  grain  suffices  to  blister. 

Impurities. — As  the  powdered  cantharides  sold  in  the 
shops  sometimes  contains  euphorbium  and  various  cheap 
irritants,  it  is  advised  that  the  flies  be  purchased  entire. 
Other  insects  are  sometimes  mixed  with  them.  The  species 
of  mylabris  sold  as  Chinese  blistering  flies  have  two  orange- 
coloured  bands  and  spots  on  the  wing-covers.  Activity  is 
sometimes  impaired  by  damp,  long-keeping,  and  attacks  of 
mites,  moths,  and  beetles — parasitic  attacks  which  are  pre- 
vented by  keeping  the  fresh  flies  in  closely-stoppered  bottles, 
with  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid,  or  a  few  grains  of  camphor 
or  ammonium  carbonate. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Cantharides  is  an  irritant,  and  pro- 
duces its  effects  on  any  part  with  which  the  free  cantharidin 
is  brought  into  contact.  Applied  externally,  it  stimulates 
and  vesicates,  and  is  used  as  a  counter-irritant.  When 
swallowed  it  irritates  the  digestive  mucous  membrane ;  large 
doses  produce  gastro-enteritis.  The  active  cantharidin  is 
absorbed,  and  in  the  blood  forms  a  non-irritant  albuminoid, 
but  in  the  kidneys  is  again  liberated,  developing  its  charac- 
teristic irritation — small  doses  stimulating  the  urino-genital 
tract,  causing  diuresis,  and  in  some  animals  increased  sexual 
desire;  full  doses  inducing  inflammation,  strangury,  and 
hicmaturia. 

General  Actions. — According  to  the  strength  of  the  pre- 
paration, or  the  period  during  which  it  is  apj^lied,  cantharides 
produces  redness,  vesication,  or  sloughing  of  the  skin  or 
mucous  surfaces.  An  ordinary  vesicant  dressing  causes  con- 
gestion, elevation  of  local  temperature,  and,  usually  within 
three  to  twelve  hours,  formation  of  blisters,  which,  after  a 
variable  but  generally  short  time,  burst,  and  discharge  a 
yellow,  serous  fluid,  which  dries  into  scurfy  cicatrices.   When 


AN   IRRTTAN.T   POISON  663 

freely  or  continuously  used,  the  deeper-seated  skin  tissues 
are  inflamed,  and  ulceration,  and  sloughing  with  suppura- 
tion ensue.  When  the  true  skin  has  thus  been  seriously 
inflamed,  the  hair  bulbs  are  injured;  the  hair  is  removed, 
and  permanent  baldness  and  blemishing  may  result.  As  a 
vesicant  it  is  most  powerful  on  horses  and  dogs,  and  less 
powerful  on  cattle,  swine,  and  poultry. 

Toxic  Effects. — Orfila  found  that  '  three  drachms  of  the 
tincture,  with  eight  grains  of  powder  suspended  in  it,  caused 
the  death  of  a  dog  in  twenty-four  hours,  if  retained  in  the 
stomach  by  a  ligature  on  the  gullet,  insensibility  being  the 
chief  symptom ;  and  that  forty  grains  of  the  powder  killed 
another  dog  in  four  hours  and  a  half,  although  he  was 
allowed  to  vomit.  When  administered  by  the  stomach,  that 
organ  was  found  much  inflamed  after  death  ;  and  if  given  in 
the  form  of  powder,  fragments  of  the  poison  were  generally 
discernible.  When  applied  to  a  wound,  the  powder  excites 
surrounding  inflammation ;  and  a  drachm  will,  in  this  way, 
prove  fatal  in  thirty-two  hours,  without  any  constitutional 
symptom  except  languor  '  (Christison  On  Poisons).  An  ounce 
of  powdered  cantharides  administered  to  a  horse  caused 
death  in  eighteen  hours;  and  fatal  efl^ects  are  reported  to 
have  occurred  where  only  one  drachm  was  given  (Morton). 

The  treatment  of  the  gastro-intestinal  or  urinary  irritation 
consists  in  the  free  use  of  mucilaginous  drinks  with  opiates. 
Oils  and  fats  are  inadmissible  on  account  of  their  favouring 
solution  of  any  unabsorbed  poison.  When  constitutional 
irritation  has  resulted  from  absorption  of  the  cantharidin 
from  a  blistered  surface,  this  should  be  dressed  with  soothing 
remedies. 

Medicinal  Uses. — Small,  repeated  doses  are  occasionally 
prescribed  in  chronic  catarrh.  In  such  cases  Professor 
Robertson  gave  it  with  copaiba.  It  is  sometimes  serviceable 
in  chronic  cystitis ;  while  giving  tone  to  the  bladder,  small 
doses  prevent  involuntary  escape  of  urine.  In  some  parts 
of  Germany  it  is  given  to  cows  which  are  tardy  in  coming  to 
service;  but  its  aphrodisiac  effects  on  either  sex  are  un- 
certain, and  seldom  produced  except  by  dangerously  large 
doses.     When  administered  for  some  time,  small  vesicles 


064  CANTHARTDES 

sometimes  appear  on  the  skin,  depending  on  the  excretion 
of  cantharidin  cutaneously. 

External  Applications. — Cantharides,  in  small  amount  and 
diluted,  stimulates  the  capillaries  and  trophic  nerves  of  the 
part  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  thus  increases  the  blood 
supply  and  functional  activity  of  the  skin  and  hair  bulbs. 
It  hence  induces  a  healthier  condition  of  the  dermis  in  some 
chronic  scaly  diseases,  and  promotes  growth  of  hair ;  ulcers 
and  tardily -healing  wounds  are  stimulated,  and  their  repair 
encouraged.  Inflammatory  products  are  liquefied  and 
absorbed — an  effect  familiarly  illustrated  by  the  action  of  a 
blister  on  the  swelling  remaining  around  a  bruise,  or  on  the 
fulness  and  thickening  resulting  from  a  strain.  The  bene- 
ficial effects  of  a  cantharides  blister  in  arresting  inflam- 
mation and  removing  effusion  were  often  exhibited  when 
blood-letting  was  the  rule,  and  phlebitis  of  the  jugular  vein 
of  the  horse  was  not  infrequent.  Blistering  ointment,  well 
rubbed  in  along  the  course  of  the  vessel,  removed  the  tense, 
corded,  inflammatory  swelling. 

Cantharides  blister  is  usefully  applied  in  cases  of  open 
joint  or  bursa,  where  the  wound  is  small,  to  prevent 
escape  of  synovia.  It  is  also  applied  in  umbilical  hernia  in 
foals  and  calves;  and  while  it  mechanically  prevents  the 
descent  of  the  intestine,  it  gradually  obliterates  the  opening  in 
the  abdominal  wall.  Similar  effects  are  sometimes  obtained 
by  moistening  the  adjacent  skin  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Cantharides  is  much  used  as  a  counter-irritant.  The 
external  irritation  reflexly  relieves  tension,  inflammation, 
and  pain  of  adjacent  or  deep-seated  parts.  Blisters  applied 
experimentally  to  the  chest  or  loins  of  dogs  and  rabbits, 
while  producing  external  congestion,  cause  anaemia  of  the 
pleura  and  lungs,  or  of  the  deeper-seated  muscles  of  the 
back.  Professor  Robertson  has  recorded  that  in  pleuritic 
and  other  cases  a  blister  so  notably  modifies  morbid  action, 
and  relieves  painful  tension,  that  temperature  is  reduced  2° 
to  3°  Fa.hr.,  and  the  pulse  ten  beats  per  minute.  He  preferred 
cantharides  to  mustard,  believing  it  to  cause  less  irritation 
and  pain,  and  to  produce  more  permanent  curative  effects. 
Professor  Williams,   however,   maintains    that   cantharides 


USES   AS   A   COUNTER-IRRITANT  665 

and  other  blisters  unnecessarily  irritate  most  horses,  and, 
in  acute  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,  are  neither  so 
certain  nor  so  satisfactory  as  hot  fomentations  (p.  700). 

In  many  cases  of  catarrh  and  sore-throat,  heat  and  moisture 
are  certainly  more  effectual  than  blisters ;  but  tedious,  irri- 
table conditions  of  the  larynx,  inducing  coughing,  are  often 
relieved  by  a  cantharides  dressing.  In  the  outset  of  roaring, 
counter-irritation  is  often  useful.  In  acute  bronchitis,  when 
mainly  affecting  the  larger  tubes,  it  is  serviceable,  in  con- 
junction with  inhalation  of  steam,  and  after  stuping  the 
parts  with  hot  water.  But  Professor  Robertson  also  speaks 
favourably  of  fly  blisters  in  cases  where  considerable  exuda- 
tion blocks  the  smaller  tubes.  Their  efficacy  is  seldom  so 
obvious  in  pneumonia,  especially  when  involving  a  consider- 
able area.  In  pleurodynia  and  most  stages  of  pleurisy, 
cantharides  is  specially  useful;  in  the  earlier  stages  it 
moderates  acute  inflammation,  while  later  it  checks  or 
removes  effusion.  It  is  the  counter-irritant  usually  applied 
in  inflammation  ot  the  pericardium.  Although  occasionally 
used,  it  is  never  of  much  value,  in  either  colic  or  enteritis. 
In  peritonitis  it  is  seldom  so  effectual  as  in  pleurisy, 
but  was  advised  by  Professor  Robertson  in  chronic  cases. 
Where  acute  inflammation  extends  over  a  considerable 
area  of  the  peritoneum,  it  is  desirable  that  the  blister  be 
applied  some  little  distance  to  the  side  of  and  not  directly 
over  the  closely  underlying  inflamed  spot.  Professor  Williams 
and  other  good  authorities  recommend  cantharides  blisters 
in  encephalitis  and  myelitis,  as  well  as  in  chronic  paralysis. 
Cases  of  paralysis  in  cows  depending  upon  parturient  apo- 
plexy are  usually  benefited  by  moderate  counter-irritation, 
maintained  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  In  rheumatism,  in  all 
patients,  advantage  frequently  results  from  a  fly  blister 
which  is  maintained  active  by  repeated  application. 

Irritation  and  inflammation  of  joints,  bursas,  ligaments, 
tendons,  and  bones  are  combated,  and  effused  products 
removed  by  blisters  properly  used.  When  external  surfaces 
or  comparatively  superficial  textures  are  to  be  directly 
stimulated,  the  cantharides  application  must  be  mild,  and 
not  too  long  applied.     When  deeper-seated  parts  are  to  be 


666  CANTHARIDES 

acted  on,  more  powerful  preparations  are  needful,  and  their 
eflfects  may  be  maintained  by  repetition.  It  is  seldom 
advisable  to  apply  cautharides  directly  to  any  part  which 
is  hot,  tender,  or  inflamed.  In  applying  blisters  to  inflamed 
joints  or  bursas,  it  is  judicious  to  place  them,  not  immediately 
upon,  but  somewhat  above  or  below,  the  affected  spot. 
Where  continued  eft'ects  are  desired,  mercury  biniodide 
ointment  is  alternated  with  cantharides,  or  substituted  for 
it,  or  the  actual  cautery  is  used  instead  of  blisters. 

Owing  to  its  liability  to  become  absorbed  and  irritate  the 
kidneys,  it  is  an  unsuitable  counter-irritant  in  inflamma- 
tion of  the  urinary  organs.  In  common  with  all  other  causes 
of  irritation,  it  must  be  avoided  in  tetanus.  Unless  on  a 
very  limited  surface,  and  freely  diluted,  cantharides  nmst 
not  be  used  in  weakl}^,  exhausted  subjects.  It  should  not  be 
applied  to  any  portion  of  the  skin  in  a  highly  vascular  or 
sensitive  condition,  or  where  there  is  tendency  to  erysipelas. 
In  dogs,  special  caution  is  required,  as  they  are  apt  to  rub 
the  blistered  parts,  and  cause  sloughing.  Cantharides  some- 
times acts  with  unexpected  violence  on  the  skin  of  well-bred 
horses,  and  for  such  subjects  strong  blisters  are  not  advisable, 
and  their  application  over  considerable  surfaces  should  be 
avoided.  No  horse  should  have  all  four  legs  blistered  at 
one  time.  In  some  excitable  subjects  even  a  moderate 
blister  causes  much  constitutional  disturbance. 

Doses,  etc. — For  horses,  grs.  iv.  to  grs.  xx. ;  for  cattle,  grs. 
X.  to  grs.  XX.;  for  sheep  and  swine,  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  viij.;  for 
dogs,  gr.  ss.  to  grs.  ij.,  repeated  once  or  twice  a  day,  usually 
siven  with  aromatics  and  bitters,  in  the  form  of  bolus  or 
tincture;  administration  suspended  if  urinary  irritation  or 
any  untoward  eft'ects  occur. 

Cantharides  is  used  externally  in  the  form  of  powder 
tincture,  vinegar,  ointment,  liniment,  and  plaster. 

Powdered  cantharides  is  principally  used  for  maintaining 
irritation,  and  for  scattering  over  mustard  poultices  and 
other  stimulant  applications  to  increase  their  activity. 

Tinctures  of  cantharides  are  made  of  varying  strength. 
The  B.P.  tincture  (1  in  80),  and  other  alcoholic  preparations, 
used  in  human  medicine  are  too  weak  for  most  veterinary 


PHARMACEUTICAL   PREPARATIONS  G67 

purposes.  One  ounce  of  coarsel3'-powdered  flies,  macerated 
for  seven  days  with  fifteen  or  twenty  ounces  of  alcohol,  60 
per  cent.,  forms  a  useful  tincture  of  medium  strength.  The 
activity  is  augmented  by  addition  of  liquor  ammonise,  or  oil 
of  turpentine.  The  tinctures  in  common  use  act  speedily,  but 
their  effects  are  less  powerful  and  permanent  than  those  of 
the  ointments.  Though  producing  considerable  irritation, 
they  seldom  cause  blistering,  unless  applied  repeatedly  at 
short  intervals.  In  using  them,  it  is  not  essential  that  the 
hair  be  removed,  nor  even  that  the  animal  be  kept  idle. 
They  may  be  applied  repeatedly  to  the  same  spot  without 
fear  of  blemishing. 

Vinegar  of  cantharides  made  with  one  part  of  powdered 
flies  and  ten  of  acetic  acid — forms  a  prompt  counter-irritant. 
The  B.P.  Acetum  Cantharidis  is  prepared  with  two  parts 
cantharides,  and  10  parts  each  of  glacial  acetic  acid  and 
water. 

Ointments  of  cantharides  are  much  used.  Their  olea- 
ginous constituents  ensure  solution  of  the  cantharidin,  and 
render  them  easy  of  application.  Many  contain  a  number 
of  ingredients,  but  the  simplest  are  usually  the  best.  A 
useful  ointment  of  medium  strength  consists  of  one  part  of 
powdered  cantharides  to  six  of  benzoated  lard,  palm  oil, 
or  vaseline.  A  stronger  ointment  is  made  with  one  ounce 
each  of  mercury  biniodide  and  cantharides,  and  eight 
ounces  of  vaseline  or  benzoated  lard.  Such  an  ointment, 
when  well  made  and  applied  with  smart  friction,  acts 
effectually.  Another  excellent  ointment  is  made  with  one 
part  each  of  powdered  cantharides,  Venice  turpentine,  and 
resin,  with  four  parts  of  vaseline,  palm  oil,  or  lard.  The 
powdered  flies  are  digested  with  the  oily  matters  in  a 
covered  vessel,  over  a  slow  fire  or  a  water- bath,  for 
twelve  hours,  and  the  vessel  placed  in  boiling  water  for 
fifteen  minutes  ;  any  wax  or  resinous  matters  used  to  give 
consistence  are  then  melted  and  stirred  in,  any  volatile 
flavouring  oil  added,  and  the  mixture,  if  required,  strained 
through  muslin. 

French,  German,  and  Belgian  practitioners  frequent!}-, 
however,   add  other  irritants  to  their  cantharides   blisters. 


668  CANTHARIDES 

Degive,  of  the  Veterinary  College,  Brussels,  states  that 
numerous  experiments  convince  him  that  the  best  vesicant 
is  made  of  ten  to  fifteen  parts  each  of  cantharides  and 
corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in  one  hundred  parts  ot 
vaseline.  The  part  is  prepared  by  clipping  the  hair,  and 
washing  with  soap  and  water.  The  ointment  is  rubbed  in 
for  ten  minutes,  and,  if  needful,  six  hours  later  the  surface 
may  be  simply  anointed.  Swelling  and  vesicles  appear 
usually  within  a  few  hours;  the  vesicles  are  as  large  as 
pigeons'  eggs ;  but  by  the  second  day  inflammation  subsides, 
and  blemishing,  it  is  said,  does  not  occur  {Jour.  Conij). 
Path,  and  TherajJ.,  1890). 

In  cattle  practice,  counter-irritation  is  generally  produced 
with  mustard  paste  or  blister,  but  some  powder,  or  strong 
ointment,  of  cantharides,  mixed  with  the  mustard,  greatly 
increases  its  effects.  For  dogs,  a  convenient  ointment  is 
made  with  an  ounce  each  of  powdered  cantharides  and  oil 
of  turpentine,  and  twelve  to  twenty  ounces  of  lard. 

To  ensure  full  vesication,  the  hair  should  be  removed, 
the  skin  washed  with  soap  and  water  and  dried,  and  the 
ointment  then  well  rubbed  in.  The  extent  of  surface  to 
be  covered  must  obviously  depend  upon  the  nature,  seat, 
and  extent  of  the  malady.  To  prevent  the  blister,  when 
liberally  applied,  from  spreading  beyond  the  desired  limits, 
the  blistered  area  may  be  surrounded  with  an  edging  ot 
resin  ointment.  The  blister,  while  acting,  often  causes 
considerable  irritation,  and  the  animal,  if  permitted,  will  rub 
or  bite  the  blistered  part.  In  the  horse  this  should  be 
prevented  by  securing  the  head  to  the  rack,  putting  on  a 
cradle,  or,  when  required,  tying  up  the  tail ;  in  the  dog,  by 
the  use  of  the  muzzle.  On  the  next,  second,  or  third  day, 
the  blistered  part  should  be  dressed  with  zinc  oxide 
ointment,  oil,  lard,  vaseline,  or  Carron  oil.  If  sufficient  effect 
has  not  been  produced,  a  little  more  of  the  blister  may  then 
be  applied. 

Liniments  of  cantharides  are  merely  liquefied  ointments, 
and,  in  respect  of  activity,  usually  occupy  a  place  between 
ointments  and  tinctures.  They  generally  consist  of  one  part 
of  cantharides  and  six  to  ten  parts  of  rape  or  linseed  oil. 


COD-LIVER   OIL  669 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  sometimes  added.  The  B.P.  Liquor 
epispasticus  is  made  Avith  ten  of  cantharides  and  twenty  of 
acetic  etlier. 

Plasters  of  cantharides  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as 
ointments,  but  rendered  more  strongly  adhesive  by  the 
addition  of  yellow  wax,  soap  plaster,  and  resin  or  pitch. 
To  prevent  displacement  they  are  usually  applied  in  the 
melted  state,  immediately  covered  by  a  little  tow  or  teased 
lint,  and  enveloped  in  a  suitable  bandage. 


COD-LIVER  OIL 

Oleum  Morrhu^.  The  oil  extracted  from  the  fresh  liver 
of  the  cod,  Gadus  morrhua,  by  the  application  of  a 
temperature  not  exceeding  180°  Fahr. ;  and  from  which 
solid  fat  has  been  separated  by  filtration  at  about 
23°  Fahr.  (B.P.). 

The  chief  supplies  of  cod-liver  oil  come  from  Newfound- 
land. An  oil  called  candle- oil,  prized  by  the  Indians  as  a 
tonic,  and  used  along  the  Pacific  coasts,  is  obtained  from 
the  oslachan  or  boulican,  which  inhabits  the  waters  of 
British  Columbia  and  Vancouver's  Island.  Good  samples 
of  cod-liver  oil  have  a  pale  yellow  colour,  and  an  oily,  fishy 
taste,  which  becomes,  however,  less  obvious  to  those 
accustomed  to  take  it.  The  dark  colour  and  nauseous 
flavour  of  indifferent  specimens  result  from  exposure  to 
high  temperatures,  or  from  the  oil  being  extracted  from 
stale,  putrid  livers.  Specific  gravity,  0-920  to  0930 ;  ether 
dissolves  it  readily ;  cold  alcohol  dissolves  2  to  3  per  cent. ; 
hot  alcohol,  3  to  7  per  cent.  It  consists  of  olein  (85  per 
cent.),  varying  proportions  of  palmitin,  myristin,  and 
stearin;  traces  of  four  volatile  and  two  fixed  alkaloids, 
morrhuic  acid,  with  biliary  and  other  organic  bodies 
containing  phosphorus,  iodine,  bromine,  and  chlorine.  A 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid,  added  to  a  few  drops  of  cod-liver  oil 
in  a  porcelain  cup,  develops  a  violet  colour,  which  passes  to 
yellow  or  brown-red,  depends  upon  the  presence  of  bihary 


670  COD-LIVER    OIL 

matters,  and  indicates  the  source,  but  not  the  purity  or 
goodness  of  the  oil. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Cod-liver  oil  is  nutrient,  tonic,  and 
alterative.  Like  other  fixed  oils,  large  doses  cause  derange- 
ment of  the  bowels  and  purgation.  For  lubricant  purposes, 
vegetable  and  mineral  oils  are  more  convenient  and  less  liable 
to  rancidit}''. 

Dr.  Pollock  published  in  the  Lancet  (1853)  some  experi- 
ments with  cod-liver  oil,  made  by  an  Essex  agriculturist,  on 
pigs,  sheep,  and  cattle.  Twenty  pigs,  separated  from  a  lot  of 
three  hundred,  averaging  from  five  to  fifteen  stones,  received 
two  ounces  of  oil  daily,  with  as  much  meal  as  they  cleared 
up.  The  rest  of  the  lot  were  treated  in  exactly  the  same 
manner,  but  got  no  oil.  Those  receiving  the  oil  are  stated 
to  have  consumed  less  food,  and  when  killed  '  weighed  the 
heaviest  and  made  the  most  money  in  the  London  market, 
the  fat  being  firm  and  white.  When  the  daily  allowance  of 
oil  was  increased  to  four  ounces  per  day,  the  fat  became 
yellow,  and  the  flesh  acquired  a  fishy  taste.'  For  small  pigs, 
an  ounce  daily  was  found  the  most  economical  quantity. 
An  ounce  given  daily  to  sheep  improved  the  quality  both  of 
the  fat  and  flesh ;  while  cattle  receiving  about  half  a  pint 
daily  are  stated  to  have  eaten  less  food,  and  paid  better,  than 
when  treated  in  the  usual  way.  The  oil,  it  is  mentioned, 
cost  from  2s.  8d.  to  3s.  per  gallon,  and  in  some  comparative 
experiments  it  is  said  to  Jiave  .proved  superior  to  sperm  oil. 
These  experiments  confirm  the  recognised  fact  that  oleagin- 
ous materials  are  essential  to  speedy  and  economical  fatten- 
ing; they  do  not,  however,  establish  the  individual  superiority 
of  cod-liver  oil.  In  healthy  animals  equally  satisfactory 
results  would  probably  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  linseed, 
lard,  rape,  or  other  mild  fixed  oil. 

Medicinal  Uses. — The  biliary  constituents  of  cod-liver  oil 
facilitate  its  emulsion  and  digestion.  Experiments  show 
that  admixture  of  a  little  bile  hastens  absorption  of  any  bland 
oil  included  in  a  loop  of  intestine.  Cod-liver  oil  is  also  very 
readily  oxidised.  This  ready  absorption  and  assimilation 
render  it  specially  useful  not  only  for  children,  but  for  young 
animals,  in  cases  of  malnutrition  and  convalescence  from 


LARD  671 

exhausting  disease.  Although  it  has  no  specific  action  on 
any  particular  organ,  it  improves  general  nutrition.  Tavo- 
ounce  doses,  given  twice  daily,  I  have  found  benefit  delicate 
horses,  thriving  badly  after  strangles  and  influenza.  '  In 
chronic  catarrh  and  bronchitis,  it  Appears  to  furnish  suit- 
able material  for  the  formation  of  mucous  cells  and  the 
repair  of  the  inflamed  mucous  membrane '  (Brunton).  Like 
other  oils,  it  materially  relieves  horses  suftering  from  broken 
wind.  It  helps  recovery  of  cattle  reduced  by  diarrhoea, 
anaemia,  or  rheumatism,  but  for  many  such  cases  in  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  linseed  or  linseed  cake  is  preferred.  For 
dogs  and  cats  it  is  useful  in  protracted  cases  of  distemper, 
eczema,  and  other  inveterate  skin  diseases ;  in  epilepsy, 
chorea,  rickets,  and  in  chronic  rheumatism,  especially  that 
variety  known  as  kennel  lameness,  and  depending  upon 
damp,  bad  feeding,  and  faulty  nutrition. 

Doses,  etc. — Horses  take  fgij.;  cattle,  fgij.  to  fgiv.;  sheep, 
about  fgj. ;  pigs,  fgiv.  to  f§i. ;  dogs,  f5i.  to  f5iv. ;  cats,  about 
f5i.  The  doses  may  be  repeated  twice  daily,  and  persevered 
with,  if  required,  for  weeks;  but  if  diarrhoea  result,  they 
must  be  reduced  or  discontinued  for  a  day  or  two.  To  remove 
disagreeable  flavour,  and  prevent  nausea  or  vomiting,  it  is 
given  mixed  with  eggs  in  milk,  mucilage,  or  gruel,  conjoined 
with  some  aromatic,  malt  extract,  or  with  ether,  and  is  best 
digested  along  with  or  immediately  after  other  food. 


LARD 

Adeps.     Adeps  Preparatus.    Axunge.    The  purified  fat  of 
the  hog — Sus  Scrofa. 

To  prepare  purified  lard,  the  fat  from  the  hog's  internal 
organs  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  triturated  in  a  stone  mortar, 
washed  with  cold  water,  drained,  melted  over  a  slow  fire, 
strained  through  flannel  or  coarse  cheese-cloth;  is  kept 
stirred  in  a  steam-heated  pan  at  about  130"  Fahr.  until  it  is 
clear  and  free  from  water,  strained  again  through  flannel, 
and  preserved  in  casks,  pots,  or  bladders.  When  pure,  it  is 
white  or  yellowish-white,  granular,  neutral  to  litmus  with- 


672  LARD    AND    ANIMAL    FATS 

out  rancid  odour,  but  with  a  sweet  taste.  It  melts  at  about 
100"  Fahr.,  forming  a  clear,  transparent  fluid,  Avhich  is  a  good 
solvent  for  wax  and  resin,  and  when  boiled  with  alkalies 
forms  soaps.  Like  other  fats  and  oils,  lard  is  insoluble  in 
water,  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  perfectly  soluble  in 
ether.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  becomes  rancid,  and  in  this 
state  is  unfit  for  emollient  purposes.  It  contains  about  02 
per  cent,  of  olein  and  38  of  palmitin  and  stearin.  Distilled 
Avater,  in  which  purified  lard  has  been  boiled,  when  cooled 
and  filtered,  gives  no  precipitate  with  silver  nitrate,  indicat- 
ing absence  of  common  salt ;  and  no  blue  coloration  with 
iodine  solution,  proving  freedom  from  starch,  of  Avhich  about 
20  per  cent,  is  found  in  some  inferior  samples  ;  10  per  cent, 
of  water  is  sometimes  incorporated;  alum  and  lime  are 
occasionally  added  to  secure  whiteness  and  increase  Aveight ; 
Avhile  many  brands  of  American  lard  are  largely  mixed  with 
cotton-seed  oil. 

Benzoated  lard,  preferable  on  account  of  its  agreeable 
odour  and  diminished  liability  to  rancidity,  is  made  by 
melting  one  pound  of  purified  lard  over  a  Avater-bath,  stirring 
in  two  hundred  and  ten  grains  of  benzoin  and  afterwards 
straining.  Suet — the  fat  around  the  kidneys  of  sheep  or 
oxen — differs  from  lard  chiefly  in  being  firmer,  harder,  and 
more  difficult  to  melt.  Horse  fat  is  more  easily  melted, 
but  firmer  than  that  of  swine.  Goose  grease,  much  used  as 
a  popular  remedy  for  sprains  and  bruises,  is  more  fluid,  from 
its  greater  percentage  of  olein. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Fats  and  mild  fixed  oils,  Avhen  given 
Avithout  other  food,  are  inadequate  to  support  life;  thus, 
dogs,  receiving  only  butter  and  olive  oil,  Avith  distilled  Avater 
to  drink,  died  in  about  thirty-six  days.  In  a  well-regulated 
system  of  diet,  fats  serve,  hoAvever,  important  purposes; 
along  Avith  albuminoids  they  form  cells ;  they  build  up  the 
nervous  structures,  so  largely  composed  of  fatty  matters; 
are  consumed  in  the  body  for  the  evolution  of  nervous, 
muscular,  or  digestive  force,  and  for  the  support  of  animal 
heat,  or,  if  in  excess  of  these  constant  requirements,  are 
stored  aAvay,  investing  and  protecting  internal  organs.  Fats 
are  emulsionised  by  the  alkaline  intestinal  secretions,  more 


MEDICINAL   USES  673 

thoroughly  dissolved  by  the  bile,  and  absorbed  mainly 
through  the  lacteals.  Although  small  doses  are  easily 
assimilated,  large  quantities  disorder  digestion  and  cause 
diarrhoea. 

Hog's  lard  is  occasionall}'  used  as  an  internal  demulcent, 
as  an  antidote  for  poisoning  with  alkalies,  and  as  a  laxative 
clyster.  It  is  applied  as  a  lubricant  in  exploration  of  the 
rectum  or  uterus,  and  in  cases  of  difficult  parturition.  In 
reducing  enlarged  joints  or  bursas  by  vigorous  rubbing,  the 
hand  is  occasionally  moistened  with  lard  to  prevent  undue 
skin  irritation.  Wlien  the  skin  is  congested,  inflamed, 
thickened,  or  indurated,  the  sebaceous  and  sudoriparous 
glands  being  impaired,  the  application  of  lard,  bland  oil,  or 
vaseline  usefully  replaces  the  deficient  natural  oil,  and 
protects  abraded  surfaces  from  the  action  of  air  or  of  acrid 
discharges.  Most  animal  and  vegetable  fats,  freely  used, 
and  remaining  long  in  contact  with  the  warm  skin,  oxidise 
and  become  rancid  and  irritatins:.  Such  results  are  retarded 
by  addition  of  a  little  benzoin,  and  are  obviated  by  the 
substitution  of  the  mineral  vasehne.  Lard  is  occasionally 
employed  as  a  dressing  in  mange  and  scab,  but  is  ineffectual 
in  destroying  the  acari. 

Adeps  Lanae  or  wool-fat,  the  purified  cholesterin-fat  of 
sheep's  wool;  and  Adeps  Lanae  Hydrosus,  hj-drous  wool- 
fat  or  '  Lanoline,'  promote  the  absorption  of  remedies  applied 
to  the  skin.  The  official  hydrous  wool-fat  is  prepared  by 
melting  seven  ounces  of  wool-fat  and  adding  three  ounces  of 
distilled  water.  It  is  little  liable  to  rancidity,  stable,  and 
unirritating,  and  accordingly  makes  a  good  protecting 
lubricant.  It  mixes  readily  wdth  other  fats  and  oils,  with 
starch,  bismuth,  zinc  oxide,  creolin,  iodine,  salicylic  acid  and 
many  other  antiseptics,  and  more  w^ater  may  be  added 
without  affecting  its  use  as  a  basis  for  ointments  and 
liniments.  For  stock  ointments  a  good  combination  consists 
of  sixty-five  parts  hydrous  wool-fat,  thirty  of  liquid  paraffin, 
and  five  of  ceresin.  Adeps  Induratus,  or  lard  deprived  of 
a  portion  of  its  oil  by  pressure,  is  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  ordinary  lard  in  hot  climates  (B.P.). 

2u 


674  GELATIN 


GELATIN 


Gelatinum. — The  air-dried  product  of  the  action  of  boih'ng 
water  on  such  animal  tissues  as  skin,  tendons,  ligaments, 
and  bones  (B.P.). 

Gelatin  is  made  from  damaged  hides  and  skins,  and  their 
parings;  also  from  bones,  limed,  cleaned,  and  boiled,  to 
remove  fatty  matters,  and  then  crushed  and  steamed  in  a 
partial  vacuum.  Glue,  a  coarse  variety  of  gelatin,  is  made 
from  similar  materials,  less  carefully  purified;  size  is  an 
inferior,  weaker  variety  of  glue ;  isinglass,  a  natural  colour- 
less gelatin,  is  prepared  from  the  air-bladder  of  the  sturgeon, 
and  various  species  of  Acipenser ;  chondrin  is  the  gelatinous 
matter  extracted  from  cartilage;  ossein,  the  title  given  to 
that  obtained  from  bones.  Gelatin,  when  dried,  is  hard  and 
tough;  varies  in  colour  according  to  its  purity;  forms  a 
viscid,  trenuilous  mass,  even  when  one  per  cent,  is  dissolved 
in  Avater  and  allowed  to  cool ;  and  is  precipitated  from 
watery  solutions  by  tannic  acid.  Gelatin  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  and  ether.     It  dissolves  in  acetic  acid. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Gelatin,  although  a  product  of  the 
disintegration  of  albuminoid  tissues,  does  not  build  up  the 
albuminoid  or  even  the  gelatinous  tissues;  but  being 
tolerably  easily  digested,  it  appears  to  economise  the  more 
valuable  albuminoids.  Men,  dogs,  and  even  horses,  re- 
covering from  exhausting  disease,  in  which  disintegration 
and  excretion  of  proteids  is  great,  exhibit  the  dietetic  value 
of  gelatin  when  it  is  given  as  soup,  and  along  with  fats  or 
hydrocarbons.  As  a  demulcent  it  has  the  disadvantage  of 
becoming  hard  and  dry,  and  hence  is  not  very  suitable  as  a 
permanent  sheathing  for  irritable  surfaces. 

Glue  is  employed  for  securing  the  broken  horns  of  cattle, 
and  occasionally  for  making  adhesive  plasters.  For  closing 
wounds,  where  sutures  cannot  be  used,  two  pieces  of  stout 
cloth  are  cut  so  as  to  leave  a  number  of  tails  with  uncut 
margins  of  several  inches,  and  are  smeared  with  melted  glue, 
usually  mixed  with  pitch,  and  applied,  one  on  either  side  of 
the  wound,  with  the  uncut  margins   towards   each   other. 


GLYCERIN  675 

When  the  plaster  is  Jry,  the  imciit  margins  are  sewed 
together,  Avhile,  to  prevent  displacement  from  movement  of 
the  skin,  narrow  strips  of  calico  moistened  with  glue  are 
applied  in  various  directions  over  the  injured  spot.  Such 
plasters  are  sometimes  useful  in  keeping  sutured  wounds  in 
position,  giving  support,  and  preventing  annoyance  of  flies. 
They  are  sometimes  effectual  in  the  treatment  of  umbilical 
hernia  in  calves  and  foals. 

Gelatin  solutions  make  useful  temporary  protectives  for 
limited  abraded  surfaces ;  hold  well  for  a  da}'  or  more  if 
applied  dry ;  are  readily  washed  off  with  hot  water,  without 
irritating  the  skin,  and  can  be  medicated  with  antiseptics, 
stimulants,  or  analgesics.  The  familiar  court  sticking 
plaster  consists  of  a  strong  solution  of  isinglass  j^ainted  over 
thin  silk.  In  pharmacy  gelatin  is  used  for  clarifying  or 
fining ;  as  a  neat  and  cleanly  capsule  for  pills  and  boluses ; 
and  along  with  glycerin  forms  lamellae  or  thin  discs  for 
enveloping  the  alkaloids  and  other  active  principles  used 
for  eye  cases  and  hypodermic  injections. 


GLYCERIN 

Glycerinum,  or  Glycerol,  is  a  trihydric  alcohol,  C3H5  (0H)3, 
associated  with  a  small  percentage  of  water  ;  it  is 
obtained  by  the  interaction  of  alkalies,  or  of  superheated 
steam,  with  fats  and  fixed  oils  (B.P.). 

Glycerin  was  discovered  in  1789,  by  Scheele,  as  a  product 
in  the  manufacture  of  lead  plaster ;  it  occurs  in  small  amount 
during  the  fermentation  of  sugar,  and  as  a  by-product  in  the 
manufacture  of  soap  and  stearin  candles. 

Properties. — It  is  a  clear,  colourless,  syrupy  liquid,  devoid 
of  odour,  sweet  to  the  taste,  oily  to  the  touch,  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  1260.  It  has  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  and  is 
freely  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  Insoluble  in  ether, 
chloroform,  and  fixed  oils.  It  dissolves  most  substances 
which  are  soluble  in  water,  as  well  as  metallic  oxides,  and 
alkaloids.  It  burns  with  a  luminous  flame,  giving  off  irritat- 
ing vapours  of  acrolein.     Cautiously  added  to  a  mixture  of 


676  GLYCERIN 

equal  measures  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  it  produces 
nitro-gl3'ccrin — C.5H.(N03)3. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Glycerin  undiluted  irritates  the  mucous 
membranes,  and  even  the  skin  by  abstracting  water.  Hence 
its  laxative  effect,  whether  when  swallowed  or  used  as  an 
enema.  Dogs  are  purged  by  li  ounces.  Large  doses  break 
down  the  red  globules  and  cause  hsemoglobinuria  (Kauf- 
mann).  It  is  antiseptic,  and  destroys  fleas  and  other  skin 
parasites.  Mixed  with  water,  starch,  or  other  bland  materials, 
it  is  demulcent  and  emollient.  It  is  the  basis  of  the  emol- 
lient, antiseptic,  and  astringent  group  of  glycerina.  It  is  a 
solvent  for  fixed  alkalies,  for  alkaloids  and  their  salts, 
vegetable  acids,  iodine,  bromine,  salicin,  etc.,  a  frequent 
constituent  of  ointments  and  lotions,  and  a  convenient  men- 
struum for  the  administration  of  nauseous  medicines. 

It  is  slowly  and  partially  absorbed,  but  is  not  nutrient. 
Small  doses  are  eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  larger  by  the 
bowels,  producing  slight  laxative  effects,  increased  by  com- 
bination with  castor  oil.  As  a  laxative  enema  it  is  not  more 
effectual  than  oil,  or  soap  and  water;  indeed,  Friedberger 
states  that  it  has  no  effect  on  dogs.  Given  shortly  before 
meals  it  has  been  prescribed  to  check  undue  gastric 
fermentation,  acidity,  and  flatulence,  both  in  calves  and  dogs. 
It  neither  evaporates,  nor  becomes  rancid,  and  is  readily 
miscible  with  water,  spirit,  oils,  and  other  drugs,  forming 
with  them  emollient,  antiseptic,  or  astringent  dressings,  used 
to  soften,  supple,  or  soothe  dry,  rough,  scurfy,  or  irritated 
skin  surfaces.  It  is  the  basis  of  many  applications  for 
blisters  and  burns,  for  cracked  heels,  and  various  forms  and 
stages  of  eczema. 

Glycerin  of  starch  is  made  by  stirring  and  heating  gently 
one  of  starch,  one  and  a  half  of  water,  and  six  and  a  half  of 
glycerin,  and  is  used  for  aphthous  and  other  eruptions  about 
the  mouth,  nostrils  and  udder,  and  as  a  soothing  and  drying 
dressing  for  er3^thema  and  the  early  weeping  stages  of  eczema, 
especially  in  dogs.  The  glycerina  of  carbolic  and  tannic 
acids  are  prepared  with  one  part  of  the  acid  and  five  of 
glycerin.  Glycerin  of  alum  is  made  with  one  of  alum,  three 
of  distilled  water,  and  six  of  glycerin.      Similar  antiseptic 


SOAPS  677 

and  astringent  preparations  are  made  with,  glycerin  and 
borax,  and  also  with  glycerin  and  acetate  and  oxide  of  lead, 
and  water  to  effect  thorough  solution.  A  handy  antiseptic 
and  astringent  application  is  extemporised  by  mixing  equal 
parts  of  glycerin  and  Goulard's  Extract.  It  is  diluted  as 
required,  and  used  for  erythematous  and  eczematous  con- 
ditions of  the  skin.  Boro-glyceride,  prepared  by  heating 
ninety-two  parts  glycerin  and  sixty-two  boric  acid,  and  used 
diluted  with  twenty  to  forty  parts  water,  is  an  effectual  non- 
poisonous  antiseptic,  useful  for  relaxed  conditions  of  the 
throat,  as  a  dressing  for  wounds,  for  the  preservation  of  food, 
and  as  a  vehicle  for  applying  carbolic  acid,  iodine,  iodoform, 
and  belladonna. 

For  various  itching,  erythematous,  and  eczematous  diseases, 
a  soothing,  drying  protective  is  prepared  by  mixing,  with 
the  aid  of  gentle  heat,  three  parts  each  of  glycerin,  gelatin, 
and  water,  with  one  of  zinc  oxide ;  and  with  such  a  mixture 
may  be  incorporated,  as  required,  creosote,  carbolic  acid, 
resorcin,  naphthol,  or  dermatol. 

SOAPS 

Sodium  or  Hard  Soap.     Sapo  durus.     Sodium  Oleate. 
Potassium  or  Soft  Soap.     Sapo  mollis.     Potassium  Oleate. 
Curd  Soap.     Sapo  Animalis.     Sodium  Stearate,  with  about 
30  per  cent,  of  water.     (B.P.) 

Soaps  consist  of  fatty  acids  in  combination  with  an 
alkaline  base.  Hard  soaps  are  made  by  boiling  palm  or 
cocoanut  oil  or  tallow  with  sodium  hydroxide  or  carbonate, 
when  the  alkali  unites  with  the  fatty  acids,  displacing  the 
basic  glyceryl.  Common  salt  added  to  the  gelatinous  boil- 
ing ley  separates  the  soap  in  flakes,  which  are  collected,  run 
into  moulds,  and  dried.  Such  soaps  are  a  mixture  of  sodium 
stearate,  with  about  one-third  of  oleate,  and  thirty  to  sixty 
per  cent,  of  water.  To  make  yellow  soap,  the  ley,  while 
being  concentrated,  is  treated  with  considerable  quantities 
of  resin.  Many  soaps  are  now  made  with  a  large  percentage 
of  silicates.     Mottled  and  marbled  soaps  owe  their  colour 


G78  SOAPS 

to  the  presence  of  a  little  iron.  Glycerin  soap,  prepared  by 
heating  the  soap  ley  with  water  for  two  or  three  hours  at 
400"  Fahr.,  contains  a  mixture  of  soap  and  glycerin.  The 
costly  Castile  and  some  Pharmacopoeia  soaps  are  made  Avith 
purified  animal  fat,  or  olive  oil,  and  sodium  or  potassium 
hydroxide.  Soft  or  potash  soaps  are  made  by  boiling  seal 
or  whale  oil  with  potassium  hydroxide  or  carbonate,  and 
gradually  evaporating  to  the  required  consistence.  Soaps 
for  medicinal  purposes  are  now  made  superfatted,  neutral, 
or  alkaline,  in  cake  and  powder,  Avith  admixture  of  carbolic 
acid,  creolin,  resorcin,  sulphur,  menthol,  eucalyptus,  balsams, 
camphor,  sanitas,  etc. 

Soaps  have  an  alkaline,  acrid  taste,  dissolve  readily  in 
water  and  spirit,  but  should  not  impart  an  oily  stain  to  paper. 
When  heated,  they  fuse,  swell  up,  and  leave  charcoal  and 
carbonate  of  their  alkali.  Calcium  and  magnesium  salts, 
such  as  occur  in  hard  waters,  decompose  soap;  the  fatty 
acids  form  insoluble  Hakes  of  s  tear  ate  and  oleate  of  calcium 
and  magnesium  ;  while  the  solubility  of  the  alkali  is  also 
diminished  by  its  conversion  into  carbonate  or  sulphate. 
Soap  is  hence  used  as  a  test  for  the  hardness  of  water. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Soaps  contain  some  free  alkali,  and 
hence  are  slightly  irritant.  They  are  mildly  laxative, 
diuretic,  emetic,  and  antacid.  They  form  convenient  ad- 
juncts to  more  active  laxatives  or  diuretics,  and  are  service- 
able additions  to  laxative  clysters.  Externally,  they  are 
used  as  stimulants,  detergents,  and  lubricants,  and  in 
pharmacy  as  excipients. 

Soap  and  warm  water  are  in  every-day  use  for  cleansing 
the  skin,  removing  scurf,  neutralising  acrid  fatty  matters, 
keeping  open  the  orifices  of  sebaceous  glands,  promoting 
growth  of  hair,  as  well  as  preparing  the  skin  for  operations, 
blisters,  and  parasiticides.  When  erythema  is  produced  by 
badly-fitting  harness  or  other  causes,  irritation  is  abated 
by  rubbing  the  parts  with  a  neutral  soap,  and  subsequently 
dressing  with  vaseline,  or  sugar  of  lead  lotion,  or  with 
'  Sanitas '  or  other  soothing  antiseptic  powder.  Gently 
rubbed  over  slight  burns  or  scalds,  soap  prevents  access 
of    air   and    relieves   irritation.      In    chronic   eczema,   soft 


KERATIN  679 

soap,  from  its  lubricant  and  alkaline  properties,  is  often 
useful.  For  such  cases  a  convenient  dressing  is  made 
with  equal  parts  soft  soap  and  glycerin,  half  a  part  of 
zinc  oxide,  and  six  or  eight  parts  water.  For  eczema  and 
other  itching  skin  diseases,  Dr.  M'Call  Anderson  prescribes 
equal  parts  of  soft  soap,  oil  of  cade,  and  rectified  spirit. 
As  a  stimulant  for  bruises  and  strains,  for  warming  horses' 
chilled  legs,  or  for  producing  counter-irritation  in  sore- 
throat,  six  ounces  of  hard  soap,  cut  into  small  pieces,  are 
macerated  with  six  fluid  ounces  of  dilute  liquor  ammonias 
and  one  pint  each  of  alcohol  (60  per  cent.),  and  linseed 
oil ;  two  or  three  oimces  of  camphor  are  sometimes  added. 
Soap  and  water  is  much  used  for  clysters.  As  internal 
antacids,  soaps  are  less  effectual  than  alkaline  carbonates 
or  bicarbonates,  but  are  occasionally  administered  in  poison- 
ing by  acids  and  metallic  salts.  Soap  and  water  causes 
emesis  in  dogs.  Soaps  are  used  as  excipients  for  boluses, 
and  as  constituents  of  liniments  and  plasters. 


KERATIN 

A  mucilaszinous  solution  which,  when  dry.  is  a  yellow  orum- 
like  substance,  insoluble  in  gastric  juice,  but  soluble  in 
the  intestinal  juices,  and  used  for  coating  boluses  or 
pills  which  are  required  to  pass  through  the  stomach 
without  acting  upon  it,  and  to  undergo  solution  in  the 
intestines. 

Keratin  is  prepared  by  digesting  horn-turnings  with  acidi- 
fied pepsin  solution,  so  long  as  they  yield  any  soluble 
matters.  The  residue  is  then  digested  in  solution  of  am- 
monia or  acetic  acid,  and  eyaporated.  Keratin  requires  to 
be  redissolved  before  use.  The  ammonia  solution  is  generally 
used,  but  the  acetic  acid  solution  is  suitable  for  those  drugs 
which  might  be  decomposed  by  ammonia.  The  medicines, 
made  into  bolus  in  the  usual  way,  are  generally  thinly 
covered  with  cacoa  butter,  and  then  coated  twice  with 
keratin.     This  method  of  dispensing  is  useful — 

(1)  For  drugs  which  irritate  the  gastric  mucous  membrane 


G80  PEPSIN 

— such   as    anthelmintics,   arsenic,  creosote,   salicylic   acid, 
phosphorus,  and  the  ni ore  soluble  iron  salts. 

(2)  For  such  substances  as  impair  digestion  in  the  stomach 
by  precipitating  pepsin  and  peptones — e.g.,  tannic  acid,  alum, 
lead  acetate,  silver  nitrate,  corrosive  sublimate,  etc. 

(3)  For  such  substances  as  are  rendered  inert  by  the  gastric 
juice,  or  are  undesirably  acted  upon  by  it — e.g.,  alkalies,  soaps, 
bile,  silver  nitrate,  iodides,  intestinal  antiseptics,  etc. 

(4)  For  medicines  which  it  is  desired  to  introduce  into 
the  bowel  in  as  concentrated  a  form  as  possible — e.g.,  kousso, 
male  fern  extract,  santonin,  bile,  alkalies,  and  silver  nitrate, 
lead  acetate,  or  tannin,  when  their  local  action  is  sought 
to  be  applied  in  ulceration  or  haimorrhage  of  the  intestines 
(Dr.  Lauder  Brunton). 


PEPSIN 

Pepsinum.  An  enzyme  obtained  from  the  mucous  lining  of 
the  fresh  and  healthy  stomach  of  the  pig,  sheep,  or  calf. 
It  should  dissolve  2500  times  its  weight  of  hard-boiled 
white  of  eggs  (B.P.). 

Pepsin  is  prepared  by  several  processes.  The  stomach  is 
digested  in  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the 
pepsin  thus  extracted  is  precipitated  by  sodium  chloride. 
More  commonly  the  mucous  surface  is  cleansed,  slightly 
washed,  the  surface  scraped  with  a  blunt  knife,  and  the 
viscid  pulp  thus  obtained  dried  at  a  temperature  not  ex- 
ceeding 100"  Fahr.  Pepsin  occurs  as  a  light  yellowish 
brown  or  white  powder  or  in  grains  or  scales,  having  a 
faint  odour  and  a  saline  taste.  Soluble  in  water  and  in 
100  parts  of  rectified  spirit. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Pepsin  dissolves  proteids  and  converts 
them  into  peptones,  but  does  not  affect  fats  or  starch.  Its 
therapeutic  value  is  hence  limited  to  young  herbivora  while 
receiving  milk,  and  to  dogs  living  chiefly  on  animal  food. 
In  such  patients  it  is  given  along  with  or  immediately  after 
meals.  When  gastric  secretion  in  the  domestic  animals  is 
at  fault,  it  is  more  probably  from   deficiency  of  the  acid 


ICHTHYOL  681 

than  the  pepsin,  and  such  a  condition  is  appropriately 
treated  by  hydrochloric  acid,  administered  with  or  after 
meals. 

Pepsin  is  sometimes  used  to  dissolve  fatty  and  malignant 
tumours,  into  which  it  is  injected  along  with  a  few  drops  of 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  B.P.  Liquor  Pancreatis,  containing 
the  digestive  principles  of  the  fresh  pancreas  of  the  pig,  is 
sometimes  given  instead  of  pepsin. 

A  vegetable  pepsin  is  obtained  from  the  unripe  fruit  and 
leaves  of  Carica  Papaya,  a  plant  found  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies.  Although  the  animal  pepsin  acts  only  in  acid  solu- 
tions, the  vegetable  is  equally  effectual  in  acid,  neutral,  and 
alkaline  solutions.  A  five  per  cent,  solution  is  said  to  dis- 
solve false  membranes  and  soft  tumours. 

Doses,  etc. — Foals,  calves,  and  dogs  take  grs.  ij.  to  grs.  x., 
of  either  pepsin,  usually  given  in  water,  with  a  few  drops 
of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  pepsin  wines  and  essences  seldom 
contain  much  of  the  ferment.  The  glycerin  of  pepsin  con- 
tains five  grains  of  pepsin  in  each  drachm. 

ICHTHYOL 

Ichthyol  (Ammonium-sulpho-ichthyolate)  is  a  reddish- 
brown,  tarry  liquid,  obtained  from  a  Tyrolese  bituminous 
shale — the  fossil  remains  of  decomposed  aquatic  animals,  by 
distillation,  and  by  treating  the  product  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  ammonia.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  glycerin,  alcohol,  benzol, 
and  fixed  oils.  Purified,  it  yields  a  clear  oil  with  a  strong  em- 
pyreumatic  smell  It.is  antiseptic,  a  topical  vascular  sedative, 
and  parasiticide.  Its  properties  ally  it  to  the  phenols.  It  has 
been  used  by  French  and  German  veterinarians  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  parasites  of  scab  and  mange ;  and  as  a  stimulant 
and  resolvent  for  swollen  joints,  strains,  and  contusions.  For 
such  purposes  one  part  is  dissolved  in  ten  of  oil  or  lanoline, 
and  rubbed  in  daily  for  several  days.  Ichthyol  liniment  is 
made  with  ten  parts  dissolved  in  thirty  parts  each  of  alcohol, 
ether,  and  distilled  water.  Thiol  is  a  synthetic  preparation 
of  hydrocarbons  obtained  in  a  similar  manner  to  ichthyol, 
for  which,  in  the  treatment  of  skin  diseases,  it  is  sometimes 


682  SPERMACETI 

substituted.  Thiol  occurs  in  powder  and  in  liquid,  and  is 
employed  in  the  form  of  ointment  (containing  10  to  50  per 
cent.),  and  of  dusting  powder  with  starch  or  other  desiccant. 
The  powder  is  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol.  Tumenol 
(sulphotumenolic  acid)  is  obtained  from  mineral  oils  by 
treating  the  unsaturated  hydrocarbons  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  sodium  chloride.  The  resulting  tumenol-sulphonic  acid 
on  being  further  treated  yields  tumenol-sulphone  or  tumenol 
oil,  from  which  is  prepared  the  pharmaceutical  powder. 
Tumenol  is  dark,  odourless,  slightly  bitter,  and  soluble  in 
water.  In  pruritus,  eczema,  and  other  skin  diseases  it  is 
employed  in  the  forms  of  ointment,  dusting  powder,  and 
lotion  (5  to  10  per  cent.).  The  solution  may  be  made  with 
water,  glycerin,  or  alcohol  {Newer  Remedies,  1899). 


SPERMACETI 
Cetaceum.     a  concrete,   fatty  substance   obtained,  mixed 
with  oil,  from  the  head  of  the  sperm  whale  (Physeter 
macro-cephalus).     It  is  separated  from  the  oil  by  filtra- 
tion and  pressure,  and  afterwards  purified  (B.P.). 

Spermaceti  is  found  in  the  cells  of  the  large  quadrangular 
head  of  the  sperm  whale,  which  inhabits  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  Oceans.  It  is  extracted  by  openings  made  through 
the  skull,  and  occasionally  by  boiling  the  cellular  and 
adipose  tissues.  When  jjurified,  it  is  a  translucent,  pearly- 
white,  crystalline  fat,  tasteless,  odourless,  tough,  and  difticult 
to  powder,  unless  moistened  with  a  few  drops  of  rectified 
spirit.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold 
alcohol,  readily  soluble  in  hot  alcohol,  chloroform,  and  oils, 
and  melts  at  114°  to  122°  Fahr.  Along  with  a  little  sperm 
oil,  it  consists  of  cetyl  palmitatc,  which,  unlike  ordinary 
fats,  is  saponified  Avith  some  difiiculty,  does  not  yield  glycerin, 
but  forms,  when  heated  with  an  alkali,  the  crystalline  cetyl 
alcohol  (C„,H.,.,OH),  and  an  alkaline  pahnitato. 

Actions  AND  Uses. — It  is  emollient  and  denuilcent,  resembles 
wax,  is  rarely  given  internally,  but  is  used  for  imparting  con- 
sistence to  ointments  and  plasters. 


WAX 


683 


WAX 
Cera  Flava.     Yellow  Beeswax. 
Cera  Alba.     White  Beeswax. 

Prepared  from  the  honeycomb  of  the  hive  bee,  Apis 
mellifica).     Order. — Hymenoptera. 

Beeswax  is  furnished  from  the  glands  on  the  ventral  scales 
of  the  bee.  After  removal  of  the  honey,  the  comb,  pressed, 
fused  in  boiling  water,  strained,  and  poured  into  moulds, 
constitutes  yellow  wax,  which  has  a  dull  yellow  colour,  a 
granular  fracture,  a  slightly  sweet  and  pleasant  taste  and 
odour ;  it  should  be  free  from  greasiness ;  it  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  but  entirely  soluble  in  oil  of  turpentine.  White  wax 
is  made  by  melting  yellow  wax  with  steam,  straining,  and 
decolorising  it  by  exposure  in  thin  ribbons  to  air  and  sun- 
shine, or  by  boiling  with  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphuric  acid. 

Wax  has  the  specific  gravity  -960  to  -965,  is  tough  and 
solid,  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  fixed  and  volatile  oils, 
melts  at  about  145°  Fahr.,  and  readily  unites  with  fat  and 
resins.  It  consists  of  nearly  two- thirds  of  cerin,  an  im- 
perfectly saponifiable  waxy  substance;  about  one-third  of 
myricin  or  myricyl  palmitate,  a  body  analogous  to  spermaceti, 
and  about  5  per  cent,  of  cerolein,  a  soft  acid  fat.  Chinese 
wax  is  the  product  of  an  insect  of  the  cochineal  tribe.  Wax 
is  also  produced  by  several  plants. 

Actions  and  Uses. — Wax,  although  allied  to  the  fats,  is 
much  more  difficult  of  digestion,  less  nutritive,  and  less 
demulcent  and  emollient.  Melted  with  egg  or  mucilage, 
it  is  occasionally  prescribed  to  check  diarrhosa.  Its  chief 
use,  however,  is  to  increase  the  consistence  and  prevent 
rancidity  of  ointments,  cerates,  and  plasters.  Yellow  wax, 
mixed  with  hogs'  lard,  or  any  of  the  bland  fixed  oils,  is  much 
used  for  investing  abraded  or  irritable  surfaces,  protecting 
the  sound  skin  from  acrid  discharges,  and  preventing  cor- 
rosives or  blisters  extending  their  effects  beyond  the  parts 
to  which  their  action  is  to  be  limited.  Unguentum  simplex 
is  usually  made  with  one  part  of  yellow  wax  to  four  of  pre- 
pared lard,  or  one  part  of  wax  to  one  and  a  half  each  of 
almond  oil  and  benzoated  lard. 


684  MALLEIN 


MALLEIN 

Mallein  employed  for  the  diagnosis  of  glanders  in  animals, 
is  the  sterilised  and  filtered  liquid-culture  of  Gflanders 
bacilli.  Mallein  therefore  does  not  contain  even  dead  bacilli, 
but  it  has  in  solution  certain  substances  which  are  added 
to  the  liquid  by  the  bacilli  during  their  growth  (Professor 
M'Fadyean). 

Directions  for  using  Mallein,  as  prepared  and  supplied  by 
the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London : — 

1.  While  uader  the  malleia  test  horses  ought  to  be  left  at  rest  in  the 
stable  and  protected  from  draughts.  The  rectal  teraperatui'e  ought  to  be 
taken  once  or  twice  on  the  day  before  the  test  is  apiDlied. 

2.  The  dose  of  mallein  for  a  horse  is  one  cubic  centimetre,  or  18  minims. 
It  ought  to  be  injected  about  the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  neck,  with  a 
clean  hypodermic  syringe.  The  best  form  of  syringe  is  one  with  an  asbestos 
piston,  as  the  whole  instrument  may  then  be  sterilised  by  boiling  it  in 
water  for  five  minutes  before  use. 

3.  The  mallein  must  be  injected  into  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue, 
and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  whole  dose  is  actually  introduced. 

4.  The  temperature  must  be  taken  at  the  time  of  injection,  and  at  the 
9th,  12th,  and  15th  hours  afterwards. 

5.  Provided  the  temperature  was  normal  (under  101°  F.)  before  the  in- 
jection, it  will  rise  2°  or  more  (103° — 105")  during  the  next  fifteen  hours  if 
the  horse  is  glandered,  but  it  will  remain  practically  unaffected  (under  102°) 
if  the  horse  is  not  glandered. 

6.  Attention  must  also  be  paid  to  the  swelling  that  forms  at  the  seat  of 
injection.  When  the  horse  is  glandered  this  goes  on  increasing  in  size 
during  the  second  twenty-four  hours  after  the  injection,  and  it  seldom 
declines  before  the  third  or  fourth  day.  The  maximum  diameter  of  this 
swelling  in  glandered  horses  varies  from  5  to  10  inches. 

7.  In  horses  that  are  not  glandered  the  local  swelling  attains  its  maximum 
size  during  the  first  fifteen  hours,  and  by  the  twenty-fourth  hour  it  has 
almost  entirely  disappeared.  Its  maximum  diameter  is  usually  about  3 
or  4  inches. 

8.  When  the  temperature  gradually  rises  from  the  normal  to  104°  during 
the  first  fifteen  hours,  and  a  large  slowly  disappearing  swelling  forms  at  the 
seat  of  injection,  the  horse  may  confidently  be  declared  glandered. 

9.  If,  with  a  normal  temperature  at  the  time  of  injection,  a  horse  displays 
only  the  temperature  reaction,  or  only  the  local  reaction,  the  case  must  be 
considered  doubtful,  and  the  test  repeated  after  the  lapse  of  a  week. 

10.  When  the  temperature  is  102°  or  more,  at  the  time  of  injection,  the 
temperature  reaction  is  unreliable,  but  in  such  a  case  the  diagnosis  may  be 
based  on  the  characters  of  the  local  swelling. 

11.  The  mallein  shuuld  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  and  protected  from 
light.  Should  it  lose  its  transparency,  or  become  cloudy,  it  must  not  be 
used. 


BLACK   QUARTER   VACCINE  685 

TUBERCULIN 

Tuberculin  employed  for  the  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis  in 
animals,  is  the  sterilised  and  filtered  liquid- culture  of 
tubercle  bacilli  (see  Mallein), 

Directions  for  using  tuberculin  as  prepared  and  supplied 
by  the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London : — 

1.  While  under  the  tuberculin  test  cattle  ongHt  to  be  kept  in  the  shed, 
fed  on  their  usual  food,  and  protected  from  draughts.  They  ought  not  to 
be  allowed  to  drink  large  quantities  of  cold  water  between  the  sixth  and 
fifteenth  hours  after  injection.  It  is  well  to  take  their  temperature  at 
least  once  on  the  day  preceding  the  test. 

2.  The  dose  of  tuberculin  for  a  medium-sized  cow  is  3  cubic  centimetres, 
or  50  minims,  and  it  may  be  varied  above  or  below  that  according  to  the 
size  of  the  animal.     Large  bulls  ought  to  receive  4  c.c. 

3.  It  ought  to  be  injected  under  the  skin  with  a  clean  hypodermic  syringe. 
The  most  convenient  points  are  in  front  of  the  shoulder,  or  on  the  chest 
wall  behind  the  point  of  the  elbow.  The  best  form  of  syringe  is  one  with 
an  asbestos  piston,  as  the  whole  instrument  may  be  sterilised  by  boiling  it 
in  water  for  five  minutes  before  use. 

4.  The  tuberculin  must  be  injected  into  the  subcutaneous  connective 
tissue,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  whole  dose  is  introduced. 

5.  The  temperature  must  be  taken  at  the  time  of  injection,  and  at  the 
9th,  12th,  and  15th  hours  afterwards. 

6.  Animals  in  which  the  temperature  during  the  fifteen  hours  following 
the  injection  rises  gradually  to  104°  or  more  may  be  classed  as  hibemdoiis, 
and  those  in  which  it  remains  under  103°  as  not  tuberculous.  When  the 
maximum  temperature  attained  is  under  104°  but  over  103°  the  case  must  be 
considered  doubtful,  and  the  animal  may  be  re-tested  after  a  month. 

7.  The  test  is  not  reliable  in  the  case  of  animals  in  the  last  stage  of  the 
disease,  or  in  those  in  which  the  temperature  is  over  103°  before  injection. 

8.  The  tuberculin  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place,  and  protected  from 
light.     Should  it  become  turbid  or  cloudy  it  must  not  be  used. 

9.  The  tuberculin  test  does  not  render  the  milk  in  any  way  injurious. 


BLACK  QUARTER  VACCINE 

Directions  for  using  Black  Quarter  Vaccine,  as  prepared 
and  supplied  by  the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  London : — 

Two  vaccines  are  employed,  viz.,  1st  and  2nd. 
The  1st  vaccine  is  put  up  in  the  tubes  without  a  black  ring. 
The  2nd  vaccine  is  put  up  in  the  tubes  with  a  black  ring. 
Each  tube  contains  vaccine  sufficient  for  at  least  ten  animals. 
An  interval  of  eight  to  ten  days  ought  to  be  allowed  between  the  first 
and  the  second  vaccination. 

The  apparatus  necessary  for  the  operation  is  : — 
(1)  A  small  mortar  and  pestle. 

(2.)  A  graduated  hypodermic  syringe  with  a  capacity  often  c.c.  The 
needle  of  the  syringe  ought  to  be  about  as  thick  as  an  ordinary 
knitting  needle,  and  have  a  proportional  bore, 


686  BLACK    QUARTER    VACCINE 

(3)  A  small  pointed  trocar  or  exploring  needle,  which  ought  to  be 
a  little  thicker  than  the  needle  of  the  syringe. 

Mixing  of  the  vaccine. — Immerse  the  mortar  and  pestle  for  ten  minutes 
in  water  near  the  boiling  point ;  have  at  hand  a  quantity  of  water  recently 
boiled  and  allowed  to  cool.  Einse  out  the  syringe  first  with  five  per  cent, 
carbolic  solution  (in  water),  and  then  two  or  three  times  with  boiled 
water. 

Drain  the  mortar  and  pestle  dry,  and  then  turn  into  the  former  the 
contents  of  one  of  the  small  tubes  (first  vaccine  for  ten  animals).  Fill  the 
syringe  (ten  c.c.)  with  boiled  (and  now  cold)  water.  Eject  a  few  drops  of 
this  into  the  mortar,  and  triturate  the  powder  with  it  so  as  to  form  an 
uniform  paste.  Continue  the  rubbing,  and  gradually  add  the  whole  of  the 
water  in  the  syringe.  When  the  powder  has  thus  been  uniformly  mixed 
with  the  water,  suck  the  whole  back  into  the  syringe. 

The  operation. — Clip  the  hair  from  the  under  aspect  of  the  tail  for  about 
six  inches  extending  upwards  from  the  tip.  Wash  this  part  vigorously  with 
five  per  cent,  carbolic  lotion.  Take  the  small  trocar,  previously  purified 
in  boiling  water,  and  bury  it  under  the  skin  on  the  under  surfoce  of  the 
tail,  entering  it  on  the  middle  line  about  a  handbreadth  above  the  tip,  and 
pushing  it  vertically  upwards  for  three  inches.  Give  the  handle  of  the 
trocar  a  side-to-side  movement  so  as  to  enlarge  the  gallery  at  its  upper 
end.  Now  gently  shake  the  .syringe,  insert  the  hypodermic  needle,  and 
inject  one-tenth  of  the  contents  of  the  syringe  ( =  1  c.c).  Withdraw  needle 
and  syringe  together,  at  the  same  time  pressing  firmly  on  the  puncture  in 
the  sicin.  The  dose  mentioned  (1  c.c.  or  18  drops)  is  sufficient  for  an 
animal  over  one  year  old.  For  calves  of  six  months  the  dose  is  12  drops, 
and  for  nine  months  15  drops. 

The  second  vaccination  is  carried  out  after  eight  or  ten  days  in  the  same 
manner,  the  vaccine  being  injected  under  the  skin  of  the  tail  immediately 
above  the  seat  of  the  first  operation.  After  all  the  animals  of  one  lot  have 
been  operated  on,  the  syringe  ought  to  be  rinsed  out  with  five  per  cent, 
carbolic  solution.  The  operation  ought  not  to  be  performed  when  the 
weather  is  very  hot  or  very  cold. 

Every  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  vaccine,  but  no  guarantee 
is  given  regarding  its  safety  or  efficiency. 


Section  IV 

Veterinary  Pharmacy 

This  section  presents  a  brief  notice  of  the  art  of  prescribing, 
and  of  such  important  preparations  and  curative  agents  as 
alkaloids,  baths,  boluses,  drenches,  tinctures,  etc.,  arranged 
for  convenience  of  reference  in  alphabetical  order,  according 
to  their  English  names;  while  appended  are  the  tables  of 
the  Pharmacopceia,  and  of  metric  weights  and  measures. 


THE  ART  OF  PRESCRIBING 

Successful  prescribing  obviously  necessitates  a  competent 
knowledge  of  the  chemical  and  physiological  actions  of  the 
drugs  used.  Those  only  can  be  properly  conjoined  which 
are  chemically,  pharmaceutically,  and  physiologically  com- 
patible. Text-books  contain  lists  of  medicines  which  may 
fittingly  be  used  together  under  the  title  of  synergists ; 
while  lists  are  given  of  substances  chemically  incompatible 
or  physiologically  antagonistic. 

The  prescription  should  be  as  brief  and  simple  as  possible. 
It  should  be  explicit  and  clearly  written.  It  may  be  ex- 
pressed either  in  Latin  or  in  English.  The  manner  in  which 
the  medicine  is  to  be  used  should  be  specified.  Important 
instructions  as  to  the  regimen  or  diet  of  the  patient  are 
sometimes  appended. 

Prescriptions  usually  contain  two  or  more  of  the  following 
four  representative  constituents : — (a)  The  basis  or  active 
ingredients.  The  practice  of  conjoining  several  active  drugs 
has  wisely  been  abandoned.  Occasionally,  however,  it  may 
be  advantageous  to  give  together  two  drugs  producing  their 
effects  in  somewhat  different  ways.  Thus,  spasms  of  the 
bowels  are  more  often  effectually  controlled  by  the  conjunc- 

687 


688  ALKALOIDS 

tion  of  a  stimulant  like  ether,  and  an  anodyne  like  opium, 
than  by  either  given  alone.  Pain  which  is  not  alleviated  by 
either  morphine  or  atropine  is  sometimes  abated  by  giving 
them  together,  (b)  The  adjuvant  is  introduced  in  order  to 
increase,  moderate  or  modify  the  action  of  the  basis.  Fre- 
quently its  chief  object  is  to  ensure  solubility  and  ready 
absorption,  (c)  A  corrective  is  occasionally  required  to 
temper  the  effects  of  the  basis.  Thus,  a  small  dose  of 
laudanum  is  prescribed  Avith  oil  or  other  laxative  in  cases  of 
diarrhoea ;  ginger  is  generally  added  to  the  aloetic  mass  for 
horses,  (d)  The  vehicle  generally  consists  of  some  com- 
paratively inert  substance,  added  to  facilitate  administration, 
such  as  the  treacle,  linseed  meal,  or  liquorice  powder  used 
as  excipients  for  boluses  and  pills,  the  benzoated  lard  or 
vaseline  used  for  making  ointments,  and  the  water  given 
in  drenches. 

The  prescriber's  aphorism, '  Curare  cito,  tute,  et  jocunde' 
is  more  easily  fulfilled  now  than  formerly.  With  a  widening 
choice  of  carefully-prepared  drugs,  the  effects  of  which  are 
becoming  more  fully  known,  the  practitioner  is  better  able 
to  cure  quickly,  safely,  and  pleasantly.  Instead  of  crude 
vegetable  drugs,  often  inconveniently  bulky,  and  containing 
useless  and  even  injurious  constituents,  extracts,  infusions, 
and  tinctures  have  long  been  used.  But  concentration  and 
simplification  are  being  carried  still  further.  Active  alkaloids 
and  neutral  proximate  principles  are  now  prepared,  and 
possess  the  advantage  not  only  of  concentrated  form,  but 
usually  also  of  more  uniform  quality  and  less  liability  to  spoil. 

To  guard  against  impurities  and  adulterations,  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia,  under  the  head  of  each  drug,  gives  characters 
and  tests  which  enable  purchasers  to  satisfy  themselves  of 
the  quality  and  purity  of  the  articles  used. 


ALKALOIDS 

These  alkali-like  organic  bases  are  found  in  various  plants, 
some  of  which,  like  the  opium  poppy,  cinchona  bark,  and 
jaborandi,  contain  more  than  one  alkaloid.  They  probably 
result  from  the  metamorphosis  of  albuminoid  plant  consti- 


ALKALOIDS   ARE    AMMONIA    DERIVATIVES  689 

tuents.  They  constitute  the  active  principles  of  vegetable 
drugs,  and  are  generally  powerful  poisons  or  active  medicines. 
Those  chiefly  used  are  morphine,  atropine,  quinine,  cocaine, 
physostigmine,  pilocarpine,  and  strychnine. 

Most  alkaloids  contain  the  four  organic  elements;  all 
contain  nitrogen.  But  although  the  molecule  may  contain 
twenty  or  thirty  carbon  or  hydrogen  atoms,  there  are  seldom 
more  than  two  atoms  of  nitrogen.  They  are  generally 
crystallisable  solids.  Three  of  the  natural  alkaloids,  conine, 
nicotine,  and  sparteine,  contain,  however,  no  oxygen,  and 
are  volatile  liquids.  Alkaloids  are  ammonia  derivatives, 
but  their  sparing  solubility  in  water  renders  it  unlikely  that 
they  are  ammonium  bases ;  their  not  subliming  without 
some  decomposition  distinguishes  them  from  the  amines; 
their  feebly  basic  character  and  other  properties  more 
nearly  ally  with  them  the  amides  (Bloxam).  They  may 
otherwise  be  defined  as  substituted  ammonias,  capable  of 
forming  salts  by  direct  addition  of  acids.  Many  are  closely 
related  to  pyridine,  and  a  few  may  be  prepared  synthetically 
from  pyridine  bases.  Most  are  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
benzine,  and  carbon  disulphide,  and  usually  in  chloroform, 
which  does  not,  however,  dissolve  morphine.  Most  are 
sparingly  soluble  in  water.  Alkaloids  readily  unite  with 
acids,  forming  salts,  soluble  in  water ;  and  with  radicles  such 
as  ethyl  and  methyl,  forming  combinations  which  greatly 
modify  their  actions,  as  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  differ- 
ence between  conine  and  methyl-conine.  Their  chemical 
composition  affords  no  clue  to  their  physiological  action. 
Those  of  diverse  composition  have  sometimes  similar  actions ; 
those  apparently  of  like  composition  differ  in  their  actions. 
Between  the  anodyne  soporific  morphine,  and  the  emetic 
apomorphine,  the  formulae  show  a  difference  of  only  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen.  Plants  of  the  same  genus  usually  yield 
the  same  or  similar  alkaloids;  thus  the  atropacese  yield 
atropine,  the  strychnos  strychnine.  Alkaloids  are  often 
associated  in  plants  with  some  special  acid,  in  combination 
with  which,  or  with  a  diluted  acid  added  to  the  plant  juices, 
they  are  dissolved  out,  usually  by  water,  and  from  such 
solution  the  alkaloid  may  be  precipitated  by  ammonia. 

2x 


GOO  BATHS 

The  neutral  organic  principles  are  another  group  of 
concentrated  active  vegetable  drugs.  They  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  comport  themselves  sometimes 
as  bases,  sometimes  as  acids.  Under  the  influence  of  acids 
and  organic  ferments  nearly  all  split  up,  yielding  glucose, 
and  hence  are  called  glucosides.  They  are  represented  by 
aloin,  digitalin,  santonin,  and  salicin,  and  it  will  be  observed 
have  the  terminal  '  in,'  which  distinguishes  them  from  the 
alkaloids,  to  which  the  termination  '  ine '  or  '  ina,'  or,  in  the 
older  works,  '  ia,'  is  given. 

The  organic  animal  extracts,  prepared  from  bono  marrow, 
heart  muscle,  brain,  spinal  cord,  testicle,  liver,  thyroid,  and 
other  glands,  and  occasionally  prescribed  for  the  human 
subject,  are  seldom  employed  in  veterinary  medicine. 


BATHS 

Baths  are  important,  alike  for  the  preservation  of  health 
and  for  the  cure  of  disease  amongst  the  domestic  animals. 
They  are  used  in  various  ways,  at  ditt'erent  temperatures, 
and  for  the  treatment  of  medical  and  surgical  cases. 

Cold  baths  arc  of  a  lower  temperature  than  70°  Fahr. 
Judiciously  used,  they  act  reflexly  on  nerve  centres,  stinuilat- 
ing  respiration,  circulation,  and  metabolism.  Similar  stimu- 
lant action  is  exerted  on  the  sympathetic  nervous  system, 
the  skin  functions  are  promoted,  waste  products  removed, 
and  abnormal  temperature  reduced.  Owing  to  its  saline 
ingredients,  and  the  constant  movement  of  the  waves,  a  sea 
bath  is  more  exhilarating  than  fresh  water  at  rest.  Health- 
ful reaction  is  encouraged  by  thorough  drying,  hand-rubbing, 
clothing,  and,  if  need  be,  by  subsequent  administration  of 
stimulants.  Cold  baths  are  sometimes  used  for  reducing 
excessive  temperature.  The  patient  may  be  placed  in  water 
at  80°  or  90°  Fahr.,  and  the  temperature  reduced  to  60° 
Fahr.,  or  even  lower;  or  he  may  be  placed  at  once  in  a  bath 
of  60°  to  50°  Fahr. ;  or  he  may  have  cold  water  dashed  over 
him.  Such  baths  reduce  abnormal  temperature  from  1°  to 
4°  Fahr.,  and  accordingly  diminish  excessive  and  dangerous 
tissue  change. 


TURKISH  AND  VAPOUR  BATHS  691 

Tepid  baths  range  from  65°  to  85°  Fahr.  They  cleanse 
the  skhi,  promote  perspiration,  allay  thirst,  and  are  grateful 
to  heated  and  overtaxed  horses.  They  are  useful  not  only 
in  promoting  comfort,  but  in  removing  stiffness  alike  in 
horses  and  dogs  after  hard  work. 

Warm  baths  range  from  85°  to  97°  Fahr.  They  soften  the 
epidermis,  and  hence  relieve  erythematous  and  chronic  skin 
disorders.  They  dilate  cutaneous  vessels,  promote  sweating, 
and  thus  antagonise  internal  congestion.  It  is  forty  years 
since  Professor  John  Gamgee  thus  testified  to  the  benefit  of 
warm  baths :  '  I  unhesitatingly  say  that  we  have  in  the 
thermffi  the  most  effectual  means  of  inducing  a  healthy 
reaction  that  we  have  as  yet  had  at  our  disposal.  It  is  a 
great  addition  to  our  therapeutic  means.  We  needed  a 
satisfactory  means  of  acting  on  the  skin  of  the  lower  animals 
in  febrile  and  other  diseases,  and  we  here  have  it.' 

Hot  baths  range  from  97°  Fahr.  upwards,  and,  if  the 
temperature  be  gradually  increased,  may  be  raised  to  110° 
Fahr.  Hot  baths  elevate  the  temperature  of  the  body, 
quicken  the  pulse  and  respiration,  dilate  the  skin  capillaries, 
and  hasten  excretion  of  waste.  They  soothe  animals  which 
have  been  subjected  to  severe  muscular  exertion,  relieve 
cramps  and  colic,  benefit  chronic  skin  disorders,  and  check 
catarrh,  rheumatism,  and  lymphangitis. 

Baths  are  sometimes  medicated.  Salt  or  mustard  is  added 
to  increase  skin  stimulation ;  alkaline  carbonate  or  potassa 
sulphurata  is  used  in  some  chronic  skin  disorders;  solutions 
of  arsenious  acid,  tobacco  juice,  carbolic  acid,  creolin,  and 
other  antiseptics  are  introduced  when  skin  parasites  are  to 
be  destroyed. 

Turkish,  vapour,  steam,  and  Russian  baths  are  not  used 
for  the  lower  animals  as  frequently  and  systematically  as  for 
man;  but  the  stables  of  many  trainers,  jobmasters,  and 
veterinarians  have  capital  washrooms  provided  with  steam, 
hot  and  cold  water-pipes,  where  horses  after  severe  exertion 
are  conveniently  washed  and  dressed ;  where  chronic  coughs, 
chills,  rheumatism,  dyspepsia,  and  other  ailments  are  hydro- 
pathically  treated,  and  where  sprains  and  enlarged  joints  can 
be  successfully  douched. 


692  BALLS 

Without  expensive  or  special  appliances,  many  of  the 
sanitary  and  curative  advantages  of  baths  can  be  secured 
by  sponging  horses,  as  their  condition  or  ailment  suggests, 
with  tepid,  hot,  or  cold  water.  Cleansing,  tonic,  or  anti- 
pyretic eft'ects  may  thus  be  readily  obtained.  Irritating  or 
noxious  matters  are  removed  from  the  skin,  circulation  is 
equalised,  and  excessive  temperature  reduced.  In  acute 
febrile  cases,  whether  in  horses  or  cattle,  the  temperature  of 
the  water  used  should  not  at  first  be  lower  than  85°  or  80^ 
Fahr.  A  little  acid  may  be  advantageously  added.  The 
sponging  should  not  occupy  more  than  three  or  four  minutes. 
The  animal  should  be  wisped  dry  and  immediately  clothed. 
Within  three  or  four  hours  the  operation,  if  necessary,  may 
be  repeated,  especially  if  the  temperature  reduced  by  the 
first  sponging  again  rises.  After  the  first  or  second  sponging 
water  at  65°  or  60°  Fahr.  may  be  used.  Concurrently  with 
such  treatment,  antiseptic  salines  or  stimulants  may  be 
prescribed.  In  chorea,  especially  in  tolerably  vigorous  and 
short-haired  dogs,  sponging  with  cold  water  is  serviceable. 
Enveloping  the  patient  in  a  sheet  wetted  with  either  tepid 
or  cold  water,  and  covering  with  two  or  three  blankets,  con- 
stituting what  is  entitled  the  '  wet  pack,'  is  not  generally  so 
serviceable  in  veterinary  practice  as  either  sponging  or  the 
douche. 


BALLS-BOLUSES-PILUL^ 

Balls  correspond  in  veterinary  practice  with  the  pills  used 
in  human  medicine.  Extracts  are  conveniently  moulded  into 
cylindrical  balls.  Drugs  in  powder  or  concentrated  solution 
may  be  enclosed  in  gelatin  capsules,  or  made  into  mass  or 
bolus  with  such  excipients  as  linseed  meal  and  water,  oil, 
lard,  soap,  mucilage,  liquorice,  and  powdered  gentian,  treacle, 
syrup,  glycerin,  vaseline,  and  confection  of  roses,  the  choice 
being  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  active  ingredients. 
The  excipients  first  mentioned  are  chiefly  used  when  the 
bolus  or  mass  is  intended  for  immediate  use ;  when  it  is  to 
be  kept  for  any  considerable  time  some  of  the  others  are 
more  suitable.     To  keep  a  mass  in  a  moist,  soft-solid  state, 


PREPARATION  693 

it  is  often  advisable  to  add  to  it  a  small  quantity  of  such  a 
deliquescent  alkaline  salt  as  potassium  acetate,  wliicli  serves 
especially  well  for  most  diuretic  masses.  When  the  active 
principles  are  resinous,  a  little  alcohol,  glycerin,  or  oil  of 
turpentine  is  a  useful  addition,  as  in  making  aloetic 
masses. 

In  preparing  a  ball  mass,  the  various  ingredients  are 
sometimes  mixed  in  a  mortar  or  on  a  slab ;  but  when  the 
materials  are  waxy  or  resinous,  the  aid  of  heat  is  necessary. 
A  good  ball  mass  must  be  soft,  and  yet  possessed  of  proper 
consistence  and  cohesion,  must  retain  these  properties 
although  kept  for  a  considerable  time,  and  must  further  be 
so  prepared  that  each  dose  shall  make  a  proper-sized  ball, 
which  for  the  horse  usually  weighs  one  to  two  ounces.  The 
ball  mass  should  be  preserved  in  jars  covered  with  moistened 
bladder  and  stout  paper,  and  be  made  into  doses  only  as 
required;  for  when  balls  are  long  kept  they  are  apt  to  become 
hard,  and  in  this  state  act  slowly  and  sometimes  pass  through 
the  alimentary  canal  unchanged.  To  prevent  spoiling,  as 
well  as  for  cleanliness  and  to  facilitate  administration,  balls 
are  rolled  up  in  oiled  paper,  or  are  coated  with  keratin,  or  a 
solution  of  one  part  of  gelatin  and  twenty  of  water. 

The  bolus  is  given  to  horses  with  a  balling-gun  or  with 
the  fingers ;  and  the  later  method  is  preferable,  except  in 
animals  in  which  the  mouth  cannot  be  sufficiently  opened. 
The  operation,  with  a  little  practice  and  dexterity,  is  easily 
performed.  The  ball  is  held  by  one  end  between  the  thumb 
(which  supports  it  below)  and  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand. 
The  patient's  tongue  is  gently  drawn  out  a  little  way  by  the 
left  hand,  and  the  ball  passed  rapidly  along  the  roof  of  the 
mouth,  and  dropped  on  the  back  of  the  tongue,  which  is  at 
once  released,  the  mouth  closed,  and  the  head  kept  slightly 
elevated  for  a  few  seconds.  In  a  similar  way  balls  may  be 
administered  to  cattle.  To  dogs  pills  may  be  given  enclosed 
in  a  piece  of  meat,  or  the  pill  may  be  carried  by  forcejDS  to 
the  back  of  the  mouth. 


694  DEENCIIES 


DECOCTIONS 
Decoctions  arc  solutions  prepared  by  boiling  the  drug  in 
distilled  water.  To  ensure  perfect  solution,  the  substance 
is  bruised  or  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  boiled  in  a  glass  or 
earthenware  vessel  for  five  to  ten  minutes.  Any  insoluble 
residue  is  subsequently  separated  by  straining  through 
muslin  or  calico,  or  by  allowing  the  solution  to  settle,  and 
pouring  ofi"  the  supernatant  fluid.  Decoctions  intended  to 
be  kept  beyond  a  week  or  two,  should  be  preserved  by 
adding  a  little  spirit  or  about  one  part  of  benzoic  acid  to 
200  of  decoction. 


DRAUGHTS-DRENCHES-DRINKS 

Drenches  are  generally  extemporaneous  fluid  prepara- 
tions used  in  a  single  dose.  Bulky  substances  which  cannot 
be  administered  in  bolus  are  necessarily  given  in  draught. 
They  are  prescribed  for  cattle  and  sheep,  horses  and  dogs, 
especially  when  a  speedy  effect  is  desired.  In  ruminants, 
medicines  in  the  solid  state  mix  with  the  food  always  found 
in  the  rumen,  and  thus  act  tardily  and  imperfectly.  Medi- 
cines in  liquid  form,  however,  come  more  immediately  into 
contact  with  the  mucous  surface,  and  pass  on  more  rapidly 
to  the  abomasum  and  intestine.  Saline,  febrifuge,  and  tonic 
draughts,  made  fairly  palatable,  are  often  readily  taken  by 
patients  in  gruel  or  water,  without  the  trouble  of  forcible 
administration. 

In  preparing  drenches,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
several  ingredients  are  not  incompatible,  decomposing,  or 
injuriously  reacting  on  each  other;  and  further,  that  their 
quantity  is  not  so  great  as  unnecessarily  to  increase  the 
trouble  of  administration.  Before  being  given,  drenches 
ought  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  Avell  shaken,  in  order  to 
prevent  ether,  ammonia,  turpentine,  or  other  light  constituent 
floating  to  the  surface,  or  heavy,  partially  dissolved  sub- 
stances falling  to  the  bottom. 

In  giving  drenches,  the  head  should  be  slightly  raised, 
which  in   horses  is   conveniently  done  with    the  aid  of  a 


ENEMATA  695 

moiith-twitcli,  tlie  noose  of  which  is  placed  over  the  animal's 
upper  jaw  within  the  incisor  teeth,  and  the  stick  held  by  an 
assistant,  standing  on  the  left  side  of  the  patient.  In  cattle, 
the  head  should  be  steadied  by  an  assistant,  who  holds  either 
the  horns  or  ears.  In  dogs,  the  jaws  may  be  kept  sufficiently 
apart  by  an  assistant,  or  a  finger  may  be  placed  within  the 
cheek  which  is  then  raised  to  form  a  pouch  into  which  the 
medicine  can  be  readily  poured.  Small  dogs  are  most  con- 
veniently dosed  when  placed  on  their  hind-quarters  on  a 
table  or  bench;  but  larger  dogs  should  be  backed  into  a 
corner,  and  their  head  held  between  the  operator's  knees. 
Cats  can  be  drenched  w^ithout  doing  damage  with  their  claws 
if  rolled  in  a  stout  rug  or  dropped  into  a  capacious  top-boot, 
the  head  being  left  out,  and  the  jaws  held  apart  with  pieces 
of  tape  ;  or  the  cheek  may  be  pouched  with  forceps.  In  all 
animals  the  nostrils  must  be  unobstructed,  and  the  tongue 
loose,  or  only  gently  held  down.  Drenches  should  be  care- 
fully and  slowly  given;  and  if  coughing  occur,  the  opera- 
tion should  be  stopped,  and  the  animal's  head  released. 
Drenches  are  occasionally  given  by  syringe  or  by  the 
stomach  pump. 

Glass  bottles,  often  used  for  the  administration  of 
drenches,  are  dangerous,  when  they  break  they  may  injure 
the  mouth  of  the  patient,  or  the  hands  of  the  operator. 
Veterinarians,  and  even  agriculturists,  should  therefore  only 
use  stout  tin  drenching  bottles.  The  old-fashioned  horn  is 
now  generally  superseded  by  the  tin  bottle. 


ENEMAS— ENEMATA— CLYSTERS-SUPPOSITORIES 
-INJECTIONS 

Enemas  are  liquid  injections  into  the  rectum,  and  are 

employed  to  effect  several  useful  purposes.  They  soften  and 
remove  hard  faeces  lodged  in  the  rectum,  and  do  so  without 
unnecessarily  exciting  other  parts  of  the  intestine.  They 
accelerate,  increase,  and  maintain  the  action  of  purgatives. 
They  destroy  and  remove  worms  infesting  the  posterior  part 
of  the  canal.  They  may  exert  either  soothing  or  stimulating 
eliects ;   and,  reflexly,  such  effects   may  be  propagated  to 


696  ENEMATA 

adjacent  and  even  to  remote  organs.  They  besides  prove 
convenient  vehicles  for  introducing  into  the  body  food  and 
medicines,  in  sore-throat,  gastritis,  tetanus,  apoplexy,  and 
other  conditions,  in  which  administration  by  the  mouth  is 
contra-indicated  or  impracticable. 

For  maintaining  the  regular  action  of  the  bowels,  no 
remedies  are  so  safe  and  effectual,  and  when  properly  used 
they  sometimes  supersede  the  necessity  for  purgatives. 
In  constipation  and  torpidity,  after  hardened,  impacted,  ob- 
structing foecal  masses  have  been  broken  down  and  removed, 
laxative  enemata  are  advantageously  injected,  intermitting 
the  operation  whenever  straining  occurs,  raising  the  hind 
parts,  and  by  external  pressure  from  behind  increasing  the 
retaining  capacity  of  the  sphincter.  A  gallon  and  a  half  to 
five  gallons  of  tepid  water  may  thus  be  slowly  introduced 
into  the  rectum  of  a  draught  horse ;  half  a  pint  to  a  pint 
into  the  rectum  of  a  dog  40  lbs.  weight.  When  the  posterior 
gut  is  thus  distended,  not  only  is  mechanical  facility  given 
for  the  outward  movement  of  the  contents  of  the  canal,  but 
by  reflex  action  peristalsis  is  encouraged  far  beyond  the 
surface  reached  by  the  injection.  The  efl^ects  of  tepid  water 
are  increased  by  the  addition  of  soap,  bland  oil,  salines,  oil 
of  turpentine,  or  solution  of  aloes.  These  copious  injections, 
and  the  administration  of  full  doses  of  opium,  Indian  hemp 
or  atropine,  relievo  intestinal  spasm,  and  prove  beneficial  in 
cases  of  invagination  and  strangulation  of  the  intestines 
whether  in  horses  or  dogs. 

Obstinate  torpidity  of  the  bowels  in  horses,  depending 
on  impaction  of  ingesta,  or  obstruction  from  earthy  deposits 
in  the  colon,  may  frequently  be  relieved  or  removed  by  the 
free  use  of  enemata  introduced  into  the  large  intestines  by  a 
special  apparatus,  an  adaptation  of  O'Beirne's  tube.  Major 
Fred  Smith,  of  the  Army  Veterinary  Department,  has  devised 
and  successfully  used  an  apparatus,  consisting  of  six  feet  of 
elastic  tubing,  of  the  same  calibre  as  that  of  Read's  pump,  to 
which  it  is  attached.  It  is  provided  with  a  rounded  nozzle, 
with  side  perforations.  The  tubing  can  be  passed  into  the 
single  colon  of  the  horse.  Any  difficulty  in  introducing  it  is 
overcome,  not  by  force,  but  by  injection  of  a  gallon  of  water, 


LAXATIVE   AND   NUTRIENT  697 

which,  dilating  the  bowel  in  advance,  facilitates  further 
passage  of  the  tube.  Major  Smith  throws  up  from  five  to 
fifteen  gallons  of  cold  water ;  has  in  some  cases  injected  at  a 
time  as  much  as  twenty-seven  gallons ;  and  repeats  the  in- 
jection at  intervals  of  three  or  four  hours.  Unlike  ordinary 
enemata  discharged  into  the  rectum,  these  large  quantities 
of  fluid  are  in  great  part  retained,  with  the  effect  of  softening 
and  mechanically  removing  obstructions. 

Tolerably  copious  clysters  of  tepid  water  or  other  bland 
fluid  exert  local  soothing  effects,  not  only  on  the  intestines, 
but  they  also  reflexly  allay  irritability,  spasm,  and  pain  of 
the  urino-genital  organs,  and  frequently  relieve  suppression 
of  urine.  Their  efficacy  is  sometimes  increased  by  addition 
of  opium  and  sedatives,  which  are  used  in  about  the  same 
doses  as  are  given  by  the  mouth.  By  reflex  action  the 
kidneys,  bladder,  and  uterus  are  also  sometimes  beneficially 
acted  upon  by  stimulant  enemata.  For  destroying  and  dis- 
lodging the  oxyuris  curvula,  clysters  of  turpentine  and  lime 
water,  and  of  solution  of  aloes,  quassia,  ferric  chloride,  or 
common  salt,  are  effectual.  In  house  dogs,  troubled  with 
constipation  and  haemorrhoids,  the  cautious  daily  injection 
of  two  or  three  ounces  of  cold  water  proves  serviceable. 
Kectal  injections  of  salt  and  water,  given  slowly,  frequently 
arrest  post-partum  haemorrhage. 

When  intended  to  be  retained  and  absorbed,  enemas 
should  be  limited  in  amount.  To  allay  irritation  and  spasm 
in  troublesome  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  vegetable  astringents, 
opium,  and  lead  acetate  are  given,  usually  with  well-boiled 
tepid  starch  gruel.  In  such  cases  the  injection  may  be 
repeated  every  hour  or  two,  so  long  as  straining  or  diarrhoea 
continues.  Kectal  injections  intended  to  produce  general 
effects  should  be  warm  and  concentrated.  Nutrient  clysters, 
useful  in  tetanus,  sore  throat,  and  debilitating  complaints, 
when  patients  will  not  or  cannot  eat,  usually  consist  of  a  pint 
or  two  of  linseed  tea,  with  milk  and  eggs,  or  of  strong  beef 
tea  introduced  at  a  temperature  of  100°  Fahr.,  and  repeated 
not  oftener  than  four  or  five  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours. 
In  cases  of  influenza  in  horses  and  distemper  in  dogs,  a  little 
wine  or  whisky  is  sometimes  added  to  the  nutrient  enema. 


698  SUPPOSITORIES 

The  apparatus  for  giving  eneraata  are — Higginson's  rubber 
syringe ;  Read's  patent  clyster  syringe,  improved  by  Arnold, 
which  is  also  available  as  a  stomach  pump ;  the  far-reaching 
Read's  apparatus,  with  six  feet  of  extra  tubing,  already 
described  ;  Gamgee's  block- tin  funnel,  which  tills  the  rectum 
by  gravitation,  and  obviates  the  necessity  of  pumping ;  and 
the  common  barrel  syringe,  of  tinned  copper,  with  a  nozzle 
which  screws  out  at  pleasure,  and  can  be  carried  in  the 
interior  of  the  instrument.  The  female  catheter  may  be  used 
for  the  administration  of  medicinal  injections.  In  the  horse 
the  rectum  is  generally  cleared  by  the  hand  before  any  of 
these  articles  are  used  ;  and  in  all  animals  the  part  of  the 
apparatus  which  enters  the  gut  should  be  smeared  with  lard 
or  oil,  and  introduced  slowly  and  carefully. 

Suppositories  of  raw  or  cooked  meat  are  readily  absorbed 
from  the  rectum,  especially  if  they  are  previously  moistened 
with  diluted  hydrochloric  acid  and  pepsin.  Drugs  in  the 
form  of  suppository,  usually  made  up  with  cocoa-butter 
and  a  little  wax,  are  occasionally  introduced  into  the  rectum, 
vagina,  and  uterus.  A  cylinder  of  soap  introduced  within 
the  anus,  and  held  for  a  minute  or  two,  conveniently  encour- 
ages the  action  of  the  bowels,  especially  in  dogs  and  cats,  and 
in  foals  and  calves. 

Injections  are  made  into  the  nostrils,  urethra,  bladder, 
and  uterus,  and  also  into  the  trachea,  for  the  destruction  of 
pyogenic  organisms  and  worms.  Hypodermic  injections  have 
already  been  noticed  (p.  l.^l).  Medicated  spray  thrown  from 
a  caoutchouc  ball  and  tube,  or  from  a  steam  spray- producer, 
is  used  for  irrigating  irritable,  relaxed  throats,  especially  in 
horses.  . 


EXTRACTS-FLUID  EXTRACTS-FRESH  OR 
GREEN  EXTRACTS-SUCCI 

Extracts  consist  of  the  soluble,  active  principles  of  plants 
reduced  to  a  semi-solid  paste  by  evaporation  of  the  natural 
expressed  juices,  or  of  decoctions,  infusions,  or  tinctures. 
Selection  is  made  of  the  solvent — water,  alcohol,  or  ether — 
which  most  readily  removes  the  active  principles.     Where 


EXTRACTS 


699 


two  active  principles,  soluble  in  different  media,  are  to  be 
dissolved  out,  the  drug  is  acted  upon  by  tlie  two  solvents  in 
succession,  and  the  solutions  mixed  and  evaporated.  It  is 
important  that  evaporation  be  effected  at  low  temperatures ; 
heat  above  150'  Fahr.  is  apt  to  injure  or  decompose  many 
active  prmciples.  Well-made  extracts  keep  for  a  consider- 
able time  without  change,  especially  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  and 
if  occasionally  moistened  with  rectified  spirit :  but  when 
twelve  months  old  they  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 
Of  the  thirty-nine  B.P.  extracts,  veterinarians  chiefly  use 
those  of  belladonna,  hemlock,  ergot,  and  Indian  hemp. 

The  liquid  extracts  are  prepared  from  infusions,  decoc- 
tions, or  weak  tinctures,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  semi- 
soUd  extracts.  Most  liquid  extracts  are  of  such  a  strength 
that  one  fluid  ounce  represents  an  ounce  of  the  drug  em- 
ployed. Those  chiefly  used  in  veterinary  practice  are  licpiid 
extract  of  cinchona,  ergot,  male  fern,  and  opium. 

Green  extracts,  as  Extractum  belladonnae  viride  or  hyos- 
cyami  viride,  are  prepared  from  fresh  plants,  the  leaves  and 
tender  stems  bemg  generally  preferred.  They  are  bruised, 
the  juice  expressed,  and  gently  heated  to  about  130'  Fahr. 
The  green  colourmg  matter  is  separated  by  tiltration,  the 
strained  juice  is  heated  to  200'  Fahr.  to  coagulate  albumin, 
ac^ain  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  evaporated  in  a  water  bath  to 
the  consistence  of  a  thin  syrup.  The  green  colouring  matter 
previously  separated  is  then  added,  and  evaporation  con- 
■  tinned,  until  a  suitable  consistence  is  attained. 

Abstracts  are  concentrated  extracts,  about  twice  the 
strength  of  the  corresponding  fluid  extract,  and  occur  in 
dry  powder  mixed  with  milk-sugar.  Eleven  of  these  figure 
in'  the  U.S.P.,  including  those  of  aconite,  belladonna,  hem- 
lock, and  digitahs. 

Succi  are  expressed  juices  of  fresh  medicinal  plants 
(belladonna,  hemlock,  henbane,  and  taraxacum),  preserved 
with  one-third  of  their  bulk  of  rectified  spirit. 


700  FOMENTATIONS 


FOMENTATIONS 


Fomentations  or  topical  baths,  usually  consist  of  water 
alone,  but  vinegar,  salines,  and  other  substances  are  some- 
times added.  Unless  otherwise  specified,  they  are  applied 
hot.  The  temperature  at  which  they  are  used  must  be 
determined  by  the  purpose  to  be  served,  by  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  malady,  and  the  part  of  the  body  to  which 
they  are  applied.  For  the  eye,  they  should  not  exceed  100° 
Fahr. ;  for  contusions,  abscesses,  strains,  and  lymphangitis, 
they  should  be  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear.  Up  to  110° 
Fahr.  they  generally  soften  and  soothe.  At  higher  tempera- 
tures they  irritate.  To  produce  active  counter-irritation,  as 
in  bronchitis,  pleurisy,  or  enteritis,  they  are  used  at  tem- 
peratures ranging  from  120°  Fahr.  upwards.  For  such  cases, 
pieces  of  flannel  or  horse-cloth  saturated  with  boiling  water, 
are  partially  dried  by  a  wringer,  or  by  being  rolled  and 
pressed  between  dry  coarse  towels,  and  are  laid  over  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  surface  contiguous  to  the  parts  affected. 
The  hot,  wet  woollen  article  should  be  covered  with  oilskin 
or  a  piece  of  mackintosh  to  retard  evaporation  and  cooling. 
The  pained  part  to  be  soothed,  or  the  surface  to  be  stimulated 
is  sometimes  covered  with  several  folds  of  woollen  cloth  on 
which  hot  water  is  poured  at  short  intervals.  Jets  of  steam 
mixed  with  air,  to  prevent  scalding,  used  either  plain  or 
medicated,  may  be  substituted  for  the  ordinary  stuping  with 
water.  Fomentations  are  generally  made  with  a  sponge,  tow 
or  lint.  When  there  are  foul  discharges,  sponges  should  not 
be  used,  as  they  are  apt  to  retain  and  convey  septic  germs, 
while  the  piece  of  lint  or  tow  is  thrown  away  as  soon  as 
done  with. 

Fomentations  are  used  to  cleanse  wounds  and  soften  hard 
skin  or  encrusted  discharges.  They  relax  and  soothe  irri- 
tated, congested,  inflamed  parts  to  which  they  are  applied, 
and  thus  lessen  tension  and  pain.  When  freely  employed 
for  some  considerable  time,  they  dilate  the  capillaries  of 
collateral  areas  of  circulation,  withdraw  blood  from  adjacent 
inflamed  parts,  and  act  as  mild  counter-irritants.  To  obtain 
their  full  benefits,  they  should  be  continued  during  several 


GLYCERIN  A  701 

hours  ;  fresh  supplies  of  water,  of  the  requisite  temperature, 
being  had  in  abundance.  After  the  operation  is  finished,  the 
parts  should  be  dried  and  well  covered,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  rapid  diminution  of  temperature  which  otherwise  ensues 
from  evaporation.  Further,  to  prevent  chilling,  the  fomented 
surface  is  sometimes  stimulated  with  a  weak  mustard 
paste. 

Heat  applied  to  the  spine,  usually  in  the  form  of  the 
hot-water  bag,  at  a  temperature  of  120°  Fahr.,  as  shown  by 
Dr.  Chapman,  stimulates  the  cord  and  sympathetic  ganglia, 
contracts  the  involuntary  muscular  fibres  of  arterioles,  and 
thus  lessens  the  volume  and  rapidity  of  blood  passing 
through  them.  The  spinal  hot-bag  is  hence  used  to  arrest 
haemorrhage. 

The  ice-bag  applied  to  the  spine,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
sedative  to  the  cord  and  nerve-centres  brought  under  its 
paralysing  influences,  and  hence  lowers  muscular  tone,  sensi- 
bility, and  secretion.  Applied  in  the  cervical  region,  it  in- 
creases afflux  of  blood  to  the  head ;  applied  over  the  anterior 
dorsal  region,  blood  is  driven  to  the  chest  and  anterior 
extremities ;  applied  over  the  posterior  dorsal  and  lumbar 
regions,  blood  is  moved  in  larger  amount  through  the  abdo- 
minal and  pelvic  organs,  and  the  posterior  extremities.  Acting 
upon  the  spinal  and  sympathetic  centres,  the  ice-bag  controls 
remote  morbid  processes ;  cramps  and  spasms  are  stated  to 
be  abated;  pains  of  neuralgia  and  rheumatism  are  sometimes 
arrested;  while  inordinate  discharges,  and  even  haemorrhages 
from  the  lungs,  bowels,  or  kidneys,  are  sometimes  checked 
(Ringer's  Therapeutics). 


GLYCERINA 

Glycerina  are  solutions  of  soothing  astringent  or  anti- 
septic substances  in  glycerin.  They  are  applied  locally  to 
the  skin  and  mucous  surfaces.  Those  of  carbolic  and  tannic 
acids  contain  one  ounce  by  weight  of  the  acid,  mixed  and 
gently  heated  with  five  fluid  ounces  of  glycerin.  Glycerinum 
boracis  contains  one  of  acid  and  six  of  the  solvent. 
Glycerinum   amyli  is   made  with  one  ounce  by  weight  of 


702  INFUSIONS^LIQUORS 

starch,  six  and  a  half  fluid  ounces  of  glycerin,  and  one  and  a 
half  of  water.  Glycerina  of  lead  subacetate,  tragacaiith,  boric 
acid,  and  salicylic  acid  are  also  used. 


INFUSIONS 

Infusions  are  solutions  prepared  by  digesting  vegetable 
substances  in  hot  water.  Fourteen  of  the  twenty-two 
officinal  infusions  are  made  with  one  part  of  the  poAvdered 
or  cut  drug,  to  twenty  of  water.  To  prevent  solution  of  the 
starch  of  the  root,  infusion  of  calumba  is  made  with  cold 
water.  The  process  is  generally  conducted  in  stoneware 
jars,  provided  with  a  cup  having  perforated  sides  and 
bottom,  fitting  into  the  top  of  the  jar,  extending  about  half- 
way down,  and  containing  the  solid  matters  to  be  infused. 
Digestion  is  effected  on  a  stove,  and  is  continued  for  fifteen 
minutes  to  half  an  hour.  The  infusion,  when  cool,  is 
generally  strained,  but  for  veterinary  purposes  and  for 
immediate  use  decanting  is  often  sufficient.  Unless  care- 
fully bottled  and  corked  while  hot,  infusions  soon  spoil, 
especially  in  warm  weather.  Their  keeping  is  sometimes 
improved  by  concentration,  by  evaporation,  or  by  addition 
of  alcohol,  or  about  a  quarter  grain  of  benzoic  acid  to  the 
ounce.  Examples — infusion  of  quassia,  gentian,  ergot,  and 
calumba. 

LIQUORS-SOLUTIONS-LOTIONS 

The  B.P.  enumerates  fifty- three  liquors  or  solutions,  nearly 
all  containing  inorganic  bodies  or  alkaloids,  dissolved  in 
water  alone,  or  with  other  solvents.  They  vary  greatly  in 
strength  and  dose.  The  B.P.  Liquor  Hydrargyri  l^crchloridi 
contains  gr.  -x^th  in  a  fluid  drachm.  Those  containing 
arsenic,  atropine,  morphine,  and  strychnine  have  about  4^ 
grains  of  the  poison  in  the  fluid  ounce,  or  one  grain  in  110 
minims.  The  liquors  chiefly  used  by  veterinarians  are  liquor 
ammonia?,  liquor  ammonii  acetatis,  or  Mindererus  spirit,  liquor 
iodi,  liquor  arsenicalis,  liquor  fcrri  perchloridi,  liquor  potassa\ 
liquor  calcis,  and  liquor  zinci  chloridi.     Solutions  of  cocaine, 


MIXTURES — OILS  703 

ergot,  morphine,  and  apomorphine,  for  hypodermic  injection, 
are  now  inckided  in  the  Pharmacopoeia. 

Lotions  are  water}'^  sokitions  intended  for  external  use. 
Those  for  the  eye  are  usually  called  collyria ;  those  for  the 
mouth,  coUutoria ;  and  nasal  lotions  are  known  as  collun- 
aria. 

MIXTURES-MUCILAGES-EMULSIONS 

Mixtures  or  misturae  are  preparations  usually  containing 
insoluble  drugs  suspended  in  mucilage  or  other  viscid  sub- 
stances. They  are  exemplified  by  camphor,  chalk,  and 
catechu  mixtures.  Insoluble  heavy  powders,  mixed  with  dis- 
solved gum  or  starch,  are  sometimes  also  termed  mucilages. 

Emulsions  are  opalescent  mixtures  of  oil  or  resin,  sus- 
pended in  aqueous  solution  of  gum,  soap,  alkali,  or  white 
of  egg. 

OILS,  FIXED,  VOLATILE,  AND  MINERAL 

Fixed  oils  and  fats  occur  in  many  plants,  usually  in  the 
seeds  or  fleshy  pulp,  frequently  associated  with  mucilage, 
and  are  also  present  in  animal  bodies.  Besides  lard,  almond, 
olive,  castor,  croton,  cocoa-nut,  linseed,  and  cod-liver  oils, 
enumerated  in  the  Pharmacopoeia,  palm,  rape,  and  cotton- 
seed oils  are  also  used  in  veterinary  practice.  The  fixed  oils 
are  obtained  by  expression.  They  consist  of  two  or  more 
fatty  acids — oleic,  margaric,  palmitic,  and  stearic — in  com- 
bination with  the  sweet  basic  principle  glycerin.  They 
contain  76-79  parts  of  carbon,  with  11-13  of  hydrogen,  and 
10-12  of  oxygen.  Their  consistence  varies  according  to  the 
proportion  of  the  fluid  olein.  When  fresh,  they  are  gener- 
ally almost  colourless,  and  are  inodorous  and  tasteless.  When 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  traces  of  albuminoids  which  they 
contain  oxidise,  a  species  of  fermentation  ensues,  as  in 
saponification,  resulting  in  the  breaking  up  of  the  neutral 
fatty  matters,  with  the  production  of  disagreeable  rancidity, 
which  may,  however,  be  removed  by  boiling  the  faulty  oil 
Avith  water,  and  subsequently  washing  it  with  a  weak  soda 
solution.  Oils  and  Avater  are  mutually  but  very  slightly 
soluble,  but  oils  and  fats  are  readily  dissolved  by  carbon 


704  VOLATILE  OILS 

disulphide,  benzine,  oil  of  turpentine,  ether,  and  chloroform. 
They  are  misciblc,  and  hence  sometimes  conveniently  ad- 
ministered, in  milk.  Castor  and  croton  oils  are  soluble  in 
absolute  alcohol.  They  vary  in  their  combustibility  and  their 
melting  and  freezing  points.  Their  specific  gravity  ranges 
from  900-970.  The  bland  oils — such  as  olive,  linseed,  palm, 
and  cod-liver — in  small  quantities  arc  nutrients,  but  ad- 
ministered in  large  doses  they  are  purgatives.  Croton  oil 
is  irritant,  whether  applied  to  a  mucous  surface  or  to  the  skin. 

The  volatile  or  essential  oils  are  mostly  of  vegetable 
origin,  being  found  generally  in  the  flowers,  leaves,  fruit, 
or  seeds  of  plants,  but  they  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  coni- 
ferae.  The  several  volatile  animal  odorous  principles — am- 
bergris— from  the  sperm  whale,  civet,  musk,  and  castoreum 
are  occasionally  used.  The  chemical  constitution  of  the 
volatile  oils  differs  from  that  of  the  fixed  oils;  most  are 
pure  hydrocarbons,  with  the  molecular  formula  of  oil  of 
turpentine  (C^qH^c),  and  are  termed  terpenes.  With  this 
terpene  is  generally  associated  an  oxidised  product,  analogous 
to  the  colophony  or  resin  (C^qU^qO^)  of  turpentine.  Some, 
such  as  oil  of  garlic,  contain  sulphur  (CgHi^S).  They  pro- 
duce no  permanent  grease  stain.  Unlike  the  fat  oils,  they 
are  not  unctuous,  but  make  the  skin  rough  or  brittle.  They 
are  mostly  colourless,  but  have  a  powerful  odour,  and  dis- 
tinctive— often  aromatic — taste.  They  are  insoluble,  or  only 
slightly  soluble,  in  water,  but  are  readily  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  fatty  and  mineral  oils.  They  are  mostly  lighter  than 
water.  Most  boil  between  302-382°  Fahr.,  but  the  boihng 
point  of  camphors  is  about  372°  Fahr.  All  are  acted  upon 
by  oxygen,  and  distil  unchanged.  They  are  obtained  by 
distillation,  or  by  extraction.  The  volatile  oils  are  anti- 
septic and  stimulant,  and  are  used  as  carminatives,  anti- 
spasmodics, and  parasiticides,  and  for  flavouring. 

The  Camphors,  thymol,  menthol,  and  common  camphor 
are  the  oxides  of  volatile  hydrocarbons.  In  physiological 
action  they  arc  allied  to  the  volatile  oils. 

Oleo-resins,  such  as  crude  turpentine,  Canada  balsam, 
and  Frankincense,  are  natural  mixtures  of  volatile  oil  and 
resin. 


OINTMENTS— OLE  ATES  705 

Balsams  are  vegetable  exudations  consisting  of  resins  with 
benzoic  or  cinnamic  acid,  dissolved  in  volatile  oils. 

Mineral,  paraffin,  or  petroleum  oils  are  a  series  of  paraffin 
hydrocarbons,  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  shale,  coal, 
and  other  geological  deposits,  and  having  the  formula 
CnH2nx2-  (^^^  Petrolcums.)  The  several  members  dift'er 
in  their  boiling  point,  and  are  separable  by  distillation. 
Methane,  or  marsh  gas  (CH^),  and  several  of  the  simpler 
members  are  gaseous,  and  used  for  heating  and  illumination. 
Others,  such  as  pentane  (CgH^.,),  and  hexane  (CgHj^),  are 
known  as  petroleum  spirit,  are  solvents  for  fats,  resins,  and 
indiarubber,  and  are  used  for  making  varnishes.  Heptane 
(C-Hjg),  known  as  benzoline,  paraffin  oil,  or  mineral  sperm 
oil,  is  used  for  burning.  Nonane  and  dodecane  are  em- 
plo3'ed  as  lubricants.  Hexdecane  (C^gHgJ  is  the  chief 
constituent  of  vaseline  and  other  soft  paraffins.  It  is  used 
as  a  bland  protective,  and  for  the  making  of  ointments. 
The  solid,  hard,  or  wax  paraffins,  melting  at  110-145°  Fahr., 
are  substituted  for  wax  in  the  makinof  of  ointments. 


OINTMENTS-OLEATES-LINIMBNTS-CERATES- 

PASTES 

Ointments  or  unguenta  are  semi-solid  mixtures  of  drugs 
with  fatty  matters,  and  are  used  externally.  The  excipients 
generally  employed  are  lard  and  oils ;  greater  consistence 
and  adhesion  are  conferred  by  addition  of  paraffin  wax  or 
resin :  rancidity  is  checked  by  admixture  of  benzoin,  or  by 
substituting  mineral  for  animal  or  vegetable  oils.  By  using 
hydrous  wool  fat,  or  oleic  acid  as  the  basis,  absorption 
through  the  skin  is  said  to  be  facilitated.  When  lard  or 
oil  is  the  excipient,  the  ointment  may  generally  be  prepared 
in  a  suitable  mortar ;  but  when  wax  or  resin  is  used,  it  must 
be  melted  over  a  slow  fire,  the  other  constituents  added,  and 
the  mass  stirred  until  it  has  acquired  proper  consistence. 
Ointments,  of  which  forty-four  are  enumerated  in  the  B.P., 
should  be  kept  in  well-closed  pots  or  jars,  which  (except 
when  in  daily  use)  should  be  covered  with  moistened 
bladder  and    strong  paper.     They  are   generally  dispensed 

2  Y 


706  PLASTERS 

either  in  chip  boxes  or  earthenware  pots,  of  which  the 
practitioner  should  have  several  sizes.  In  dispensing  these 
and  other  officinal  preparations,  spatiihe  of  steel,  bone,  wood 
or  horn  are  essential  articles  of  the  pharmacy. 

Oleates  are  solutions  of  active  principles  in  oleic  acid. 
The  B.P.  contains  directions  for  making  mercuric  oleate 
and  the  ointments  of  mercuric  and  zinc  oleates.  Oleic 
acid  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  ointments  of  cocaine, 
atropine,  aconitine,  and  veratrine.  Oleates  are  sometimes 
preferred  to  the  corresponding  ointments,  on  account  of 
their  being  more  readily  absorbed.  The  smart  friction 
employed  in  the  in-rubbing  of  this  class  of  remedies  is  itself 
of  considerable  therapeutic  value.  It  causes  dilatation  of 
cutaneous  capillaries,  and  hence  promotes  increased  circula- 
tion through  superficial  blood  and  lymph  vessels. 

Liniments  or  embrocations  are  solutions  of  active  prin- 
ciples in  oil  or  spirit ;  some,  besides,  contain  camphor,  several 
have  soap  added,  to  increase  their  lubricant  properties ;  all 
are  intended  for  external  use.  The  B.P.  enumerates  fifteen 
liniments. 

Pastes  are  topical  applications,  of  which  the  basis  consists 
wholly  or  partially  of  fine  silica,  magnesium  carbonate,  or 
siliceous  earths.  Zinc  oxide  and  other  ointments  are  some- 
times united  with  ten  per  cent,  of  such  siliceous  matters. 
The  term  'paste'  is  occasionally  also  applied  to  mixtures  of 
farina  or  flour  with  such  drugs  as  borax,  alum,  or  zinc  oxide. 
The  siliceous  pastes  do  not  impair  skin  secretion  as  fatty 
bodies  do,  and,  moreover,  leave  a  protective  powdery  coating 
on  the  skin.  They  are  hence  indicated  in  some  cases  of 
moist  eczema  and  other  irritable  conditions  of  the  skin. 

Cerates  are  stiff'  ointments  containing  wax. 


PLASTERS-BMPLASTRA 

Plasters  are  adhesive  substances,  usually  containing  lead 
oxide,  conjoined  with  resui,  wax,  soap,  fats,  tar,  or  pitch ; 
are  conveniently  kept  in  rolls ;  and  are  prepared  for  use  by 
being  melted  and  spread  on  calico,  linen,  or  leather.  The 
equable  pressure  of  a  well-applied  plaster  gives  support  and 


POULTICES  707 

protection;  retards  evaporation,  and  hence  raises  topical 
temperature ;  increases  glandular  activity ;  and  sometimes 
also  hastens  removal  of  inflammatory  products.  Plasters  are 
rendered  more  stimulating  by  addition  of  mustard  or  can- 
tharides ;  more  soothing  or  anodyne  by  addition  of  opium  or 
belladonna. 

Ordinary  plasters  are  less  useful  in  veterinary  than  in 
human  practice ;  for  in  the  lower  animals  they  are  apt  to  be 
displaced  by  movements,  the  action  of  the  panniculus  car- 
nosus,  and  by  the  patient  rubbing  or  gnawing  them.  Where 
they  are  to  remain  on  for  several  days  or  weeks,  the  melted 
ingredients  are  applied  directly  to  the  skin,  and  covered  first 
with  finely  teased  toAV  or  lint,  and  then  with  a  linen  or 
leather  bandage.  Plasters  of  this  kind  are  popularly  known 
as  charges,  and  were  formerly  much  used  in  some  forms 
of  lameness.  They  are  serviceable  when  properly  applied  in 
preventing  undue  motion  of  injured  parts.  For  open  joints 
a  useful  plaster  is  made  by  shaking  together  1  lb.  shellac 
and  1  pint  methylated  spirit.  The  hair  around  the  wound  is 
clipped,  a  small  piece  of  oiled  silk  is  laid  on,  and  the  adhesive 
solution  painted  on  with  a  camel's  hair  brush  until  a  firm 
shield  is  formed. 


POULTICES-CATAPLASMATA 

Poultices  are  local  baths  or  semi-solid  packs,  used  for 
the  topical  application  of  heat  and  moisture.  They  closely 
resemble  fomentations.  They  constitute  an  important  form 
of  emollient.  They  are  made  of  such  farinaceous  substances 
as  linseed  meal,  bran,  or  oatmeal,  stirred  into  boiling  water 
until  the  fitting  consistence  is  reached;  or  of  carrots  or 
turnips,  either  steamed  or  boiled.  Bread  and  starch  make 
bland  porous  poultices,  and  spent  hops  are  indicated  where 
the  poultice  should  be  light.  Unless  nicely  prepared,  soft, 
fresh,  and  changed  every  two  or  three  hours,  they  merit 
Liston's  condemnation  that  they  are  associated  '  with  putre- 
faction and  nastiness.'  In  order  to  secure  softening  of  the 
skin,  as  well  as  the  soothing  of  peripheral  nerve-endings, 
medicated  poultices  are  generally  laid  directly  on  wounds 


708  SUBSTITUTES   FOR   POULTICES 

or  contusions,  or  with  only  a  very  thin  substance  interven- 
ing. When  used,  however,  either  directly  or  reflexly,  to 
relieve  congestion  or  pain,  they  are  placed  in  a  well- warmed 
flannel  bag,  or  in  folds  of  flannel,  which,  conducting  heat 
slowly,  justifies  their  application  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  could  otherwise  be  borne,  and,  moreover,  preserves 
heat  longer.  Poultices  arrest  superficial  and  circumscribed 
inflammation  in  the  early  stages;  and  in  more  advanced 
stages,  when  white  corpuscles  have  escaped  through  the 
vessels,  or  pus  has  begun  to  form,  they  promote  maturation 
of  the  abscess.  They  are,  however,  unsuitable  for  many 
wounds,  which,  if  kept  dry  or  treated  antiseptically,  will 
heal  by  first  intention  or  adhesion,  and  for  chronic  inflam- 
mation where  the  parts  have  become  relaxed  and  deficient 
in  tone.  In  such  cases  cold  applications  are  indicated. 
Heat,  without  moisture,  may  be  applied  by  the  agency  of 
hot  bricks,  salt,  bran,  or  sand,  of  hot-water  bags,  of  well- 
warmed  rugs  or  flannels,  or  of  the  smoothing-iron.  A  piece 
of  flannel,  thoroughly  wrung  out  of  boiling  water,  applied 
hot,  its  several  folds  covered  with  thin  mackintosh,  and  kept 
in  place  by  a  bandage,  in  virtue  of  the  heat  and  equable 
pressure,  relieves  strains,  and  diminishes  swelling  and  pain 
of  the  legs  of  horses  worn  by  much  work  on  hard  roads. 

Poultices,  to  be  properly  and  securely  applied,  require 
some  ingenuity  and  mechanical  tact.  To  prevent  unpleasant 
sticking,  the  skin  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  piece  of  muslin, 
or  moistened  with  vaseline,  oil,  or  solution  of  glycerin.  Before 
application  of  the  poultice,  the  irritable  inflamed  surface  is 
sometimes  dressed  with  equal  parts  of  belladonna  extract, 
glycerin  and  Avater,  or  other  anodyne.  To  keep  the  poultice 
as  long  as  possible  at  a  uniform  temperature,  it  should  be 
of  considerable  bulk,  and  usually  several  inches  thick ;  hot 
water  is  poured  over  the  mass  every  hour  or  two,  or,  better 
still,  fresh  poultices  are  supplied  as  the  old  ones  become  dry, 
lower  in  temperature,  or  foul.  Such  changes  should  be 
quickly  effected,  for  exposure  chills  the  moist,  warm  surface. 
When  the  poulticing  is  done  Avith,  the  surface  should  bo 
enveloped  in  flannel,  or  in  a  woollen  rug  covered  with  oil- 
skin.    In  cases  of  chest  or  bowel  inflammation,  dogs,  like 


POWDERS — PULVERES  709 

children,  are  advantageously  placed  in  jacket  or  saddle 
poultices.  Poultices  are  rendered  more  soothing  by  addition 
of  opiates  or  anodynes ;  more  stimulating  by  sprinkling  with 
mustard  or  turpentine ;  more  antiseptic  by  admixture  with 
boric  acid,  chlorinated  soda,  carbolic  or  salicylic  acid,  or 
charcoal. 

Poultices  too  long  continued  are  apt  to  soften  and  sodden 
the  skin,  and  to  hinder  reparative  power.  Unwieldy  to  apply, 
and  troublesome  to  regulate  as  to  temperature,  they  are 
often  superseded  by  fomentations,  by  antiseptic  dressings, 
by  water  dressings  of  moistened  and  medicated  lint  or  tow, 
from  which  evaporation  is  retarded  by  a  covering  of  oiled 
silk  or  waterproof  cloth,  or  by  spongiopiline — a  felted  wool 
and  sponge,  coated  on  one  surface  with  guttapercha,  and 
when  soaked  with  hot  water  proving  a  cleanly,  handy 
substitute  for  a  small  poultice. 


POWDERS-PULVERES 

Many  medicines  may  be  reduced  to  a  rough  powder  in  a 
hand-mill  such  as  that  used  for  grinding  coffee  or  pepper ; 
or  in  an  iron  mortar  (which  should  be  fixed  into  a  block  of 
wood),  with  a  large,  heavy,  iron  pestle,  which  ought  to  be 
suspended  from  one  end  of  a  flexible  rod  running  along  the 
ceiling,  and  fixed  into  the  opposite  wall.  Preparatory  to 
further  reduction,  many  roots  and  barks  are  pounded  or 
cut.  To  effect  minuter  subdivision,  small  quantities  of  the 
coarse  powders  are  reduced  in  hand  mortars,  of  marble,  or 
Wedgwood  ware,  the  latter  being  cheap,  easily  cleaned,  and 
little  affected  by  acids.  When  a  fine  state  of  division  is 
required,  the  powder  is  put  through  wire-gauze  or  horse- 
hair sieves,  the  meshes  of  which  are  made  of  suitable  close- 
ness. For  light,  pungent,  or  irritant  powders,  compound 
sieves,  closed  in  above  and  below,  are  used.  To  facilitate 
reduction  of  tough  vegetable  drugs  such  as  opium,  they 
are  sometimes  mixed  with  a  hard  salt,  such  as  potassium 
sulphate.  To  avoid  tedious  trituration,  powders,  like 
calomel  and  flowers  of  sulphur,  are  conveniently  obtained 
by  sublimation ;  others,  like  magnesium  carbonate  or  mer- 


710  RESINS— SYRUPS 

ciiry  red  oxide,  by  precipitation ;  other  insoluble  substances, 
like  prepared  chalk,  by  stirring  in  water,  allowing  the  coarser 
particles  to  settle,  and  pouring  off  the  solution  from  which 
the  finely-divided  powder  is  gradually  deposited  and  dried. 
Nauseous,  deliquescent,  efflorescent,  and  volatile  substances, 
and  those  given  in  large  doses,  cannot  be  conveniently 
administered  in  powder.  Active  drugs  are  prescribed  with 
such  inert  substances  as  starch,  gum,  liquorice,  or  sugar  of 
milk.  Powders,  when  not  too  bulky,  are  occasionally  dropped 
upon  the  patient's  tongue,  or  introduced  into  the  mouth  or 
nostrils  by  insufflation.  When  free  of  disagreeable  flavour, 
they  are  sometimes  scattered  upon  or  mixed  with  the  food, 

RESINS 
Resins  are  amorphous  solids  consisting  of  acids  formed 
from  the  oxidation  of  terpenes  (CioH^g).  They  are  insoluble 
in  water,  soluble  in  spirit,  and  melt  when  heated.  They 
dissolve  in  alkalies,  forming  soaps.  They  are  frequently 
found  in  plants  conjoined  with  volatile  oil,  constituting  an 
oleo-resin,  such  as  that  of  copaiba  or  of  cubebs.  Occasionally 
they  are  associated  with  gum,  as  in  the  gum-resins,  asafoetida, 
ammoniacum,  myrrh,  and  gamboge.  The  resins  proper  are 
only  sparingly  soluble  in  the  animal  secretions,  but  they 
irritate  by  contact,  and  hence,  when  swallowed,  are  cathartic 
and  diuretic.  The  oleo-resins  are  more  active ;  they  stimulate 
mucous  surfaces,  from  which  they  are  absorbed  or  excreted. 
Gums  or  exudations  from  the  stems  of  plants  contain  arabin 
or  soluble  gum  (acacia),  bassorin  or  less  soluble  gum,  and 
cerasin  or  insoluble  gum.  Alcohol  precipitates  solution 
of  gum. 

SYRUPS-CONFECTIONS-BLECTUARIBS 

Syrups  are  saccharine  solutions,  usually  containing 
flavouring  or  medicinal  substances.  Their  specific  gravity 
ranges  from  l.SOO  and  1"400.  Their  consistence  is  important. 
If  too  thin  and  weak,  they  become  mouldy,  and  are  apt  to 
ferment ;  if  too  thick  and  strong,  the  sugar  crystallises  out. 
But  the  B.P.  ensures  uniformity  and  good  keeping  by  definite 


TINCTURES —ESSENCES  711 

instructions  as  to  the  proportion  of  refined  sugar  and  other 
constituents  in  the  twenty-two  syrups.  Americans,  fond  of 
sweets  even  with  their  physic,  have  introduced  thirty-three 
syrups  into  the  U.S.P.  Simple  syrup  is  prepared  by  dissolv- 
ing, by  the  aid  of  heat,  five  pounds  of  refined  sugar  in  two 
pints  of  distilled  water,  and  adding  sufficient  water  to  make 
7 1  lbs.  of  syrup.  The  syrups  chiefly  used  in  veterinary 
practice  are  those  of  buckthorn,  squill,  rhubarb,  chloral, 
ginger,  and  iron  iodide,  in  which  the  sugar  prevents  oxida- 
tion. Electuaries  are  made  with  sugar,  mucilage  or  treacle. 
Confections  or  conserves  are  soft  pastes,  largely  composed 
of  sugar  or  honey,  and,  like  syrups  and  electuaries,  are  chiefly 
used  as  vehicles  for  administering  powders,  or  disagreeably 


tasted  drugs. 


TINCTURES-SPIRITS-WINBS 

Tinctures  are  spirituous  solutions  of  active  principles. 
The  usual  solvent  is  ethylic  alcohol  (45  to  90  per  cent.). 
Spirit  of  ether  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  tincture  of 
lobelia,  and  solution  of  ammonia,  in  making  the  ammoniated 
tinctures  of  guaiacum,  valerian,  ergot,  opium,  and  quinine. 
Tinctures  are  prepared  without  heat  by  simple  solution,  by 
maceration,  or  by  displacement,  or  sometimes  by  a  combina- 
tion of  these  processes.  The  materials,  first  reduced  by 
cutting  or  bruising,  are  placed  with  the  spirit  in  a  suitable 
vessel,  and  usually  remain  from  two  to  seven  days;  the 
solution  is  poured  off,  the  residue  pressed,  and  the  tincture, 
when  filtered,  is  ready  for  use.  Sometimes  the  materials,  in 
a  state  of  moderately  fine  division,  are  packed  in  a  percolator 
or  cylindrical  vessel  of  glass,  earthenware,  or  metal;  the 
spirit  passes  gradually  through  them,  displaces  and  dissolves 
out  their  soluble  parts,  filters  through  the  linen  or  calico, 
which  is  usually  stretched  across  the  lower  part  of  the 
cylinder,  and  passes  off  by  the  stop-cock,  which  should  be 
attached  to  the  apparatus.  Some  tinctures  are  made  by 
macerating  the  materials  in  water  for  a  couple  of  days, 
obtaining  the  remaining  active  principles  by  percolation  with 
spirit,  and  mixing  the  two  solutions.     More  thorough  and 


712  VAPOURS — INHALATIONS 

rapid  extraction  of  active  principles  is  obtained  by  Burton's 
process.  The  drug  and  solvent  are  packed  in  the  percolator, 
on  the  neck  of  which  an  elastic  cap  is  fixed;  with  an 
exhausting  syringe  a  partial  vacuum  is  created ;  and  air 
being  subsequently  admitted,  the  spirit  penetrates  the  drug, 
and  more  effectually  extracts  its  active  principles. 

Tinctures  are  clear,  of  a  yellow,  red,  or  brown  colour,  and 
generally  keep  well.  A  few  have  been  standardised,  which 
means  that,  in  accordance  with  the  B.P.  1898,  the  tincture 
shall  be  made  to  contain  a  fixed  percentage  of  the  chief 
active  principle  of  the  drug.  The  tinctures  of  cinchona, 
jalap,  and  opium  are  now  standardised,  and  others  are 
directed  to  be  prepared  from  standardised  extracts.  The 
revisers  of  the  B.P.  have  endeavoured  to  reduce  dubiety 
and  risk  of  accident  by  so  adjusting  the  strength  of  the 
tinctures  that,  for  an  adult  human  patient,  the  average 
dose  of  the  more  potent  tinctures  is  from  five  to  fifteen 
minims  and  of  the  less  potent,  from  half  a  drachm  to  a 
drachm,  while  four  to  eight  drachms  of  the  stronger,  and 
one  to  two  ounces  of  the  weaker  tinctures  may  be  pre- 
scribed for  the  horse. — The  ofiicial  tinctures  of  aconite, 
digitalis,  nux-vomica,  cantharides  and  iron  perchloride,  and 
a  few  unofficial  tinctures  are  sufficiently  concentrated  to 
require  special  care  in  their  administration. 

Medicated  Spirits,  are  solutions  of  volatile  oils,  ethers  or 
other  substances  in  alcohol  (90  per  cent.).  The  average 
strength  is  one  in  ten.  The  simple  spirits  are  represented- 
by  those  of  peppermint,  anise,  camphor  (1  in  10),  juniper, 
chloroform  (1  in  20)  and  ether.  The  official  compound  spirits 
(nitrous  ether,  sal  volatile,  etc.)  are  five  in  number. 

Medicated  wines,  such  as  vinum  antimoniale  and  vinum 
ipecacuanhse,  made  with  sherry  or  orange  wine,  are  merely 
weak  tinctures.  Elixirs  are  tinctures  mixed  with  aromatics 
and  syrup. 

VAPOURS-INHALATIONS 

Vapours  are  volatilised  applications  used  for  soothing, 
stimulating,  deodorising,  or  disinfecting  the  air-passages,  or 
for  destroying   parasites   lodged    therein.     The    inhalation 


WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES  ^13 

most  frequently  used  is  moist,  warm  air,  produced  from  a 
steam  kettle,  or,  in  the  treatment  of  horses,  from  a  hot 
mash,  placed  in  a  capacious  nose-bag,  or  in  a  large  bucket 
brought  under  the  nostrils,  the  animal's  head  and  the  bucket 
being  covered  with  light  waterproof  sheeting.  Such  in- 
halations are  serviceable  in  catarrh  and  bronchial  conges- 
tion, and  may  be  rendered  more  soothing  by  mixing  with 
the  moist,  warm  air  a  little  chloroform,  laudanum,  eucalyptus 
oil,  or  conium.  Antiseptic  properties  are  conferred  by 
impregnating  the  air  with  chlorine  or  sulphurous  acid,  or 
by  the  use  of  creosote,  iodine,  or  iodoform.  As  in  the 
administration  of  chloroform  for  production  of  ansesthesia, 
volatile  drugs  may  be  conveniently  inhaled  from  a  sponge 
placed  in  one  nostril.  Irritability  of  the  larynx  and  violent 
coughing  are  sometimes  relieved  by  the  cautious  vaporising 
of  hydrocyanic  acid  and  conium,  or  by  spraying  the  throat 
with  cocaine.  Chlorine,  or  sulphurous  acid  inhalations, 
twice  or  thrice  repeated  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  days, 
are  usually  effectual  in  destroying  bronchial  filarise  in  calves 
and  lambs.  Fumigations  are  used  to  disinfect  stables  and 
other  premises. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES,  IMPERIAL  AND 
METRIC 

Two  systems  of  weights — the  imperial  and  the  apothe- 
caries'— were  formerly  employed  by  medical  men,  veter- 
inarians, and  chemists.  The  avoirdupois  or  imperial  weight 
was  used  by  wholesale  druggists,  and  also  by  retailers 
in  buying  their  drugs,  and  usually  in  selling  quantities 
amounting  to  or  exceeding  an  ounce.  In  dealing  with 
smaller  quantities,  and  in  making  up  prescriptions,  apothe- 
caries' weight  was  employed.  To  avoid  the  ambiguity 
occurring  from  the  use  of  these  two  systems,  the  framers  of 
the  B.P.  in  1864  aboHshed  the  apothecaries'  weight,  adopted 
the  avoirdupois  ounce  as  the  standard,  divided  it  into  437-5 
grains,  and  ignored  entirely  drachms  and  scruples.  But  so 
great  is  the  inconvenience  arising  from  the  want  of  some 


714  WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES 

denomination  between  the  grain  and  the  ounce,  that  medical 
and  veterinary  authorities  still  use  the  symbols  9  (scruple) 
and  3  (drachm),  the  former  representing  20  and  the  latter 
60  grains. 

APOTHECARIES'  MEASURES  OP  WEIGHT 

1  grain,     gr.j. 

1  scruple,    9j =20  grains. 

1  drachm,  5j =3  scruples  =     60  grs. 

1  ounce,      §j =   8  drachms  =   480    „ 

1  pound,   Ib.j =12  ounces     =5760    „ 


PHARMACOPCE3IA  MEASURES  OP  MASS 

1  grain,  gr.j. 

1  ounce,  oz.j.  ^ =437 "5  grains. 

1  pound,  Ib.j =16  ounces  =  7000  grains. 


MEASURES  OP  CAPACITY 

1  minim,  min.   ITIj. 

1  fluid  drachm,  f5j =60  minims. 

1  fluid  ounce,     f§j =8  fluid  drachms. 

1  pint,  Oj =  20  fluid  ounces. 

1  gallon,  C.j =8  pints. 

It  is  often  useful  to  recollect  the  weight  of  diiferent 
measures.  Of  water,  one  minim  (Hlj.)  weighs  nine-tenths  of 
a  grain;  a  fluid  ounce  at  62°  Fahr.  weighs  exactly  437*5 
grains,  or  an  ounce  avoirdupois ;  hence  a  pint  is  equal  to 
a  pound  and  a  quarter,  and  a  gallon  to  ten  pounds  imperial 
weight. 

Practitioners  require  proper  balances  of  different  sizes, 
legibly  marked  weights  of  different  denominations,  and 
graduated  measures,  which,  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness, 
should  be  made  of  glass  or  earthenware  rather  than  of 
metal.  Much  time  is  saved  by  having  the  bottles  in  which 
medicines  are  dispensed  graduated  to  ounces ;  and  such 
bottles   may  be   purchased   at  very   moderate  prices.      To 


THE    CAPACITY    OF   DOMESTIC  UTENSILS  715 

prevent  mistakes,  medicines  for  external  and  internal  use 
should  be  sent  out  in  diiferently  shaped  and  differently 
coloured  bottles,  properly  labelled;  while  all  potent  pre- 
parations should  further  be  labelled  '  Poison.' 

When  standard  measures  cannot  be  obtained,  the  practi- 
tioner has  often  occasion  to  use  some  of  the  ordinary  domestic 
utensils,  with  the  capacity  of  which  he  ought  therefore  to  be 
familiar.  Common  tumblers  contain  from  eight  to  ten  fluid 
ounces  ;  teacups,  five  to  seven  fluid  ounces  ;  breakfast  cups, 
about  eight  to  ten  fluid  ounces ;  wine-glasses,  two  to  two  and 
a  half  fluid  ounces  ;  tablespoons,  half  a  fluid  ounce ;  dessert- 
spoons, two  fluid  drachms  ;  and  teaspoons,  one  fluid  drachm 
of  sixty  minims.  Such  measurements,  however,  are  merely 
approximative.  The  pint  and  quart  bottles,  subdivisions  of 
the  old  wine  measure,  contain  respectively  about  13  and 
27  fluid  ounces,  and  not,  as  their  names  might  indicate,  20 
and  40  fluid  ounces.  A  Scotch  pint  contains  60  fluid  ounces. 
Medicines  are  sometimes  measured  by  the  drop,  which  varies, 
however,  exceedingly  with  the  density  and  viscidity  of  the 
fluid,  and  the  form  and  size  of  the  vessel  from  which  it 
falls. 

The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures,  now  legaHsed 
in  this  country,  is  everywhere  extensively  used  in  scientific 
observations,  and,  from  the  simplicity  of  its  decimal  grada- 
tions, is  certain  to  become  general.  The  metric  tables  of 
weight,  capacity,  and  length,  with  their  relations  to  the 
corresponding  English  tables,  are  appended : — 

MEASURES  OP  MASS 
1  milligramme  =       O'OOl  gramme  =  0-015432  grain. 
1  centigramme  =       001       „  =0-15432        „ 

1  decigramme    =       0-1         „  =1*5432      grains. 

1  gramme  =       I'O         „  =15'432  „ 

ldekagramme=     100         „  =0022040     lb. 

1  hectogramme  =  100-0         „  =022046 

1  kilogramme     =10000         „  =2-2046,  or  2  lbs.,  3  oz., 

and  120  grains  nearly. 
The  gramme,  taken  as  the  unit  of  weight,  is  a  cubic  centi- 
metre of  water  at  4°  C.  or  39-2°  Fahr. 


716  METRIC   WEIGHTS    AND   MEASURES 


MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY 
1  millitre       =         1  gramme  of  water     =     00610  cubic  in. 
1  centilitre    =       10         „  „  =     0610 

1  decilitre     =     100         „  „  =     610 

1  litre  =   1000         „  „  =     61-0 

1  cubic  centimetre=16'9  minims  nearly.  A  litre  is  equal 
to  175980  pint,  or  1  pint,  15  ounces,  1  drachm,  and  34  minims 
nearly. 

MEASURES  OP  LENGTH 
1  millimetre  =0001  metre  =   0039370  English  inch. 
1  centimetre  =  001       „       =   0-39370 
1  decimetre  =01         „      =   3-9370  „      inches. 

1  metre         =1-0         „       =39370113,  or  1  yard,  337  inches 

nearly. 

A  metre  is  equal  to  the  ten-millionth  part  of  a  quarter  of 
the  meridian  of  the  earth. 

The  Fahrenheit  thermometer,  the  measure  of  tem- 
perature still  retained  by  the  B.P.,  and  in  many  Avorks  on 
human  materia  medica,  is  the  measure  again  adopted  in  this 
book.  The  Centigrade  scale,  however,  is  also  extensively 
used.  It  is  often  requisite  to  ascertain  the  corresponding 
numbers  on  each  scale,  and  for  this  purpose  the  following 
rule  is  useful.  To  convert  any  number  of  Centigrade  into 
Fahrenheit  degrees,  nudtiply  by  9,  divide  by  5,  and  add  32. 
For  the  converse  process,  subtract  32,  multiply  by  5,  and 
divide  by  9. 


INDEXES 


INDEX  OF  DISEASES  AND  REMEDIES 


Abortion. 

Slipping  ;  Premature  birth— (1)  Accidental  cases  caused  by  rough 
treatment,  falls,  railroad  journeys,  acute  indigestion,  ergotised 
food  ;  occiu-  in  all  domestic  animals.  (2)  Epizootic  cases  depending 
upon  a  microbe  present  in  the  uterine  discharges  and  amnial  fluid 
of  animals  which  abort ;  chiefly  occur  in  cows  and  ewes. 
Isolate  aborting  from  pregnant  animals. 

Burn,  thoroughly  disinfect,  or  deeply  bury  fcetus  and  its  membranes- 
Cleanse  and  thoroughly  disinfect  premises  in  which  animal  has  aborted. 
Irrigate,  with  efl'ectual  germicides,  uterus,  vagina,  external  organs,  and 

tail  root  of  every  animal  aborting. 
One  part  corrosive  sublimate,  40  common  salt,  4000  clean  rain-water,  or 
one  part  each  mercuric  iodide  and  pot.  iodide  in  1000  water,  safe  and 
efifectual. 
With  this  solution  irrigate  vagina,  external  genitals,  and  tail  root  of 

animals  that  exhibit  premonitory  symptoms. 
Wash  frequently  external  genitals  and  tail  of  gravid  animals  that  have 
herded  with  those  aborted,  with  5  per  cent,  solution  ferrous  sulphate. 
Animals  which  have  aborted  should  be  fed  ofi',  for  the  microbes  are  dis- 
lodged with  difl&culty,  and  fresh  generations  are  liable  in  subsequent 
conceptions  to  repeat  their  attack  (Nocard). 
Prevent  use  of  bulls  with  balanitis  or  suspicious  discharge. 

Abscess. 

A  circumscribed  swelling  containing  pus. 

Fomentations,  poultices,  water  dressings  relieve  tension  and  pain. 

When  maturing  tardily,   apply   counter-irritants— mercury  oleate   or 

iodine  over  small  area. 
Open  immediately  with  knife,  and  pro^'ide  drainage. 
When  deep-seated,  open  by  Hilton's  method  under  local  ansesthesia. 
After  evacuation  dress  antiseptically. 
Healing  of  chronic  abscess  cavity  hastened  by  antiseptic  injection,  as 

10  per  cent.  sol.  of  iodine. 
Belladonna  inunction  relieves  pain. 

AcARi.     Mites.     See  Mange  and  Scab. 

They  produce  skin  irritation,  itching,  occasionally  eruption. 
Soft  soap,  alkalies,  and  hot  water  cleanse  skin,  remove  scales,  and  lay 

bare  burrows. 
Soaking  with  oil  and  alkali  facilitates  removal  of  crusts. 
As  parasiticides  rub  in  sulphur,  or  sulphur  iodide  ointments,  mercury 

oleate,  carbolic  or  tar  oils,  stavesacre,  or  creolin  solutions. 
For  dogs — aniseed  or  other  volatile  oil,  wood  tar  oils,  or  tolu. 
For  sheep — solutions  of  tar  oils,  arsenic,  tobacco.      Separate  aff"ected 

from  healthy.    Narrowly  watch  suspected.    Disinfect  premises,  racks, 

rubbing  posts,  etc. 


718  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

ACTIXOMTCOSIS. 

A  disease  caused  by  the  ray  fungus  found  on  barley  and  other  plants, 
thence  introduced  into  the  bodies  of  animals,  probably  through 
abrasions  in  the  mucous  membranes,  producing  granulomata, 
nodules  or  tumours ;  found  chiefly  on  the  tongue  and  jawbones  of 
cattle,  udder  of  sows,  etc. 
In  early  stage  excise  diseased  structures. 
Scrape  and  tlress  with  iodine  tincture,  iodoform,  a  mixture  of  iodine, 

carbolic  acid,  and  glycerin. 
Administer  full  doses  pot.  iodide  for  month  ;  or  small  doses  of  mercurj* 

biniodide. 
Precautions  to  prevent  transfer  of  parasite  to  man  or  other  animals. 
Generous  diet ;  tonics. 

Acidity  of  Stomach. 

Pyrosis.     Occurs  in  all  animals,  notably  when  under  artificial  condi- 
tions. 
Change  of  food,  which  should  be  digestible,  unstimulating,  and  rather 

restricted  in  amount. 
Half  dose  of  phj'sic  will  remove  any  irritant. 
Mineral  acids,  given  before  or  with  food. 
Alkaline  bicarbonates  as  palliatives. 
Lime  water  and  chalk  when  diarrlnea  present. 
Magnesia  or  the  carbonate  when  constipation  present. 
Place  a  piece  of  rock  salt  in  horse's  manger. 

Conjoin  antiseptics  with  antacids  when  associated  with  flatulence. 
Bismuth  and  opium  when  accompanied  by  irritation. 
Gentian,  nux-vomica,  and  other  bitters  when  resulting  from  atony. 
Silver  oxide,  tannates,  lead  acetate,  when  associated  with  gastric  catarrh. 

Acne. 

Inflammation  of  sebaceous  follicles  and  sweat  glands,  leading  to  erup- 
tion of  pimples,  usually  produced  in  horses  by  badly  fitting  or  dirty 
harness. 
Hot  fomentations  ;  water  dressing ;  alkaline  solutions,  such  as  saturated 
solution  sodium  bicarbonate,  boi-ax,  glycerin  and  water,  or  sulphur 
iodide.     Touch  each  pustule  with  undiluted  carbolic  acid. 
See  to  fitting  and  proper  lining  of  harness. 
Sulphur,  both  locally  and  internally.     Belladonna  extract,  hydrocyanic 

acid,  or  Goulard's  extract  relieve  local  irritation. 
Salines  and  arsenic  internally  in  chronic  cases. 

Acne  (Contagious)  of  Horses. 

Has  been  called   Variola  equina :   A  contagious  pustular  eruption, 
stated  to  have  been  imported  into  England  in  1887  with  Canadian 
horses. 
The  sick  isolated,  and  premises,  harness,  and  stable  appliances  disin- 
fected. 
'  Sanitas,'  carbolic,  or  creolin  solution  applied. 

After-Pains. 

Post-partum  pains  ;  Heaving.     Septic  metritis. 
Remove  fn'tal  membranes  and  clots  from  uterus  ;  raise  hind-quarters. 
Syphon  into  uterus  antiseptics  and  anodynes,  solution  of  carl)olic  acid, 

Condy's  Huid,  or  mercuric  iodide,  with  belladonna  and  opium. 
Ergotin  hypodermically,  if  uterus  flaccid  and  dilated. 
Administer  chloroform  or  chloral,  with  cannabis  indica  or  belladoima. 
Morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically  in  persistent  cases. 
Laxatives  and  enemata  to  empty  bowels  ;  draw  away  milk. 
Disinfect  attendants  and  lambing  pens. 

Alopecia. 

Baldness  depending  on  faulty  nutrition  of  skin  and  atrophy  of  hair 
bulbs.     Sometimes  parasitic. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  719 

Alopecia — contin  ned. 

Oleaginous  diet,  tonics,  sulphur  iodide.     Antiparasitics. 

Stimulate  skin  with  ammonia  liniment ;  cantharides  tincture,  one  part ; 

soap  or  camphor  liniment,  eight  parts  ;  or  castor  oil. 
Shave  and  rub  in  '  Sanitas  '  fluid  or  vaseline  daily,  dressing  occasionally 

with  above  stimulants. 

Amaurosis.     Blindness. 

Gutta  Serena  ;  Paralysis  of  optic  nerve  and  retina  with  dilated  pupil. 

Unless  when  depending  upon  loss  of  blood,  debility,  or  lead-poisoning, 
it  is  inculpable. 

Strychnine  in  ti-aumatic  cases  and  those  of  nerve  atrophy,  but  unsuit- 
able wheie  there  are  brain  symptoms. 

Anemia. 

Diminution  of  red  corpuscles  and  other  essential  constituents  of  the 
blood. 

Pernicious  anfemia,  probably  dependent  on  a  microbe  (Friedberger), 
frequently  infectious,  and  accompanied  by  fluidity  and  redness  of 
bone  marrow. 

Generous  diet,  containing  suitable  proteids  and  fats. 

Comfortable  quarters,  pure  air,  exercise  ;  clip  horses  with  heavy  coats. 

Iron  salts  and  occasional  laxatives.     Malt  extract. 

Gentian,  quinine,  and  other  bitters  where  appetite  faulty  ;  strychnine. 

Mineral  acids  where  gastric  mucous  membrane  soft  and  relaxed. 

Arsenic,  after  iron  has  been  given  for  ten  days,  or  where  iron  dis- 
agrees. 

Calcium  phosphate  in  growing  young  animals ;  Squires'  syrup,  alter- 
nated with  Donovan's  solution  or  cod-liver  oil. 

Aneurism. 

A  localised  dilatation  with  partial  rupture  of  an  artery. 

Equable  pi-essure,  truss,  bandages,  acupressure,  cat-gut  ligatures  above 
and  below  sac. 

Aconite  relieves  pain  and  lowers  circulation. 

Ergotin  locally  injected  contracts  vessel. 

Pot.  iodide  encourages  absorption.     Rest,  quiet ;  rather  low  diet. 

Electrolysis,  injection  of  ferric  chloride,  lead  acetate,  or  ergotin  may 
cause  coagulation  within  sac. 

Radical  cure  and  obliteration  of  vessel  by  double  ligature  or  by  con- 
tinuous acupressure. 

Angle  Berries.     See  Warts. 

Remove  with  knife,  torsion,  caustic,  or  ligature  ;  dress  antiseptically. 

Anthrax.     Charbon. 

^^pends  upon  the  Bacillus  anthracis,  and  is  communicable  by  inocula- 
jhtion  from  one  animal  and  from  one  species  to  another.  Cattle, 
^Phorses,  and  sheep  are  most  frequently  attacked.  Bacilli  and  spores 
are  taken  up  by  animals  in  their  food  and  water ;  are  occasionally 
inhaled,  or  may  be  introduced  through  skin  abrasions.  The  char- 
acteristic lesions  are  accompanied  by  acute  pyrexia,  prove  fatal  in 
one  to  three  daj's,  and  are  usually  localised — 

(1)  In  the  subcutaneous  structures,  corresponding  to  the  malignant 
pustule  of  man. 

(2)  In  the  tongue,  chiefly  of  herbivora,  constituting  glossanthrax. 

(3)  In  the  pharynx  and  respiratory  passages  of  pigs,  horses,  and  other 
animals. 

(4)  In  the  intestine  of  horses. 

(5)  In  the  spleen,  chiefly  of  adult  cattle  and  sheep,  recognised  as 
splenic  apoplexj' ;  very  sudden  in  its  onset,  and  killing  sometimes 
within  an  hour. 

Curative  treatment  in  animals  is  dangerous  and  inadvisable. 


720  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Anthrax.    Charbon — continued. 

Preventive  treatment  consists  in  protection  from  access  of  bacillus  and 
spores. 

Cremate  or  bury  in  graves  7  feet  deep,  infected  discharges  and  carcases, 
which  sliould  neither  be  skinned  nor  opened. 

The  flesh  of  animals  dead  from  anthrax  has  produced  by  ingestion  the 
disease  in  pigs  and  dogs. 

Thoroughly  disinfect  infected  premises.     Fence  off  graves. 

Keep  susceptible  animals  off  pastures  wliere  disease  has  occurred,  and 
from  low-lying  swampy  districts  and  other  situations  affording  favour- 
able habitat  for  the  micro-organism. 

Inoculation  with  cultivated  virus  ensures  temporary  protection. 

Anuria. 

Dysuria ;    Retention    of    urine.     Results    from   calculi,   or    urethral 
obstruction,  paresis  or  Ki)asm  of  the  bladder,  and  other  causes,  more 
emnmon  and  distressing  in  horses  and  dogs  than  in  cattle  or  sheep. 
The  bladder  ui  the  horse  may  be  gently  pressed  by  the  hand  introduced 

into  tlie  rectum. 
Friction  and  warm  applications  to  the  perineum  may  overcome  paralysis 

or  spasm. 
Anti-paralysants  or  antispasmodics  administered. 
Catheter.     Surgical  treatment  for  calculus. 

Aphtha. 

Vesicles  in  the  mouth  ;  Thrush.    Associated'  with  the  epiphyte,  oi'dium 
albicans.     Most  common  in  young  animals. 
Alum,  borax,  sulphurous  or  boracic  acid,  or  pot.  chlorate  solutions  applied 
locally. 
Oxymel,  glycerin  and  water,  or  glycerin  of  starch,  or  of  tamiic  acid. 
When  connected  with  gastric  derangement,  give  laxatives,  salines,  or 

grey  powder. 
When  patient  reduced  prescribe  tonics. 
Soft  digestible  food. 

Aphthous  or  Vesicular  Epizootic. 

Foot-andmouth-disease  ;  Eczema  contagiosa :  A  contagious  eruptive 
fever  affecting  cattle,   sheep,  pigs,  and  occasionally  poultry.    The 
contagious  agent,    contained   in   the   discharges   from   the  vesicles 
and  ulcerations,  retains  its  activity  for  several  months,  and  is  trans- 
missible directly  or  indirectly. 
Segregate  affected  ;  disinfection  ;  soft  digestible  food. 
Keep  inflamed,  abraded  surfaces  clean,  and  moisten  occasionally  with 
alum,  borax,  or  zinc  sulphate,  made  up  with  treacle,  honey,  or  glycerin 
and  water. 
Lead  or  zinc  acetate  solution  or  ointment,  dithion,  Goulard's  extract,  or 

Condy's  fluid  diluted,  applied  to  udder  and  feet. 
Milk  affected  cows  frequently,  preventing  lodgment  in  udder  of  stale 

milk. 
The  milk  unsafe  to  use  unless  boiled  for  fifteen  minutes. 
Pot.  nitrate  and  clilorate,  mixed  with  mash  or  drinking  water,  M'hen 

fever  high. 
One  attack  does  not  certainly  protect  the  subject  exposed  to  .subsequent 
infection. 

Apoplexy,  Cerebral. 

Rupture  of  blood-vessel  occasionally  from  atheroma,  causing  pressure, 
and   sometimes    softening  of    l)rain    substance.       Not  common   in 
domestic  animals. 
Blood-letting,  aconite,  lower  arterial  pressure  where  attack  threatened, 

or  in  earlier  comatose  stage. 
Active  purgative,  laxative  enemas,  cold  water  and  ice  to  head  relieve 

congestion. 
Nitro-glycerin  and  bromides  also  diminish  cerebral  congestioa. 


.   INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  721 

Apoplexy,  Cerebral— co«?m?/ec?. 

Akohol  and-  other  stimulants  may  be  needful  to  combat   subsequent 

ansemia. 
Massage,  electricity,  strychnine,  relieve  parah'sis. 

Digestible  laxative  food  ;  avoid  over-exertion  or  exposure  to  heat  of  sun. 
Iodine  and  pot.  iodide  promote  absorption. 
Recurring  attacks  in  robust  subjects  prevented  by  careful   diet  and 

regular  work. 

Apoplexy,  Parturient. 

Milk  fever :  A  disease  of  cows  (and  ewes)  occurring  at  parturition,  or 

a  few  days  thereafter  ;  characterised  bj-  loss  of  consciousness,  and 

paralysis  of  motion  and  sensation  ;  sometimes  ushered  in  by  cerebral 

excitement,  spasms,  and  convulsions  ;  attacking  animals  in  the  prime 

of  life,  in  good  condition,  and  free  milkers.     Mortality  ranges  from 

25  to  oO  per  cent.     No  marked  pathological  appearances.     Those 

recovering  do  so  quickly,  and  usually  perfectly.     Genesis  of  disease 

still  unexplained,  but  probably  due  to  a  nerve  toxine. 

May  bleed  in  earliest  stage.     Cathartics,  active — salts,  with    calomel, 

gamboge,  or  croton,   treacle,  and  aromatics.     Intestinal  antiseptics. 

Chloral  hydrate. 

If  swallowing  difficult,  give  cathartic  and  other  medicine  with  Read's 

pump. 
Prop  on  sternum  :  keep  up  head  :  turn  patient  from  one  side  to  other 

every  three  hours. 
Remove  milk  every  few  hours  and  rub  bag.     Try  Schmidt's  treatment : 
— Dissolve  oij-  to  5iij-  pot.  iodide  in  35  ounces  of  boiling  water ;  cool 
to  blood  heat,  and  inject  one-fourth  of  the  solution  into  each  teat. 
Knead  the  udder  after  injection. 
If  urine  retained,  empty  urinary  bladder  by  catheter  twice  daily. 
Ice  or  refrigerants  to  head  ;  clothe  and  rub  body  and  legs. 
Linseed  gruel  occasionally  by  stomach  pump  and  clyster. 
Whisky  or  other  alcohol,  with  ammonia  solution  and  carbonate,  where 

collapse  threatened. 
Rubefacients  to  spine.     Cold  pack  sometimes  beneficial. 
Until  recovery  fairly  established,  withhold  dry  food,  but  allow  mashes 

and  diluents. 
Purgatives,  counter-irritants  to  the  spine,  pot.  iodide  and  nux-vomica 

relieve  resulting  paresis. 
Prevent  by  sparingly  feeding  susceptible  subjects  for  a  month  before 

calving. 
Cathartic  a  fortnight  before  parturition,  and  another  if  required  imme- 
diately after. 
Milk  cow  a  fortnight  before  calving,  earlier  if  milk  can  be  drawn,  and 
empty  bag  twice  daily. 

Apoplexy,  Pulmonary. 

Hyperaemia  and  cedema  of  lungs.     Occurs  especially  in  horses  out  of 
condition,  usually  from  violent  over-exertion. 
Cool  air  to  breathe  ;  smart  hand-rubbing  of  body  and  limbs,  which  must 

subsequently  be  warmly  clothed. 
Small  repeated  doses  of  alcohol,  ether,  or  ammonia  stimulate  cardiac  and 

respiratory  centres. 
Abstraction  of  blood  from  jugular  relieves  congestion  of  right  heart. 

Apoplexy,  Splenic.    See  Anthrax. 

Appetite,  I:wpaired. 

Varied  and  tempting  diet. 
Food  removed  if  not  eaten,  and  fresh  supply  presented  at  next  meal. 
Acids,  bitters,  nux-vomica,  quinine. 
Examine   teeth,  mouth,  and  throat,  and  look  for  gastric,  cardiac,  or 

other  cause. 

2z 


722'  INDEX    OF    DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES, 

Arteritis. 

Inflammation  of  arteries.     Not  common  in  the  lower  animals. 
Rest,  alteratives,  salines,  pot.  iodide. 
Arthritis. 

Inflammation  of  joint.  Occurs  in  all  animals  ;  in  young,  from  pyaemic 
infection,  or  rheumatism  ;  in  horses,  from  strains,  injuries,  or  sepsis 
from  open  joint.  Synovial  membrane  primarily  aff"ected,  but  other 
structures  become  involved,  and  in  clironic  cases  periosteum,  ends 
of  bones,  and  ligaments  are  attacked. 
Rest,  anatomical  and  physiological,  fomentations,  hot  compress. 
Antipyretics,  with  analgesics  subcutaneously,  to  reduce  pyrexia  and  pain ; 

counter-irritation  in  some  cases  after  abatement  of  acute  symptoms. 
Slings,  splints,  and  adhesives  needful  for  horses  in  acute  attacks. 
Antiseptics  in  treatment  of  open  joint.     Injection  of  sterilized  glycerin. 
Sodium  salicylate  in  rheumatic  cases. 

AscARiDES.     See  Worms. 

Ascites. 

Abdominal  dropsy :  Accumulation  of  fluid  in  cavity  of  peritoneum, 
depending  on  disease  of  some  important  internal  organ  obstructing 
return  of  venous  blood  to  the  heart.     More  common  in  dogs,  sheep, 
and  cattle  than  in  horses. 
Remove,  if  possible,  conditions  on  which  it  depends. 
Diuretics,  salines,  oil  of  turpentine,  pot.  iodide,  pilocarpine. 
Digitalis,  especially  in  cardiac  complications.     Infusion  of  buchu. 
Generous  diet  and  tonics  in  anaemic  or  tuberculous  disease  of  peritoneum. 
Concenti-ated  dietary,  iron  salts,  and  turpentine  in  sanguineous  form 

appearing  in  impoverished  sheep  and  lambs. 
Tapping,  even  when  it  does  not  cure,  relieves  distressing  symptoms. 

Asthma. 

Dyspnoea  depending  on  intermittent  bronchial  spasm.     Rare  in  horses 
and  cattle,  more  frequent  in  dogs. 
Paroxysm  checked  by  cautious  inhalation  of  anesthetics,  amyl-nitrite, 

or  nitro-glycerin,  or  by  chloral  given  by  mouth. 
Bromides  ;  strong  coS"ee  internally. 
Emetics  relieve  many  canine  cases. 
Inhalation  of  terebene  with  or  without  steam  ;  of  stramonium  with  pot. 

nitrate  and  chlorate,  or  amm.  chloride. 
Belladonna,  stramonium,  sometimes  with  eucalyptus,  internally  or  in- 
haled. 
Alkalies,  amm.  chloride,  pot.  iodide  ;  inhalation  of  sulphur  fumes  when 

associated  with  dry  bronchial  catarrh. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  asafcetida,  benzoin,  eucalyptus  oil  when  discharges 

profuse. 
Strychnine  internally  or  hypodermically  when  respiratory  centre  weak. 
Acids  and  arsenic  when  complicated  with  gastric  derangement. 
Occasional  dressing  of  throat  with  stimulant  embrocation,  especially  in 

old  dogs  with  severe  bronchial  symptoms. 
Regular  digestible,  rather  concentrated,  diet.     Exercise. 

Atheroma. 

Degeneration  of  arteries,  with  calcification.     Not  common  in  lower 
animals. 
Avoid  over-exertion  ;  prescribe  digestible  oleaginous  diet. 
Ammonium  iodide  promotes  absorption. 

Iron  salts,  phosphates,  Easton's  syrup  in  debilitated  patients. 
Phosphorus  in  small  doses  where  brain  vessels  implicated. 

Atrophy. 

Wasting ;   Emaciation.      Results  from   imperfect  nutrition,  nervous 
lesion,  pressure,  disease,  or  inaction. 
Suitable  diet ;  fitting  use  of  wasted  part  j  tonics,  arsenic,  and  strychnine 
internally. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    A^D    REMEDIES  •  723 

Ateophy — cont  inued. 

Friction,  massage,  electricity,  locally.     Counter-irritation. 
Inunction  of  oil,  cantharides,  or  mercuric  iodide  iu  muscular  atrophy. 

AzoTCRiA.     See  Hjemoglobincria. 

Balanitis. 

Inflammation  of  the  glans  of  penis.     Common  in  dogs  ;  contagious. 
Penis  withdra\^Ti,  examined,  cleansed,  and  dressed  with  astringent. 
Injection  of  mild  astringent  daily  for  a  •week.     Zinc  chlor.  grs.  ij.  to 

grs.  iv.  in  an  ounce  of  water. 
Any  fungoid  or  vascular  formations  scraped  or  cut  off. 
In  persistent  cases  horse  or  bull  must  be  cast  and  secured,  thorough 

examination  made ;  inflamed,  ulcerated,  or  fungoid  surfaces  dressed 

with  silver  nitrate  solution  containing  grs.  x.  to  the  ounce  of  distilled 

water. 
Zinc  sulphate  or  lead  acetate  injections  repeated  daily. 
Perfect  rest,  dose  of  physic,  laxative  diet. 

Barrexxess.     Sterility. 

Congenital,  sometimes  from  hermaphrodism.     Also  caused  by  disease 
of  organs  of  generation  and  faulty  general  health,  with  acid  or  septic 
vaginal  discharges. 
Change  of  diet  and  surroundings  ;  exercise. 

Alteratives  ;  pot.  iodide  ;  phosphoriis  and  cantharides,  small  doses. 
Gradual  lowering  of  fat  plethoric  subjects. 
Improved,  condition  of  debilitated,  by  diet  and  tonics.     Wash  out  and 

disinfect  vagina. 
Dilatation  of  os  uteri  if  it  be  constricted ;    change  male.      Artificial 
insemination  may  be  tried. 

Bites  of  Insects. 

Ammonia  or  pot.  bicarbonate  solution.     Eucalyptus  oil. 

Creolin,  carbolic  acid,  prussic  acid,  chloroform,  cold  water  dressings. 

Black-leg  or  Black  Quarter. 

Quarter  evil.     Consists  in  phlegmonous,  emphysematous  swellings, 

usually  about   the  hind- quarters,   occasionally   on   the  shoulders, 

neck,  or  fore-quarters,  caused  by  the  Black-quarter  bacillus.    Cattle, 

sheep,  goats,  and  rabbits  are  readily  inoculated  ;   the  horse,  ass, 

and  white  rat  exhibit  only  local  swelling  at  the  point  of  inoculation  ; 

the  pig,  dog,  cat,  black  rat,  and  man  are  immmie.     The  disease 

is   endemic ;    the  bacterium,  from  the  infected  pasture  or  water, 

probably  enters  the  body  by  wounds  of  the  legs  or  feet.     Cattle 

from  four  to  twenty  months  are  most  liable  to  attack. 

Curative  treatment  very  unsatisfactory.     Free  scarification  of  limited 

external  swellings  and  moistening  with  antiseptics  arrest  a  few  slight 

cases. 

Prevention  is  effected  by  keeping  young  cattle  and  sheep  out  of  pastures 

kno^vn  to  be  infected  ;  and  by  inoculation  with  special  vaccine. 
Animals  dying  from  the  disease  should  be  burned  unskinned  and  un- 
opened, or  deepl\-  buried  with  lime. 
Disinfection  of  premises  is  adopted  as  for  contagious  diseases. 
Setons  have  been  credited  with  some  preventive  power. 
Administration  once  or  t'wice  weekly  of  pot.  chlorate  or  other  saline 

antiseptic  ad^^sed. 
Prepared,   vaccine   used   hypodermically   as   a   preventive   iu   France, 
Germany,  and  England  ;  stated  to  be  effectual.     See  p.  6S5. 

Bladder,  Urinary,  Ixfi^\.m>iatiox  of.     See  Cystitis. 
Bladder,  Irritable. 

Diluents,  linseed  tea,  suitable  diet.     Interdict  heated  grain  or  fodder, 

or  other  acrid  food. 
Laxative    relieves    any    gastro-iutestinal    irritation.      Urinary    disin- 
fectants. 


724  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Bladder,  Irritable — continued. 

Belladonna  as  anoilj'ne  used  internally  and  locally. 

Benzoic  acid  or  annnonium  bcnzoate  when  urine  alkaline. 

Alkaline  bicarbonate  when  urine  acid. 

Copaiba  and  cubebs  as  antiseptics  in  chronic  cases. 

Sulphuric  and  salicylic  acids  with  iron  sulphate,  where  irritation  in  horses 

is  connected  with  influenza  or  purpura. 
Anodyne  enemata  benefit  reflexly. 
Cleanse  with  soap  and  water  prepuce  and  external  meatus  of  male. 

Bladder,  Paralysis. 

Prevent  accumulation  of  urine  by  iise  of  catheter,  or  in  horse  by  gentle 

pressure  on  viscus  from  within  rectum. 
Prescribe  cantharides,  ergot,  or  cannabis  indica  ;  nux-vomica  or  eserine 

when  atonic. 

Bleeding.    See  Hemorrhage. 

Bog  Spavin. 

Distension  of  tibio-tarsal  capsule  ;  in  some  cases  acute  synovitis. 
Rest ;  high -heeled  shoe. 
In  acute  cases  rest  best  secured  by  slinging. 
Foment  when  joint  hot  and  tender. 

Cold  water  and  refrigerants  when  acute  inflammation  abated. 
Spring  truss  sometimes  used  in  simple  cases  to  give  equable  pressure. 
Counter-irritation  encourages  absorption  in  chronic  cases. 
Removal  of  fluid  by  aspirator  or  special  trocar  may  be  tried. 

Boil  or  Furunculus. 

A  localised  acute  suppurative  inflanmiation,  with  limited  necrosis  of 
the  cutis.     A  carbuncle  is  a  boil  on  a  larger  scale. 
Mercuric  nitrate  or  belladonna  ointment,  or  painting  with  silver  nitrate, 

sometimes  aborts  inflammation  in  early  stages. 
Fomentations  and  poultices  hasten  maturation  and  relieve  pain. 
Counter-irritants  hasten  suppuration. 
Anodj'nes  locally  relieve  irritation  and  pain. 
Laxative  diet,  alkaline  sulphites  and  chlorates,  and  calcium  sulphide 

internally. 
When  opened,  treat  antiseptically. 
Arsenic  internally  sometimes  prevents  recurrence. 

Bone  Spavin.     See  Spavin. 

BoTS  IN  Horses. 

Larvffi  of  cestrus  equi  developed  in  stomach. 
Turpentine  and  oils,  bitters,  hydrochloric  acid,  iodine,  naphthol,  copper 

and  iron  sulphates,  arsenic,  followed  by  purgatives. 
Carbon  bisulphide  75  grains,  in  gelatin  capsule,  repeat  dose  in  twelve 

liours,  and  next  day  give  a  dose  of  physic. 
Green  fodder  ;  dcstro}'  larvtc  as  they  are  expelled  in  spring,  and  the  fly. 

Bowels,  Inflammation  of.    See  Enteritis. 

Braxy  in  Sheep. 

An  infective  gastro-entcritis  characterised  by  patclies  of  inflammation 
and  ecchymoscs  chiefly  aftecting  the  mucous  and  sei'ous  membranes 
and  skin.     Pathology  undetermined. 
Most  cases  prove  fatal. 
Prevent  by  carefully  regulated  dietary. 
Removal  from  exposed,  undrained,  infected  grazings. 

Broken  Knees  in  Hoksks. 

Where  skin  not  t)rokcn,  tie  up  head  and  apply  diluted  zinc  or  lead 
acetate  solution  tor  two  or  three  days. 

W^lien  skin  cut,  cleanse  thoroughly,  dress  antiseptically,  bring  edges  to- 
gether with  pin  sutures,  plaster,  styptic  colloid,   or  shellac  paste ; 


INDEX    OF  DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  725 

Broken  Knees  in  Horses — continued. 

retain  them  in  position  with  light  calico  bandage ;  dress  with  mild 
astringent  solutions. 

When  skin  considerably  lacerated,  the  tendon  and  its  sheath  bruised  and 
exposed,  or  the  knee-joint  opened,  the  limb  should  be  put  in  splints 
and  animal  slung  ;  several  folds  of  antiseptic  lint,  retained  in  place 
by  a  calico  bandage,  over  which  cold  water  is  made  to  trickle  con- 
tinuously. 

When  tendon  much  bruised,  knee-joint  laid  open,  bones  seriously  injured 
or  fractured,  anchylosis  must  ensue,  and  the  animal  had  better  be 
destroyed. 

Broken  Wind  in  Horses. 

Pulmonary  emphysema,  associated  with  indigestion  and  characterised 
by  expiratory  dyspntva  and  peculiar  cough.     Probably  of  nervous 
origin  and  connected  with  tlie  vagus. 
Seldom   curable,    but   relieved   by  careful  dietary ;   good   concentrated 
food  given  damped  ;  water  frequently,  in  limited  quantity  at  a  time, 
but  withheld  before  hard,  fast  work. 
Reasonable  restriction  of  water  specially  needful  when  heart  affected. 
Laxatives  and  salines  given  occasionally. 
Rock  salt,  chalk,  or  whiting  in  manger.     Two  or  tliree  ounces  Unseed  oil 

with  food. 
Arsenic  (Fowler's  solution)  given  daily  or  every  second  day,  may  be 

continued  for  months. 
Sedative  cough  balls  occasionally. 

Bronchial  Croup.     '  Fat  stock  show  disease.' 

Fibrinous  exudation   on   tracheal   and  bronchial  mucous  membrane. 
Frequent  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  in  other  animals  which  have 
breathed  smoke  and  hot  air,  especially  during  fogs. 
Rapid  progress  renders  treatment  nearl}'  hopeless. 
Inhalation  of  watery  vapour  medicated  with  phenols,  eucalj'ptus  oil,  or 

amm.  chloride.     Fresh  air. 
Apomorphine  in  carnivora. 
Tracheotomy  essential  to  prevent  asphyxia. 

Bronchial  Pilaris.    Ste  Worms. 

Bronchitis,  Acute. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  lining  bronchi.    Sometimes  extends 

into  the  bronchioles,  alveoli,  and  lung  parenchyma.     Horses   and 

dogs   attacked   more   frequently   than   cattle   or   sheep.      Usually 

classified  as  (1)  Acute  ;  (2)  Croupous  ;  (3)  Chronic;  (4)  Verminous. 

Place  horse  in  comfortable  box,  60°  to  65°  Fahr.,  cool,  pure  air  to  breath  ; 

body  and  limbs  clothed. 
Inhalation  of  watery  vapour  from  steam-kettle,  large  mashes,  or  buckets 

of  boiling  water  promote  exudation  in  dry  stage. 
Inhalation,  medicated   as  required  by  antiseptics,   anodynes,    or  ex- 
pectorants. 
Fomentations  and  mustard  to  throat  and  sides. 
Mustard  in  earlier  stages  applied  for  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  washed 

off,  and  reapplied  if  needful. 
Salines  in  drinking  water,  and  antifebrin  or  antipyrine  relieve  fever. 
Aconite,  a  few  doses  early  in  robust  subjects,  where  symptoms  acute. 
Ammonium  acetate  solution,  ipecacuanha,  and  squill  while  membrane 

dry  and  congested. 
Apomorphine,  pilocarpine,  benzoic  acid,  eucalyptus  oil,  terebene,  mineral 

acids  diminish  excessive  secretion. 
Soap  liniment  and  laudanum  rubbed  into  throat  and  down  neck  twice 

daily  relieve  difficult  breathing,  especially  when  secretion  excessive. 
Belladonna   stimulates  respiratory   centre  and  eases  cough,  conjoined 

with  camphor,  ether,  or  chloral  hydrate,  and  in  debilitated  patients 

with  small  repeated  doses  of  alcohol. 


72G  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Bronchitis,  Acute — continued. 

Electuaries  or  gargles  of  opium,  chloral  hydrate,  with  glycerin,  also 

relieve  cough.     Pot.  chlorate  and  amm.  chloride  promote  fluid  secretion. 

Lobelia  and  opium  where  there  is  much  discharge  and  paroxysms  of 
cough. 

Ammonium  carbonate  when  mucus  abundant  and  viscid,  and  patient  low. 

Mash  diet;  regulate  bowels  if  possible  by  enemata;  cathartics  dangerous 
in  horses. 

For  dogs,  emetic  in  early  stage ;  apomorphine,  ipecacuanha,  and  anti- 
monial  wine,  where  membrane  dry  and  congested  and  fever  high  ;  in 
weakly  subjects  and  advanced  stages,  bronchi  cleared  by  emesia  pro- 
duced by  ipecacuanha,  squill,  and  ammonium  carbonate. 

Bronchitis,  Chronic. 

Frequently  follows  acute  attacks.     Sometimes  of  verminous  origin. 
See  Worms  and  Hoose. 
Equable  temperature  ;  pure  fresh  air  ;  comfortable  clothing  which  must 

be  removed  and  patient  wisped  over  night  and  morning. 
Salines,  with  or  without  mercurials,  relieve  congestion  and  fever. 
Terebene  and  eucalyptus  oil  as  stimulants  of  bronchial  secretion. 
Belladonna,  balsams,  and  mineral  acids  diminish  excessive  secretion. 
Ammonium  carbonate  and  chloride  useful  where  secretion  viscid  and 

irritating. 
Belladonna  and  ether  stimulate  respiratory  and  cardiac  centres. 
Chloroform,  chloral,  and  opium  abate  cough. 
Mustard  and  other  counter-irritants,  carefully  used,  lessen  congestion, 

irritation,  and  cough. 
Mustard  embrocation,  although  most  effectual  in  early  stages,  also  useful 

in  clironic  cases. 
Soap  liniment,  with  or  without  laudanum,  frequently  relieves  cough. 
Alcohol,  ether,  volatile  oils,  digitalis,  maintain  heart-action  in  weakly 

subjects. 
Inhalations  of  sulphurous  acid,  creosote,   eucalyptus,  and  other  anti- 
septics, when  secretions  foetid.     Intratracheal  injections  in  parasitic 

cases. 
Arsenic  occasionally  relieves  emphysema. 
Careful  dietarj',  nutritive  oleaginous  food,  bland  oils. 
Iron  and  other  tonics  promote  convalescence. 

Bronchocele.    Goitre. 

Hypertrophy  of  thyroid  gland.     Rare  in  horses  and  cattle,  more  com- 
mon in  dogs.     Often  harmless. 
Local  stimulation,  iodine,  pot.  iodide. 
Puncture  and  inject  with  iodine  (Cagny). 

Liberal  dietarj' ;  full  proportion  of  fatty  matters.  Extirpation  may  be 
necessary. 

Bruises  :  Contusions. 

Medicated  fomentations,  poultices,  water-dressing,  refrigerants,  carbolic 
and  other  antiseptics.  Massage,  subsequent  inunction  with  oil,  pro- 
mote absorption. 

Lead,  zinc,  and  other  astringent  solutions  probably  prevent  leucocytes 
exuding  and  accumulating  outside  vessels. 

Belladonna,  opium,  and  aconite  paralyse  sensory  nerves  and  relieve 
pain. 

Brushing  or  Interfering. 

Occurs  in  horses  with  faulty  action,  and  in  others  when  leg  weary  or 
out  of  condition. 
Careful  shoeing.     A  plain  shoe  unnailed  on  the  inner  branch.     A  three- 
quarter  shoe,  or  a  slioe  thin  on  inside  web,  without  heel  on  outside. 
Well-fitting  boot  on  the  fetlock  liable  to  be  struck. 
Improved  condition  often  the  most  effectual  remedy. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  727 

BULLiE. 

Pemphigus  :  Herpes  :  Eruption  of  large  vesicles  in  irregular  patches 
about  junction  of  skin  and  mucous  membranes,  usually  connected 
with  gastric  derangement,  especially  in  young  patients.  Rare  in 
animals.  Classified  by  Friedberger*  as  (1)  Traumatic.  (2)  Thermic 
(caused  by  burns),  or  (3)  Chemical  (as  induced  by  cantharides). 
Vaseline,  '  Sanitas  '  solution,  carron  oil. 

Laxatives  and  salines  when  connected  with  gastric  derangement. 
Adult  horses  subject  to  an  inflammatory  form  passing  to  pustulation, 
treated  by  laxative,  alkaline  wash,  and  zinc  ointment. 

BUKXS  AXD  SCAUJS. 

Protect  immediately  from  air  and  ii-ritants  by  layers  of  cotton  wool  or 
application  of  carron  oil. 

Liniment  of  oil  and  litharge,  with  five  per  cent,  boric,  salicylic,  or 
carbolic  acid,  or  peppermint  oil. 

Whiting  and  water,  or  fuUers'  earth  and  oil,  about  consistence  of  cream, 
applied  repeatedly,  until  tolerable  coating  formed. 

Zinc  oxide,  witli  about  ten  parts  of  vaseline,  or  of  glycerin  and  water. 

Alkaline  solutions,  soap  lather,  saturated  solution  sodiom  bicarbonate 
relieve  irritation  in  slighter  cases. 

Where  discharges  are  foul,  add  antiseptics  to  above  dressings. 

Where  there  is  irritation  or  pain,  add  chloroform  or  laudanum,  or  both. 

Combat  constitutional  symptoms  with  antiseptics  and  anodynes  in- 
ternally.    Anticipate  collapse  and  necrosis  in  severe  cases. 

BCBSATTZE. 

Kunkur  :  A  parasitic  fungoid  disease  aflfecting  horses  and  other  animals 
in  India  and  other  tropical  countries. 
Improved  sanitary  conditions  ;  change  of  food  and  surroundings. 
Kunkur  growths  excised ;  wounds  and  ulcers  treated  antiseptically. 

Calcxili,  Biliary. 

Purgatives,  salines,  olive  oil. 

Chloroform,  chlorodyne,  belladonna  internally. 

]Morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically. 

Nitric  acid,  nitro-hydrochloric  acid. 

Hot  fomentations,  counter-irritation. 

Calculi,  I>"testi>'al. 

Dust  balls ;  concretions. 
Rectal  exploration  :  use  long  tube  for  injections.     Laparo-enterotomy. 
Avoid  active  cathartics,  but  give  enemas  and  anodynes.    Restrict  to  soft, 

concentrated  food, 
^lorphine  and  atropine  hypodermicaUy,  chloral  or  Indian  hemp,  most 

prompt  and  efifectual  means  of  relieving  spasm  and  pain. 

Calcttli,  Ukixaet. 

Lithiasis  ;  Gravel. 
Dilute  mineral  acids  in  horse.     Try  piperazin  in  dogs. 
Alkalies  or  alkaline  bicarbonates  diminish  tendency  to  urinary  deposits 

common  especially  in  highl^'-fed  rams  and  wethers. 
Ammonia  benzoate  helps  resolution  of  phosphatic  deposits  of  sheep. 
Diluents,  cooling  laxative  food  ;   raise  feeding  sheep  thrice  daily,  and 

drive  them  a  few  hundred  yards,  ensuring  their  urinating. 
Sheep  affected  must  be  placed  on  buttocks,  and  by  manipulation  the 

sabulous  matter  in  urethra  is  gradually  moved. 
Where  canal  hopelessly  blocked  it  must  be  opened  either  at  the  ischia 

arch  or  by  amputation  of  appendix. 
Lithotomy  "or  lithotrity  only  means  of  removing  cystic  calculi  of  any 

considerable  size  in  animals. 

Caxcek, 

Carcinoma  :  A  malignant  growth  of  epithelial-like  cells  contained  in 
an  alveolar  stroma.     Affects  all  classes  of  animals. 


728  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Cancer — continued. 

Excision  of  localised  accessible  <^ff)\vths  in  e.arly  stage. 

Destruction  by  clironiic  acid  or  other  caustic  seldom  successful  or  safe. 

Carbolic  acid,  bromine,  or  iodoform  may  retard  growth  and  lessen  risk 

of  secondary  infection. 
Generous  diet  retards  exhaustion  caused  by  absorption  from  disintegrated 

tissues. 
Analgesic,  antiseptic,  and  deodorant  dressings. 

Canker  of  Horse's  Foot. 

A  disease  affecting  the  keratogenous  membrane  of  the  foot,  and  pro- 
ducing disorganisation  of  the  horn  of  the  sole,  frog  and  laniinal 
sheath,  and  fuitid,  infective  discharges. 

Mr.  Malcolm,  Birmingham,  has  shown  canker  to  be  purelj'  local,  occur- 
ring in  all  breeds  and  descriptions  of  horses,  possibly'  depending  on  an 
ejiiphyte,  and,  while  confined  to  the  frog  and  sole,  curable  (Journal  of 
Comparative  Patliology  and  Thernpeutics,  1891). 

In  all  cases,  the  degenerate  horn,  fungoid  growths,  and  every  portion 
of  unhealthy  tissue  must  be  excised  with  the  knife  or  cauterised  with 
the  hot  iron. 

Dress  with  salicylic  acid,  chinosol,  or  formaldehyd  solution ;  or  with 
equal  parts  of  sulphates  of  copper,  iron,  and  zinc,  with  crude  carbolic 
acid,  and  vaseline  added  to  form  a  paste.  This  is  covered  with  tow 
and  a  leather  or  iron  sole,  and  tlie  shoe  replaced. 

Daily,  or  every  second  day,  the  horse,  either  standing  or  cast,  examina- 
tion is  made  for  any  canker  specks,  which  are  removed  and  the  foot 
dressed  as  before. 

Mineral  acids  and  silver  nitrate  sometimes  serviceable. 

Calomel  used  dry  encourages  growth  of  horn. 

Examination  and  dressing  repeated  at  longer  intervals. 

After  first  few  days  many  cases  are  best  at  work. 

Canker  of  Ear.    See  Otorrhcea. 

Capped  Hock,  Knee,  and  Elbow  in  Horse. 

(a)  A  collection  of  fluid  immediately  underneath  the  skin  of  the  point 

of  the  hock. 
(/>)  Chronic  synovitis  of  the  bursa  of  perforatus  cap. 
Capped    Knee — (1)     Distension     of    sheath    of    extensor    metacarpi 

magnus.     (2)  Effusion  beneath  the  skin. 
Gapped  Elbow — Subcutaneous  inliltration  from  bruising. 
Hot  fomentations  ;  subsequently  stimulate  with  cantharides  liniment  or 

mercuric  iodide  ointment ;  soft  soap  rubbed  in  daily. 
If  swelling  recent  and  fluctuating  puncture  with  aspirator  needle  ;  inject 

cavity  with  iodine  solution. 
In  bursal  form  of  capped  hock  use  shoe  raised  at  heel.     Apply  a  charge. 
In  indurated  capped  elbow  excision  is  the  only  satisfactory  remedy. 
•     Prevent   recurrence   by   heel-pad,   ring-pad,  or   by  felt  attached   to 
horse-rug. 

Carditis.    Myocarditis. 

Rare  in   lower   animals.     Inflammation   of  muscular  fibres  of   heart 
with  (1)  infiltration  or  induration,  or  (2)  suppuration,  as  in  puerperal 
metritis  in  cattle,  or  omphalo-phlebitis  of  foals  (Fricdberger). 
Concentrated  good  food. 

Digitalis,  caffeine,  alcoholic  stimulants  as  heart  tonics. 
Stimulant  embrocations  to  chest. 
Combat  pyivmic  infection  with  antiseptics  and  quinine. 

Cataract. 

Opacity  of  the  lens. 
Extraction  of  the  lens  ;  or  needling  to  promote  its  absorption. 
Chloroform — and  locally,  atropine  and  cocaine — for  diagnt)sia  and  ojjera- 
tion. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  729 

Cataract— foiiin;  ued. 

Phosphoretted  oil,  instilled  into  human  eye,  if  borne,  leads  to  absorp- 
tion.    Mercurials  internally. 

Catarrh. 

Inflammation  of  any  mucous  membrane,  with  serous  or  muco-purulent 
discharge.     But  the  term  is  specially  applied  to  inflammation  of  the 
membrane  lining  the  nasal  chambers  and  upper  respiratory  passages, 
constituting  Cold  in  head  or  Coryza.     More  frequent  in  horses  than 
other  animals. 
House  comfortably ;  clothe  body  and  head;  bandage  legs. 
Equable  temperature  of  60"  to  65"  Fahr. 
Steam  head  with  vapour  of  water  alone,  or  medicated  with  antiseptics 

or  anodynes. 
Warm  or  vapour  bath  ;  patient  quickly  dried  and  re-clothed. 
Mash  diet  or  green  food  ;  laxative  enemata  ;  laxatives  if  required. 
Amm.  acetate  solution  ;  pot.  nitrate  or  chlorate  ;  other  saline  electuaries. 
Hot  fomentations  ;  stimulating  embrocations  to  throat.     Insufflations. 

Catarrh,  Chronic,  of  Horses. 

Usually  accompanied  by  nasal  discharge.     Cure  uncertain. 
Isolate  patient  until  tested  for  glanders. 
Nasal  douche  or  spray. 
Wash  out  nasal  passages,  and,  if  necessary,  trephine  and  disinfect  the 

sinuses. 
See  to  faulty  teeth.     Examine  guttural  pouches. 
Fresh  air,  rest,  or  gentle  work  ;  if  coat  rough  clip  or  singe. 
Green  fodder  ;  feed  on  floor,  or  graze  by  day. 
Inhalation  of  sulphurous,  carbolic,  or  iodine  vapours. 
Administer  iron,  arsenic,  terebene,  or  copaiba. 

Catarrhal  Fever,  jSLaligxant,  of  Cattle. 

An  acute  contagious  fever,  with  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  eyes  and  respiratory  organs,  occasionallj-  involv- 
ing the  gastro-intestinal  and  urinary  membranes,  usually  of  two  to 
four  weeks'   duration ;    the   mortality   70  to   90  per  cent.     More 
frequent  in  Europe   and  America  than  in  Great  Britain,   chiefly 
affecting  young  animals  in  spring  (Friedberger  and  Law). 
Antipyretics,  saline  expectorants,  and  antiseptics. 
Combat  formidable  symptoms  and  maintain  strength. 
Cerebral  An.emia. 

Occurs  in  all  animals. 
Stimulants  to  combat  syncope.     Salt  solution  hypodermically. 
Mustard  and  other  cutaneous  irritants. 
Phosphorus,  phosphates,  quinine,  strychnine. 
Cerebral  H.smorrhage.     See  Apoplexy. 
Cerebral  HYPER.i:MLA. 

Occurs  in  all  classes  of  animals,  especially  in  early  life,  and  appears 
in  an  active  and  passive  form. 
Blood-letting  in  earliest  stage,  but  not  when  coma  supervenes. 
Ice-cap  or  refrigerants ;  darkened,  cool  quarters. 
Cathartics,  salines,  warm  clothing  to  stimulate  skin. 

Cerebro-spinal  Menixgitis  in  Horses. 

Hyperemia  and  inflammation  of  the  cerebro-splnal  meninges.  Horses 
and  sheep  more  frequentty  affected  than  cattle,  hogs,  or  dogs  ;  horses 
in  America  attacked  more  frequently  than  in  Great  Britain  ;  enzootic 
and  epizootic  ;  but  special  infecting  agent  has  not  been  discovered. 

Slings  essential  where  horse  cannot  stand. 

Half  dose  of  physic,  oil,  and  a  few  grains  calomel. 

Salines,  laxative  enemas,  mash  diet. 

Where  urine  not  freely  passed  use  catheter. 

Strychnine  thrice  daily. 


730  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Cerebro-spinal  Meningitis  in  Horses — continued. 

Cold  or  ice-bag  to  head  and  neck  ;  counter-irritation  to  spine. 

Ergotin  and  atropine  liypodermically,  aijproved  by  Mr.  Lyman,  Boston, 

U.S.A.,  and  Professor  Williams. 
Pilocarpine,  ten  grains  hypoderinically  { Friedberger). 

Chokino. 

Usuall}'  from  obstruction  of  oesophagus.     Common  in  cattle  feeding  on 
roots. 
Repeated  small  quantities  slowly  given  of  linseed  gruel,  oil,  or  otlier 

lubricant. 
Secure  wooden  gag  in  mouth,  Avliich  evokes  swallowing  movements  and 

discharge  of  saliva. 
Move  foreign  body,  upwards  if  possible,  by  introducing  hand  into  mouth, 

and  by  external  manipulation  of  gullet. 
Failing,  carefully  pass  the  probang,  cup  end  first. 
Other  means  unsuccessful,  cut  into  gullet  and  extract  obstruction. 
Where  hoven  becomes  serious  puncture  rumen  witli  trocar  or  knife. 
In  liorses  symptoms  less  urgent,  and  treatment  not  always  satisfactory. 
In  pharyngeal  choking,  explore  pharynx  and  remove  obstruction. 
In  cervical  cases,  manipulate  upwards  or  paus  the  probang. 
In  thoracic  cases  use  probang. 

Colic. 

Gripes;   Spasm   of   intestine;    Irregular   inordinate   contractions   of 
muscular  walls  of  intestines.     Occurs  in  all  animals  ;   presents  two 
forms — (a)  spasmodic  ;  (h)  flatulent. 
Place  horse  in  spacious,  well-littered  box. 
Purgative  to  remove  irritant :  in  horse,  aloes ;  in  cattle  and  sheep,  oils 

and  salines  ;  in  dog,  castor  oil. 
Catharsis  hastened  and  pain  relieved  by  copious  laxative  enemas,  hot 

fomentations  and  friction  to  abdomen,  and  gentle  exercise. 
Eserine  and  pilocarpine  if  bowels  continue  torpid. 
Ether,  oil  of  turpentine,  other  volatile  oils,  ammonia,  and  ammonium 

carbonate  combat  flatulence. 
Pother,  alcohol,  and  chloral  hydrate,  conjoined  with  opium,  belladonna, 

cannabis  indica,  control  spasms  and  pain. 
Morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically  or  inhalation  of  chloroform  quiets 

violent  spasm. 
Repeated  recurring  attacks  in  influenza  in  horses,  often  connected  with 

hepatic  derangement,  treated  with   half  dose  of  aloes  and  a  little 

calomel,  spirit  of  chloroform,  and  mustard  embrocation  to  abdomen. 
In  flatulent  colic  in  horse  the  distended  bowel  may  be  punctured  by 

trocar  and  canula. 
Similar  treatment  in  other  classes  of  patients. 

Cholera  of  Fowls  and  Hogs.     See  Fowl  Cholera  and  Swine  Fever. 

CUORKA. 

Irregular,  involuntary,  convulsive  movements  of  voluntary  muscles, 
or  groups  of  muscles.  Stated  to  be  sometimes  dependent  on  localised 
sclerosis  of  spinal  cord  (Repoi'ts  of  Brown  Institute). 

Occurs  in  all  animals,  usually  in  the  young,  feeble,  or  anaemic. 

In  iiorso  most  conunon  in  the  form  of  stringhalt,  which  see. 

In  dog  as  sequel  of  distemper,  or  from  intestinal  worms. 
Remove  gastro-intestinal  derangement,  worms,  or  other  cause  of  reflex 

irritability. 
In  weakly  dogs  or  convalescents  from  distemper,  generous  diet,  fair  pro- 
portion of  good  milk  or  fatty  matters. 
Iron,  arsenic,  other  tonics,  ctlier,  and  spirit  of  camphor  ;  Fellows'  syrup. 
Sponging  or  affusion  with  water,  at  first  tepid,  subsequently  cold. 
Violent  spasms  relieved  by  full  doses  chloral  hydrate  or  Indian  hemp, 

internally,  or  chloroform  inhalation. 
Counter-irritants  over  spine  in  long-standing  cases. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  731 

Coma. 

Stupor,  symptomatic  of  impaired  brain  function. 
Affusion  alternately  with  warm  and  cold  water ;  ice-bag  to  head. 
Ammonia  given  by  inhalation  and  subcutaneously. 

Mustard  to  extremities  ;  stimulating  enemata,  eserine,  and  pilocarpine. 
Cautious  bleeding  ;  endeavour  to  promote  action  of  bowels  and  skin. 

CONJUNCTIYITIS. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  of  eye.     See  also  Ophthalmia. 

Remove  any  irritant :  foment  ;  castor  oil  between  lids  relieves  irrita- 
tion.    Poppy-head  infusion  as  fomentation. 

Silver  nitrate,  zinc  acetate,  or  other  astringent  solution  suitablj'  diluted. 

Shield  from  light ;  try  cold  applications. 

Atropine  and  cocaine  as  local  anodynes. 

Mercuric  nitrate  ointment  when  lids  inflamed  and  granular. 

Ergot  fluid  extract  undiluted  I'elieves  vascular  engorgement. 

Dose  of  physic  ;  shade  both  eyes. 

CoJfSTIPATION. 

Torpidity  of  bowels.     Insuflicient  intestinal  secretion  and  movement. 

Laxative  diet,  diluents,  salines,  regular  exercise. 

Purgatives  in   moderation,  especially  when  liver  deranged ;    repeated 
laxative  clysters  ;  massage  of  abdomen. 

Aloes,  oils,  calomel,  small  doses  Epsom  salt  for  horses, 

Salts,  croton,  gamboge,  veratrine,  calomel  for  cattle. 

Calomel  and  jalap,  castor  and  linseed  oils,  and  emetics  for  dogs  and  cats. 

Gentian,  quinine,  and  other  tonics  when  associated  with  debilit}-. 

Oil  of  turpentine  by  mouth  and  rectum  where  there  is  flatulence. 

Physostigmine  and  pilocarpine  in  obstinate  cases. 

Soap  suppository  in  young  animals. 

Nux-vomica,  belladonna  :  electricity  or  ergot  to  give  tone. 

Where  bowels  obstructed  by  concretions  or  twist,  cathartics  are  danger- 
ous, and  diluents,  laxative  enemata,  and  anodynes  are  indicated. 

In  dogs  use  oil  and  grey  powder,  or  jalap  and  calomel. 

In  poultry  clear  out  the  rectum  and  give  castor  oil. 
CoxsuMPTioN,  Pulmonary.     See  Tuberculosis. 
Convalescence. 

Easily  digested  nutritive  food,  malt  extract,  milk  and  eggs,  fresh  air, 
exercise. 

Alcoholic  stimulants,  bitters,  mineral  acids,  arsenic. 

Pepsin  for  dyspeptic  dogs  and  young  herbivora  feeding  on  milk. 

Iron  salts,  phosphates,  baths,  cold  sponging. 

Convulsions. 

Fits  produced  usually  by  irritation  of  motor  centres  of  brain  or  spinal 
cord;  they  may  be  (1)  cerebral  or  (2)  spinal,  and  these  again  (a)  central 
or  (h)  reflex. 
Chloral  hydrate  ;  chloroform  inhaled  and  swallowed. 
Morphine  subcutaneously  :  spinal  ice-bag. 
When  of  cerebral  origin,  bromides  or  ammonia  internally ;  cold  afi'usion ; 

ice  to  head. 
When  reflex  remove  source  of  ii'ritation. 
Corneal  Opacities. 

Paint  spot  with  silver  nitrate,  1  part  to  100  water,  or  corrosive  sublimate 

1  part,  common  salt  7^  parts  to  3000  water,  and  afterwards  spray  or 
douche  with  solution  sodium  hj^posulphite,  grs.  5  or  10  to  the  ounce 
of  water. 

Sodium  chloride  injected  under  conjunctiva. 

Iodine  and  pot.  iodide  internallj'  and  locally  promote  absorption. 

Corneal  Ulcer. 

Stimulant  and  astringent  collyrium,  silver  nitrate  grs.  iij.  to  one  ounce 
distilled  water,  apply  with  camel-hair  brush.    When  ulcer  small,  instil 

2  p.  cent,  solution  fluorescein,  which  stains  ulcer  and  facilitates  its 
location. 


732  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

CoKNS  IN  Foot  of  Horse. 

Bruise  of  sensitive  sole. 
Remove  shoe  and  any  cause  of  irritation,  pare  to  relieve  pressure,  ensure 

exit  of  any  pus,  and  disinfect. 
Poultices  soften  liorn  and  abate  tenderness. 
Use  light  wide- webbed,  bar,  or  f  shoe. 
Shoe  strong  feet  with  tips. 

Cough. 

An  expiratory  explosion  forcing  open  the  glottis  and  following  a  deep 
inspiration.    More  common  and  serious  in  horses  than  otluT  animals. 

Comfortable  housing  and  clothing,  pure  air,  caieful  feeding. 

Catarrhal. — Steam  liead  ;   ammonium  acetate   solution,   salines,  ether, 
mustard  to  throat. 

Bronrhial. — Ammonium    acetate,    ipecacuanlia,    squill,    nitrous    etlier, 
counter-irritants. 

Dry,  with  scant  secretion. — Amm.  acetate  or  cliloride,  pot.  bicarbonate 
and  chlorate,  borax. 

With  profu.se  dischanjc. — Balsams,  eucalyptus  oil,  tar,  terebene,  creo- 
sote, astringent  sprays  or  inhalations. 

Irritable. — Demulcents,  camphor  and  belladonna,  conium,  opium,  hydio- 
cyanic  acid,  cocaine. 

Reflex. — Bromides,  chloral  hj'drate  ;  remove  cause  of  irritation. 

Verminous. — Frequent  in  calves  and  lambs.     See  Worms. 

CoxTGH,  Chronic,  of  Horses. 

Careful  dieting,  food  damped,  linseed  masli  or  oil. 
Expectorant  and  anodyne  electuaries. 
Epsom  salt  or  otlier  salines  occasionally. 
Belladonna,  cam))hor,  alcohol,  tar,  creosote,  arsenic. 
Counter-irritants  :  mustard,  mercuric  iodide  ointnjent. 

Crib-biting  and  Wind-Sucking. 

Iron  stable  fittings.     Feed  on  the  ground. 

If  manger  used,  turn  when  empty  into  recess  in  wall. 

Use  muzzle,  bib,  or  spiked  neck  strap  ;  concentrated  digestible  food. 

Chalk,  antacids,  and  occasional  laxative  relieve  the  indigestion  from 

which  crib-biter  usually  suffers. 
Crib-biter  should  be  placed   by  himself,  as  other  horses  imitate  and 

acquire  the  habit. 

Curb. 

Sprain  or  injury  of  straight  ligament  of  liock,  or  of  perforatus  tendon. 
Foment  ;  refrigerants. 

Counter-irritants  ;  mercuric  iodide  ointment ;  firing  and  blistering. 
High-heeled  shoe,  without  toe-piece. 
Rest,  especially  in  young  horses. 

Cow-Pox.     See  Variola. 

Cy.stitis. 

Inflammation  of  urinary  bladder,  of  several  forms — catarrhal,  puru- 
lent, hiumorrhagic,  chronic. 
Oleaginous  laxatives  ;  aconite,  calomel  and  opium  abate  acute  fever. 
Emollient  anodyne  cnemata  and  suppositories  of  liyoscyanuis,  opium  or 

belladoinia;  urinar\'  disinfectants. 
Rugs  wrung  out  of  iMjjling  water  to  horse's  loins. 
Maslies,  linseed,  boiled  barley,  diluents. 
Benzoic,  boric,  or  salicylic  acid,  borax,  pot.  cldorate  or  creolin  when 

urine  alkaline,  fermenting,  or  bad-smelling. 
Pot.  bicarbonate  or  other  alkalies  internally  M'hen  urine  acid  and  acrid. 
Syringe  female  bladder  with  alkaline  solutions  when  urine  acrid  ;  when 

foetid,  with  benzoic  acid  or  dilute  copper  sulphate. 
Creolin,  astringents,  buchu,  bearberry,  eucalyptus  oil  in  chronic  vesical 

catarrh. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  733 

C  YSTiTis — C071 1  imied. 

Irrigation   with  solution   ferric   chloride,   creolin,  alum,  or   tannin   in 
hcemorrhagic  cases. 
Debility. 

Weakness.     Endeavour  to  remove  cause. 
Easily  assimilated  nutritive  food,  cod-liver  oil,  milk,  malt  extract ;  suit- 
able liygiene. 
Acids,  bitters,  quinine  when  gastric  digestion  weak. 
Alcoholic  stimulants  wlien  heart  action  feeble. 
Laxatives  when  elimination  of  waste  defective. 
Calcium  phosphate  and  fatty  matters  useful  in  young  animals. 
Nux-vomica  and  Easton's  syrup  in  nervous  debility. 
Iron  salts  when  associated  with  anremia. 

Arsenic,  pepsin,  or  liq.  pancreatis  when  assimilation  is  at  fault. 
Cold  sponging  and  baths  for  dogs. 
Delirium. 

Perversion  and  inco-ordination  of  brain  functions. 
For  vigorous  patients  cold  affusion  applied  cautiously. 
Ice  and  refrigerants  to  head. 

Perfect  quiet,  cathartics,  salines,  digestible  cooling  diet. 
Chloroform,  cannabis  indica,  bromides,  internally. 

Alcohol,  ammonia,  belladonna,  camphor,  when  associated  with  exhaus- 
tion. 
Blood-letting  in  delirium,  resulting  from  injuries,  in  earlier  acute  stages 
of  phrenitis,  and  in  robust  subjects. 
Dextition  Fever. 

Not  infrequent  in  horses. 
Soft  laxative  food,  rest,  salines,  febrifuges. 
Lance  gums  if  absolutely  needful. 

Remove  temporary  teeth  interfering  with  eruption  of  permanent. 
When  dentition  of  dogs  delayed  or  defective  give  calcium  phosphate. 
Diabetes  Insipidus. 

Polyuria  ;  Excessive  secretion  of  urine.     Peculiar  to  horses.     Caused 
apparently    by    some    toxic   material    derived    from   faulty  food, 
frequently  heated,  musty  grain  or  fodder,  or  produced  in  connection 
with  such  diseases  as  influenza  and  glanders.     Seldom  fatal. 
Half  dose  phj-sic,  especially  wlien  digestion  out  of  order. 
Iodine  with  pot.  iodide,  either  in  bolus  or  solution. 
With  iodide  alternate  or  conjoin  iron  salts. 
Chalk  or  whiting  in  manger,  or  sodium  bicarbonate  in  water,  counteracts 

acidity  frequently  present. 
Phosphoric  acid  and  bitters  lessen  thirst. 

Careful  feeding  ;  change  food.     Avoid  stale,  damp,  badly-saved  fodder, 
or  musty,  unsound  grain.     Allow  moderate  supply  of  water. 
Diabetes,  Saccharine. 

Diabetes  mellitus.     Pathology  not  explained.     Occasionally  occurs  in 
dogs,  very  rarely  in  horses  or  cattle. 
Relief  afforded  by  withholding  carbo-hydrates,  substituting  soup,  cooked 

animal  food. 
Codeine  and  iodine  ;  antipyrine  ;  sodium  salicylate. 
Diaphragmatic  Spasm. 

Usually  resulting  from  over-exertion  or  acute  gastric  derangement ; 
specially  observed  in  horses  and  dogs  ;  intermittent,  seldom  lasting 
many  hours. 
Chloral  hydrate  and  alcohol  per  orem.     Rest. 
Dogs,  an  emetic,  especially  if  of  gastric  origin. 
Stimulant  embrocation  applied  to  chest. 
Diarrhoea. 

Scouring ;  Frequent  discharge  of  fluid  fteces.     Occurs  in  all  animals. 
Sometimes  symptomatic  of  tuberculosis. 


734  INDEX    OP   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

DiARRiirKA — continued. 

Laxatives  in  first  stage  to  remove  irritant. 

Perfect  rest ;  keep  patient  comfortable  and  warm. 

Restrict  water  ;  diet  carefully  ;  wheateu  flour  gruel  ;  boiled  milk. 

Alkalies;  chalk  where  dejections  acid. 

Mineral  acids  or  gallic  acid  with  opium  in  profuse  thin  discharges. 

Enemata  of  starch  gruel  at  100°  Fahr.,  with  lead  acetate  and  opium. 

Aromatics  and  camphor  abate  nervous  irritability. 

Oil  of  cinnamon  valuable  in  cases  resulting  from  cold. 

Volatile  oils,  ether,   chloroform,  chlorodyne  in   moderate,   frequently 

repeated  doses  relieve  flatulence  and  spasm. 
Ammonium   carbonate   where   watery   discharges   continue   and    heart 

action  weak.    If  due  to  strongyles,  carbolic  acid,  thymol,  lysol,  iodine, 

and  salol,  or  other  intestinal  antiseptic. 
Arsenic  and  opium  in  chronic  cases. 
Copper  sulphate ;    corrosive  sublimate  with  creosote  and  opium  when 

chronic  discharges  contain  mucus  and  blood. 
Ergotin  and  opium  administered  with  keratin  where  discharges  profuse 

and  continued. 
Antiseptics,  sodium  salicylate,    tannalbin,    naphthol,   lysol,   sulphites, 

sulpho-carbolates  where  discharges  foul. 
Nitric  acid  and  nux-vomica  when  complicated  with  hepatic  derangement. 
In  young  animals  castor  oil  with  a  few  drops  laudanum. 
Grey  powder  in  young  patients  where  discharges  pale  and  foetid. 
While  patient  fed  on  milk,  if  it  disagrees  when  given  with  lime  water, 

in  cautiously  regulated,  restricted  amount,  substitute  cooked  starch 

food,  or  beef  tea  and  white  of  egg,  with  a  little  wine  or  spirit  if  animal 

reduced. 

'Diphtheria'  in  Poultry. 

Croupous  exudations,  chiefly  within  the  mouth,  throat,  nasal  cavities, 
and  about  head;  of  two  varieties — (1)  depending  on  bacteria, 
chiefly  cocci ;  (2)  on  gregarinaa  or  coccidia  ;  this  latter  condition 
more  chronic  and  less  serious,  and  affects  rabbits,  rats,  and  fish,  as 
well  as  poultry  (Friedberger). 
Isolate  affected  birds  ;  enjoin  thorough  cleanliness  and  disinfection. 
Moisten  external  eruptions  with  1  part  corrosive  sublimate,   10  parts 

salt,  and  1000  water. 
Where  mouth  or  throat  affected  give  every  two  hours  electuary,  1  part 

creolin,  5  each  borax,  pot.  chlorate,  glycerin,  and  100  simple  syrup. 
Feed  liberally  to  sustain  strength. 

Dislocations. 

Luxations.     Not  common  in  the  lower  animals. 
Bring  bones  into  natural  position. 

Retain  in  position  by  splints,  bandages,  plasters  ;  sling  if  necessary. 
Abate  inflammation    by  either  hot  or  cold  applications,  as  may  be 

suitable. 

Distemper  in  Dogs. 

A  contagious  eruptive  fever  affecting  the  mucous  membranes,  skin,  and 
glands,  and  frequently  the  cerebro-spinal  axis.    It  attacks  dogs,  cats, 
foxes,  wolves,  hyenas,  jackals,  and  monkeys.  Evidently  of  organismal 
origin  ;  cultivations  to  the  seventh  generation  produce  the  disease 
when  inoculated  in  dogs  and  cats ;  but  the  distinctive  microbe  has 
not  yet  been  demonsti'ated. 
Prevent  spread  by  early  isolation  and  disinfectants. 
Good  nursing  and  cleanliness  as  important  as  medicines. 
An  emetic  and  mild  laxative  if  required  in  early  stage. 
Annnoniuin  acetate  solution  and  ipecacuanha,  steaming  and  sponging 

nose  and  eyes  relieve  catarrh. 
Boric  acid,  two  per  cent,  solution  in  conjunctivitis,  which  see. 
Hot  compresses,  embrocations,  stimulant  expectorants  in  laryngeal  and 
bronchial  caaes. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  735 

Distemper  in  Dogs — continued. 

Chlorodyne  or  spirit  of  chloroform  and  morphine  allay  gastro-intestinal 

irritation. 
Boric  acid  and  '  Sanitas  '  powder  with  ten  parts  kaolin  or  starch  abate 

skin  irritation. 
Sodium  sulphite  as  antiseptic  and  antipyretic  (Professor  Williams). 
For  nervous  complications  see  Chorka,  Epilepsy,  Convulsions. 
If  food  not  spontaneously  taken  give  beef  tea  and  milk,  beef  tea  with 

white  of  egg,  or  finely  minced  lean  beef  uncooked,  and,  if  required, 

wine  or  spirit. 
During  convalescence  give  phosphates,  and  hsematinics  ;  and  a  generous 

diet. 
Attenuated  virus  produces  mild  attack,  which  affords  protection  for 

several  years  (Friedberger). 

•  Dropped  Elbow  '  or  Radial  Paralysis. 

Lameness  with  loss  of  power  to  extend  the  elbow- joint.     Caused  by 

injury  to  the  extensor  muscles,  the  brachial  plexus,  or  the  nerve 

supplying  the  affected   muscles.     Sometimes   attributed  to  costal 

fracture.     Recovery  protracted. 

Place  horse  in  slings  for  a  few  days,  foment  extensor  region,  massage, 

nerve  stimulants,  deep  injection  of  sol.  strychnine ;  blisters ;  setons, 

exercise. 

Dropsy. 

Symptomatic  serous  effusion.     See  Ascites. 
Endeavour  to  restore  functions  of  heart,  kidneys,  or  liver,  the  impaired 

actions  of  which  usually  cause  the  effusion  ;  Turkish  baths. 
Digitalis  infusion  and  strychnine  useful  in  most  dropsies,  especially  in 

cardiac,  in  which  give  with  salines. 
Copaiba  in  cardiac  and  hepatic  cases. 
Laxatives  and  pot.  iodide  in  renal  dropsy. 

Encourage  vicarious  functions  of  bowels  and  skin  if  kidneys  affected. 
Iron  and  salines  in  cases  associated  with  anaemia. 

Restrict  quantity  of  fluid  ;  friction  ;  shampooing  ;  external  stimulants. 
Trocar  and  canula,  aspirator. 

Dysentery. 

Contagious  specific  inflammation  of  mucous  and  glandular  structures 
of  intestine,  occurring  in  foals,  calves,  lambs,  and  dogs,  within  a  few 
days  after  birth.  In  muco-purulent,  often  bloodstained  discharge 
are  numerous  bacteria.  Mortality  10  to  80  per  cent.  Observed  to 
concur  with  epizootic  abortion  (Friedberger). 

Isolation  of  infected  ;  thorough  disinfection. 

Antiseptic  treatment  of  females  aborting  and  parturient.     See  Abortion. 

Castor  oil  and  grey  powder,  intestinal  antiseptics,  tannates. 

Well-boiled  starch  gruel  or  other  mucilage,  with  a  few  drops  laudanum. 

Salicylic  and  tannic  acids  with  chamomile  infusion  (Frohner). 

Rhubarb,  magnesium  carbonate,  and  opium  (Hertwig). 

Chlorodyne,  creolin,  or  resorcin,  with  laudanum,  acetate  of  lead. 

Dyspepsia.    Indigestion. 

Treatment  varies  with  cause  and  nature  of  attack.     Suitable  dietary. 
Avoid   indigestible  food   and   long   fasts.     Rectify  irregularity  of 
bowels.     Enjoin  exercise. 
Resulting  from  over-eating,  an  emetic  for  dogs ;  cathartic  for  animals 

that  do  not  vomit. 
For  flatulence,  essential  oils,  ginger,  creolin,  hydrochloric  acid,  ether. 
For  gastric  catarrh,  ammonium  chloride,  sodium  hyposulphite,  fragments 

of  ice. 
Alkalies,  chalk,  magnesia,  given  before  feeding  or  with  food. 
For  atonic  forms,  in  cattle,  mineral  acids,  usually  more   permanently 

useful,  are  given  with  bitters  and  veratrine. 
Pepsin  with  glycerin  for  dogs  and  young  animals  while  living  on  milk. 


736  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Dyspepsia.     Indigestion. — Continued. 

Where  food  irritates,  provoking  diarrhoea,  bismuth  salts  or  arsenic  with 

morpliinc. 
Depending  upon  worms — appropriate  vermicides. 
In  chronic  dyspepsia,  obviate  errors  of  diet  or  management,  examine 

teeth,  change  food. 
Provide  horses  with  whiting  and  rock  salt  to  lick.     Try  daily  1  lb. 

linseed  cake. 
Restrict  cattle  to  mash  diet  for  two  days,  and  add  salt  and  treacle  to 

drinking  water,  emetine  or  veratine  subcutaneously. 
Both  in  hoven  and  overloading  with  cb-y  food  rub  left  flank  and  belly  ; 

soap  and  water  enemata. 

Dyspn<ka. 

Difficult  breathing. 
Discover  and,  if  possible,  remove  cause. 
Fresh  air  ;  chloroform,  inlialed  or  swallowed. 
Chloral  hydrate  in  spray  or  draught. 
Belladonna  extract  and  ether. 
Amyl-nitritc  ;  nitro-glycerin  in  angina  pectoris. 

Counter-irritants  if  due  to  congestion  or  inflammation  of  air-passages. 
Tracheotomy  where  obstruction  occurs  in  upper  air-passagea. 

Eclampsia. 

Epileptiform  spasms,  cause  unknown.     Most  common  in  very  young 
sulijects,  dogs  during  teething,  and  from  worms,   occasionally  in 
bitches  nursing.     Cases  in  milch  cows  have  been  recorded. 
Remove  any  exciting  cause  ;  attend  to  general  health. 
Pot.    bromide,    chloral,    morphine    hydrochloride    hypodermically,    or 
chloroform  inhalation  where  excitement  considerable. 

Ecthyma. 

American  skin  disease  ;  eruption  of  papules  and  subsequently  pustules. 
AITccts  horses,  sheep,  and  dogs. 

Laxative  salines  remove  gastro-intestinal  or  otlier  irritants. 

Exercise  further  hastens  removal  of  waste  products. 

Digestible,  rather  laxative,  dietary. 

Mineral  acids,  iron  salts,  bitters,  arsenic,  act  as  antiseptics  and  altera- 
tives. 

Pustules  treated  by  water  dressing,  boric  acid,  zinc  oxide  ointment,  or 
by  cauterisation. 

Contagious  ;  hence  patients  isolated  and  disinfection  adopted. 

Eczema. 

Cutaneous  catarrh.  A  dermatitis  presenting  localised  eruption  of 
papules,  vesicles,  or  pustules,  appearing  consecutively  or  together, 
witii  itching,  thickening,  and  discharge,  and  subsequently  scales 
or  scabs.  Tiie  earlier  or  acute  stages  may  continue  one  to  three 
weeks,  the  later  for  mmitlis.  Affects  particular  regions,  chiefly 
the  back,  tail,  and  extremities.  Young,  old,  and  delicate  subjects 
most  susceptible.  A  frccjuent  disease  of  dogs,  in  wliich  tbe 
several  varieties  usually  avcU  marked.  It  occurs  about  the  heels 
of  horses,  causing  ulceration  and  constituting  a  variety  of  grease. 
Cattle  in  foul  premises  or  eating  acrid  food  suffer  about  the  tail, 
Friedberger  records  tlie  following  stages  or  varieties,  iinder  which  tho 

suitable  treatment  is  given  :  — 

(1)  E)ytIiematoits. — Tlie  skin  hot,  tender,  red,  and  swollen. 
Cleanse  skin  with  soap  and  water.     Apply  vaseline  or  creolin. 
7"]ndeavour  to  pre\cnt  rubbing  and  biting. 

Laxative  salines,  cooling  diet,  correct  gastric  derangement. 

(2)  Papular. — Tiie  liclien  stage  of  some  authors.     Patches  of  small,  soft 
swellings,  varying  in  size  from  a  millet  to  a  pea. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  737 

Eczema — continued. 

With    treatment    as    above,   moisten   with  boro-glycerin   or    borax 

solution. 
Itching  abated  by  strong  solution  of  pot.  bicarbonate,  or  sod.  hypo- 
sulphite. 

(3)  Vetiictdar.— Eczema,  simplex.     Tetter.     Patches  of  minute,  crowded 
vesicles. 

Whether  in  dogs  or  horses,  trim  or  shave  all  hair  from  irritable  spots. 

Wash  with  soap  and  water. 
Moisten  several  times  daily  with  saturated  solution  pot.  bicarbonate. 
Subsequently  anoint  with  vaseline. 
Zinc  oleate  or  zinc  ointment  soothes  and  softens. 
Dry  dressings,  such  as  zinc  oxide  and  bismuth  nitrate,  one  part  each, 

six  or  eight  parts  kaolin  or  starch,  preferable  when  skin  tender  or 

puffy. 

(4)  Hutnid.— Eczema,  rubrum.     Red  mange  of  dogs.     Inflammation  ex- 

tended and  exudation  greater. 
Remove  irritating  discharges,  and  wash  skin   once  with  solution  of 

creolin. 
Soak  limited  areas  with  mercurous  oxide  wash. 
Subsequently  dress  with  zinc  oleate  or  ointment. 
Paint    limited   inflammatory   spots  with    5  per   cent,  silver  nitrate 

solution,  or  moisten  lightly  with  10  per  cent,  nitric  acid. 
Tannin  with  ten  parts  paraffin  oil.     Dust  with  boriq  acid  or  iodoform. 
After  abating    pyrexia,    administer   mineral    acids,   bitters,    tonics, 

arsenic  ;  linseed  in  herbivora.    In  dogs  avoid  oatmeal  and  heating 

animal  food,  and  give  cod-liver  oil. 
Mercuric  nitrate  ointment  in  eczema  of  eyelids. 
Boro-glycerin  or  hydronaphthol  or  solution  methylene  blue,  for  eczema 

labialis  or  facialis. 

(5)  P!/s<«/o?«.— Impetiginous.     Inflammation  more  deeply  involving  the 

several  skin  textures,  with  free  pus  formation,  as  in  grease  in  horses  ; 

liable  to  assume  chronic  form. 
Cleanse  and  soften  scabs  with  soap  and  warm  water. 
Soak  suppurating  surfaces  with  zinc  or  lead  acetate  in  aqueous  or  oily 

solution. 
Alternate  these  dressings  with  mercurous  oxide  wash,  copper  sulphate 

ointment,  carbolic  acid,  naphthol,  or  chrysarobin. 
Paint  inflamed  spots  with  silver  nitrate  or  nitric  acid  as  above. 
Attend  to  state  of  bowels  and  kidneys. 
Digestible  nutritive  food,  tonics,  arsenic,  mineral  acids. 

(6 )  Squamous.  —Desquamating.   Sometimes  termed  Pityriasis  or  Psoriasis. 
Soak  crusts  or  scabs  with  oil  for  some  hours  and  remove  them. 
Salicylic  acid  in  strong  borax  solution  also  removes  scabs. 

Dress  with  four  parts  each  pot.  carbonate  and  sublimed  sulphur,  one 
oleum  picis,  thirty  each  lard  and  olive  oil,  leaving  it  on  for  three  or 
fourdays,  then  w^ashing  off  with  soap,  alkali,  and  water. 

Carbolic  acid  and  parafiin  ointment,  sulphur  iodide  ointment. 

Naphthol,  ichthyol,  resorcin,  chrysarobin. 

Mercuric  nitrate,  or  iodine  ointments  where  skin  thickened. 

A  blister  in  inveterate  cases  sometimes  re-establishes  healthy  action. 

But  many  canine  cases  are  speedily  cured  by  giving  a  full  dose  of 
purgative  medicine,  dressing  the  skin  with  sulphur  ointment  or 
3  per  cent,  creolin  solution,  and  by  restricting  the  diet. 

Elephantiasis  of  Horses. 

Dermal  and  subdermal  hypertrophy  with  chronic  dermatitis. 
When  the  papilla  are  seriously  enlarged  and  skin  folds  formed  cure  is 

hopeless. 
Slighter  cases  cured  and  others  ameliorated  by  antiseptic  treatment. 

See  Grease. 
Green  food,  laxatives,  diuretics,  salines,  iodine,  and  pot.  iodide. 

3  A 


738  INDEX   OF    DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

Empyema. 

Pus  in  the  chest,  facial  siuus,  or  other  natural  cavity. 
Remove  by  operation  under  antiseptic  precautions,  and  provide  drainage. 
Wash  out  cavity  with  warm  saline  solution,  boric,  salicylic,  sulphurous, 

or  other  antiseptics. 

Emphysema,  Subcutaneous. 

Air  swelling.     Often  disappears  spontaneously. 
May  puncture,  apply  pressure,  or  counter-irritation. 
Prevent  entry  of  air  if  emphysema  due  to  wound. 

Emphysema,  Pulmonary.     (See  Broken  Wind.) 
Occurring  in  old  hard-worked  horses. 
Careful  dietary,  concentrated  damped  food,  occasional  linseed  mash. 
Treatment  only  palliative. 
No  water  given  within  an  hour  of  work. 

Arsenic  and  belladonna  relieve  dyspnoea.     Laxatives  occasionally 
Strychnine  stimulates  the  respiratory  centre. 

Endocarditis. 

Inflammation  of  membrane  lining  heart  cavities  and  covering  valves. 
More  frequent  than  myocarditis  ;  occurs  especially  in  horses,  cattle, 
and  pigs  ;  usually  as  sequel  of  contagious  fevers  depending  on  septic 
or  pyiemic  infection.      Acute   cases   frequently  affect   left   heart, 
chronic  and  pyemic  the  right  (Trasbot). 
Perfect  rest  and  quiet.     Seldom  curable. 
Digitalis  to  steady  heart ;  quinine  and  other  antipyretics. 
Frequently  repeated  stimulants  maintain  heart  action   in   exhausted 

patients. 
In  rheumatic  complications  salicylic  acid  or  pot.  bicarbonate. 

Enteritis. 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels,  is  produced  by  irritants,  bacteria,  toxines, 

strongyles.     In   dogs,  cattle,  and  sheep,  the  small  intestines  are 

chiefly  affected.     Horses,   especially   hard-worked,    irregularly-fed 

animals  of  the  heavier  breeds,  are  subject  to  rapid,  usually  fatal, 

hsemorrhagic  effusion  into  the  submucous  tissues  of  the  colon  and 

caecum,  and  the  subserous  structures  of  the  attached  mesentery. 

In  these  equine  cases  morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically  every  two 

hours.     Ergotin  sometimes  conjoined  with  the  view  of  contracting 

blood-vessels. 

Half  drachm  each  opium,  belladonna  extract,  and  camphor  in  pint  of 

gruel,  repeated  every  two  hours. 
Where  cardiac  action  violent,  one  or  two  small  doses  of  aconite  tincture 

may  be  added  to  the  anodyne  draught. 
Bleeding  sometimes  useful  in  earliest  stage  in  vigorous  subjects. 
Occasional  laxative  enema.     Purgatives  aggravate  morbid  conditions. 
From  the  outset  rugs  wrung  out  of    hot  water  placed  for  two  hours 
around  the  trunk,  and  soap  liniment  with  opium  subsequently  rubbed 
over  abdomen  give  temporary  relief. 
Enteritis  in  other  animals  not  so  sudden  in  onset  or  so  rapidly  fatal. 
Blood-letting  in  robust  subjects,  oil  and  calomel,  few  doses  of  aconite. 
Hot  fomentations,  mustard  and  soap  liniment. 

Entropium. 

Inversion   of  eyelid  and  eyelashes.     Dogs  more  frequently  affected 
than  hoi'ses. 
Excision  of   elliptical  portion  of  inturned  lid ;    edges  secured  by  fine 
sutures  ;  antiseptic  adliesive  dressing. 

Epilepsy.     Fits. 

Unconsciousness  associated  with  spasmodic  movements.  Excitation 
of  motor  centres  of  cranial  cortical  substance.  Results  from  (a) 
Tumours,  morbid  conditions,  or  parasites  in  the  brain  or  meninges; 
{b)  Reflexly  from  irritation  of  bowels  or  lesions  of  peripheral 
nerves  ;  (r)  Frigiit,  anger,  excitement.     Most  common  in  young  tlogs. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  739 

Epilepsy.     Fits — continued. 

Hold  head  of  small  animals  firml)-.     Protect  eyes  from  light.     Maintain 

normal  position. 
Take  care  that  animal  is  not  injured  during  convulsion. 
Regulate  bowels.     Remove  worms  or  irritation  connected  with  teething 

Avoid  causes  of  excitement. 
Digestible  nutritive  diet ;  healthy  surroundings. 
Pot.  bromide  twice  daily  persisted  with. 
Iron  salts  in  anremia  ;  zinc  salts  where  gastric  derangement. 
Copper  ammonia  sulphate.     Silver  nitrate  and  iodine  sometimes  useful. 

Epistaxis. 

Bleeding  from  nostrils. 
When  from  injury  rupturing  small  blood-vessel,  plug  one  nostril,  raise 

head. 
If  a  polypus  present  remove  it. 
When  from  inflammation  or  ulceration  of  nasal  membrane  apply  ice  to 

frontal  surfaces  and  head  ;  spray  with  ferric  chloride  tincture,  or  sol. 

tannic  acid. 
When  from  purpura  give  by  mouth  ergot,  ferric  chloride,  or  pyrogallic 

acid  ;  or  ergotin  subcutaneously. 
Relieve  any  determining  cerebral,  cardiac,  or  respiratory  congestion. 
Warm- water  bag  to  spine. 

Epizootics. 

Contagious  diseases  attacking  large  numbers  of  animals  in  a  short  space 
of  time  and  spreading  widely. 
Endeavour  to  destroy  disease  germs  by  carbolic  acid,  chlorine,  sulphurous 

acid  gas,  or  other  disinfectants. 
Isolate  infected  subjects.     Enjoin  cleanliness. 
Sponge  sick  and  healthy  with  sulphurous  or  carbolic  solutions. 
Administer  quinine,  sodium  sulphite,  glycerin  carbolate,  or  other  anti- 
septics. 

Erysipelas. 

A  specific  febrile  disorder,  characterised  by  diflfuse  inflammation  of  the 
skin  and  subjacent  tissues.  Occurs  occasionally  in  horses  ;  on  head 
of  sheep,  spreading  as  a  contagious  epizootic  (Cagny) ;  and  in  swane, 
known  in  France  as  mcd  rouge,  and  caused  by  a  minute  bacillus. 
See  Swine  Fever. 
Isolate  and  disinfect ;  generous  diet. 

Aperients,  saUnes,  pot.  chlorate  conjoined  with  spirit  of  camphor. 
In  horses  hot,  medicated  fomentations  persevered  with  for  several  hours, 

and  affected  surfaces  moistened  with  borax  solution  and  laudanum. 
Subcutaneous  peripheral  injection  of  antiseptics  sometimes  limits  swelling 

and  extension. 
Abscesses  should  be  opened,  but  scarification  of  swellings  rarely  justifi- 
able. 
Mnk  and  eggs,  beef  tea,  alcoholic  stimulants  sustain  strength. 
Ferric  chloride  solution,  both  locally  and  internally,  especially  in  weakly 
patients,  for  whom  also  prescribe  quinine. 
Erythema. 

Patches   of  superficial  dermal  inflammation,  with  efiiision  into  the 
epidermis.     Occurs  in  all  patients  from  friction,  and  exposure  to 
cold  winds  in  wet  weather.     Intertrigo  and  mud  fever  common 
varieties  in  horses. 
Cleanse  thoroughly.    Dust  with  starch,  fullers'  earth,  or  zinc  oxide,  one 
to  six  or  eight  of  starch  ;  apply  zinc  or  lead  salts  in  solution  or  oint- 
ment. 
Zinc  oxide   or   other    antiseptic  desiccant   with   kaolin   or   starch,    in 

exudative  forms,  in  which  moisture  to  be  avoided. 
Horses  liable  to  '  mud  fever  '  should  not  have  the  hair  removed  from  their 
legs,  and  washing  should  be  forbidden. 


740  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Erythema — cont  imied. 

Salines  in  drinking  water  ;  pot.  bicarbonate. 

Laxatives,  especially  when  connected  with  gastro-intcstinal  irritation. 

Chronic  forms,  such  as  occur  in  cracked  heels  in  horaes,  painted  over 
with  silver  nitrate,  one  part  to  twelve  water :  or  dressed  with  astrin- 
gents, copper  sulphate,  alum,  or  zinc  sulphate. 

Arsenic  and  quinine  in  persistent  cases. 

Exostosis. 

Outgnnvth  of  bone. 
Fomentations  or  refrigerants  allay  inflammation  and  pain  of  early  stages. 
Counter-irritants  when  heat  and  tenderness  have  been  removed. 
Mercuric  iodide  ointment ;  needle  tiring  ;  seton  ;  periosteotomy. 
Laxatives,  with  iodine  and  pot.  iodide  internally,  promote  absorption. 

Fainting. 

Syncope.     Results  from  enfeebled  action  of  heart. 
Fresh  air ;  remove  any  pressure  from  neck. 
If  horse  down  do  not  attempt  to  raise  him. 

Increase  blood-pressure  by  salt-solution  (1  per  cent.)  subcutaneously. 
Ammonia  inhaled,  swallowed,  or  injected  hj^odermically. 
Alcohol  and  ether,  swallowed  or  in  enema,  especially  when  heart  action 

weak  or  fluttering. 

False  Quarter. 

A  permanent  defect  of  the  wall.    The  deficiency  results  from  injury  of 
secreting  coronary  band. 
Endeavour  to  restore  secretory  function  of  coronary  band. 
Dress  and  promote  healing  of  wound  in  band ;  dead  horn  trimmed  away ; 

equable  pressure  applied. 
Apply  bar  shoe  to  relieve  concussion  ;  prevent  dirt  getting  into  fissure 
by  filling  with  guttapercha  and  ammoniacum  or  other  horn  substitute. 
Blisters  to  coronet  sometimes  useful. 

Farcy.    See  Glanders. 

Favus. 

Honeycomb  ringworm,  produced  by  the  epiphyte  Achorion  Schonleinii. 
Occurs  in  man,  horses,  cattle,  dogs,  cats,  and  poultry,  but  not  so 
common  as  tinea  tonsurans. 
Soft  soap  and  warm  water,  or  alkalies  with  bland  oils,  soften  and  remove 

crusts. 
As  parasiticides — iodine   tincture,    iodoform,   mercurial   and   corrosive 
sublimate  ointments,  ferric  chloride  solution,  thymol,  creosote,  copper 
sulphate. 
In  weakly  subjects  give  internally  mineral  acids,  bitters,  tonics. 

Fever,  Acute. 

Concurring  with  acute  local  inflammation. 
Aconite  ;  occasionally  blood-letting  in  earlier  stages  in  robust  subjects. 
Aperients,  salines,  magnesia  sulphate,  quinine,  (ilaubcr's  salt,  laxative 

enemata. 
Remove  any  causes  of  irritation  ;  attend  to  wounds. 
Warm  clotiiing,  but  cool  air  to  breathe. 
Warm  bath  or  sponging  with  tepid  M'ater. 

Antifebrin  and  other  antipyretics  ;  sodium  sulphite  and  antiseptics. 
Alcohol  and  digitalis  sustain  cardiac  tone. 
Salicjlic  acid  and  sod!".m  salicjlatc  in  rheumatic  fever. 
Acids  and  bitters  allay  thirst  and  aid  digestion. 
Light,  easily  digested  food  ;  diluents  ;  salines  in  drinking  water. 

Fever,  Low. 

Occurs  in  most  epizootics,  in  connection  with  septicaemia,  in  inflamma- 
tion of  mucous  membranes,  and  in  debilitated  subjects. 
Mild  laxatives  and  enemata  when  rcfjuired. 
Antipyretics,  antiseptics,  salines,  acids,  bitters. 
Quinine,  especially  in  intermittent  types ;  arsenic  in  malarial  cases. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  741 

Fever,  Low — continued. 

Alcoliol,  ethers,  or  volatile  oils  promote  excretion  and  cardiac  action. 
Turpentine  and  iron  salts  indicated  in  hsemorrhagic  cases. 
Suitable  clothing,  diet,  hjgiene,  sponging,  baths. 

Fever,  Simple. 

Continued  fever.      Occurs  independently   of    local   inflammation   or 
septicpemia  ;  common  among  horses  brought  into  dealers'  stables. 
Comfortable  box  ;  fresh  air  and  light ;  perfect  quiet. 
Clothe  bod}',  bandage  legs,  mild  laxative,  mash  diet,  gruel,  diluents. 
Salines,  ammonium  acetate  solution,  pot.  chlorate  or  nitrate,  autifebrin, 

spirit  nitrous  ether. 
Alcohol,  ether,  bitters,  acids,  tonics  so  soon  as  acute  symptoms  abate. 
Catarrhal,  gastro- intestinal,  or  other  special  symptoms  receive  appropriate 

treatment. 

Fistula. 

A  sinus  with  more  than  one  opening  ;  A  tubular  ulcer. 

Remove  diseased  texture  or  other  irritant.     Render  wound  aseptic. 

Open  sinuses  with  knife ;  pass  seton,  or  otherwise  provide  drainage  by 
coimter  opening. 

Encourage  healing  of  wound  by  granulation. 

Where  knife  unsuitable,  inject  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  or  of  sul- 
phate of  copper  or  of  zinc. 

Milder  treatment  failing,  slough  out  ulcerating  surface  and  fibrous  lining 
with  corrosive  sublimate  i  -r  other  caustic. 

Dress  with  antiseptics. 

Flatulence.     See  Dyspepsia  and  Hoven. 
Fleas. 

Pulex  irritans. 

Soap  and  water  ;  cleanliness  of  skin  and  surroundings. 

Turpentine,  aniseed,  or  other  volatile  oils.     Sassafras  oil  effectual. 

Persian  insect  powder  ;  stavesacre  decoction ;  tobacco  water. 

Pine  shavings  or  sawdust  for  dog's  bed. 

Flyblow. 

Affecting  wounds  ;  specialty  troublesome  in  sheep.  Prevent  fly  strik- 
ing by  dressings  of  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  turpentine,  tar  oil, 
or  tar. 

Foot-rot  in  Sheep. 

Includes  two  diseases — 

(1)  Abrasions  of  horn  from  injuries,  rough  ground,  long  journeys;  the 
exposed  secreting  surfaces,  especially  of  the  sole,  becoming  inflamed  by 
dirt  and  grit  insinuating  under  the  damaged  crust ;  the  consequent 
fungoid  growths  and  disintegration  of  horn  proceed  from  below  up- 
wards.    Non-contagious. 

(2)  A  specific  contagious  inflammation  originating  in  the  interdigital  skin, 
producing  the  vesicular  eruption,  subsequent  perverted  epithelial  and 
horn  growth,  and  from  the  outset  an  infective  discharge,  which  in- 
flames the  secreting  papillte  detaching  the  hornj-  crust.  This  proceeds 
from  above  downwards.  The  discharge  in  contact  with  sound  feet,  or 
introduced  by  inoculation  into  the  bodies  of  healthy  sheep,  pi'oduces 
the  disease  in  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days. 

The  non-contagious  form  cured  by  placing  diseased  sheep  on  drj''  soils, 

removing  loose  horn,  dressing  fungous  growths  with  mild  caustics. 
The  contagious  form  necessitates  separation  of  affected  sheep,  dressing 

them  daily  or  thrice  a  week. 
One  part  carbolic  acid,  ten  glycerin,  applied  between  the  dew-claws 

(Professor  G.  T.  Brown). 
Loose  and  diseased  horn  removed  by  knife. 
Fungous  growths  cauterised  with  mixture  of  copper  sulphate  and  crude 

carbolic  acid  made  into  paste  with  vaseline. 
Mercuric  nitrate,  zinc  or  iron  chloride  solutions  also  useful. 


742  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Foot-rot  in  Shekp — continued. 

Protect  surfaces  with  tar  dressing  or  guttapercha  varnish. 

Drive  slieep  twice  a  week  over  floors  strewn  three  inches  thick  with 

freshly-slaked  lime. 
Walk  sheep  through  wooden  trough  containing  one  pound  each  arsenic 

and  sodium  carbonate  to  twenty  gallons  water,  or  one  part  copper 

sulphate  to  tif ty  jjarts  water  ( Professor  Williams). 
Prevent  introduction  of   disease  by  three  weeks'  quarantine  of  fresh 

purchases. 

'  Foul  in  Feet  '  of  Cattle. 

A  popular,  somewhat  indcfinito  term  applied  to  chronic  disease  with 
necrosis  of  the  feet  of  cattle,  usually  resulting  from  neglected  inj  urics, 
or  from  tuberculous  inflammation. 
Cleanse,  foment ;  remove  loose  and  diseased  horn,  and  disinfect. 
Dress  with  copper  sulphate,  carbolic  acid,  or  creolin. 
Keep  foot  dry  by  tarred  bandages. 
Where  disease  is  deep-seated,  or  intractable,  amputate. 

Founder.     See  Laminitis. 

Fowl  Cholera. 

Afl"ects  all  species  of  birds,  and  by  inoculation  is  produced  in  rabbits, 
pigeons,  and  white  mice.     Its  essential  features  are  croupous  and 
hsemorrhagic  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  and  follicles  of 
the  intestine,  similar  conditions  usually  attacking  lungs  and  heart. 
It  runs  its  course  in  thirty-six  hours  ;  90  per  cent.  die.     It  is  caused 
by  a  minute  bacterium. 
The  premises  should  be  swept ;  all  litter,  manure,  and  dead  birds  burned. 
Walls,  woodwork,  cribs,  repeatedly  washed  with  boiling  water,  contain- 
ing carbolic  acid,  or  corrosive  sublimate. 
Fumigate  with  sulphurous  acid  or  chlorine. 
Preventive  vaccination  advised  by  Pasteur  ;  but  some  birds  die,  and  two 

or  three  operations  necessary  to  secure  immunity. 
Ferrous  sulphate  with  a  few  drops  of  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  every 

three  hours,  sometimes  beneficial. 
Carbolic  acid  5  per  cent,  solution  subcutaneously  used  by  Nocard. 

Fractures. 

Broken  bones. 
Bones  brought  into  apposition. 

Splints  of  leather,  lath,  block-tin,  poroplastin,  or  guttapercha. 
Encase  in  plaster  of  Paris,  or  starch  l)andages. 
Ends  of  bones  may  be  kept  together  by  metallic  sutures. 
A  blister  promotes   union  by  increasing  reparative   materials,  and  by 

limiting  movement. 
Slings  advisable  in  many  cases. 

Wounds  in  compound  fractures  treated  antiseptically. 
Calcium  phosphate  internally  in  weakly  subjects. 

Frontal  and  Maxillary  Sinuses  ;  Inflammation  of  Lininu  Membrane. 

Caused  by  catarrh,  carious  teeth,  injuries,  malformation,  strangles, 
and  glanders.     Unilateral.     More  common  in  horse  than  in  other 
patients. 
Trephine.      Wash  out  cavities  with  antiseptic  :    corrosive  sublimate, 

carbolic  acid,  or  iodine  solution. 
Injection  sliould  if  possible  be  done  while  animal  standing. 
Frontal  and  maxillary  sinuses  of  sheep  the  seat  of  the  larvaj  of  cestrus 

ovis. 
These  larva  also  sometimes  occupy  the  chambers  at  base  of  horns. 
Produce  chronic  catarrh  and  cerebral  excitement. 
Washing  with  an  antiseptic  solution  the  nostrils  of  sheep  shortly  after 

the  ova  have  l)een  deposited  may  prevent  the  mischief. 
Subsequent  treatment  very  hopeless,  even  when  the  sinus  is  trephined, 

as  it  is  dithcult  to  wash  out  all  the  larvae. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  743 

Frost-bite.     Necrosis  of  the  coronet. 

Raise  temperature  of  frozen  parts,  and  inject  antiseptics. 
Stimulants  to  affected  parts,  turpentine  and  oil,  soap  liniments. 
Treat  sores  antiseptically. 

Fungus  H^matodes. 

Vascular  sarcomatous  growth,  usually  protruding  from  orbit.     More 
common  in  cattle  and  sheep  than  horse. 
Extirpation  of  eyeball. 
Speedy  feeding  and  slaughter  of  patient. 

Gangrene. 

Mortification.      Putrefaction   and  decomposition,  caused   by  micro- 
organisms. 
Remove  textures  already  dead  by  knife  or  silver  nitrate,  chromic  or 

carbolic  acid,  iodoform  or  bromine. 
With  silver  nitrate  or  other  caustic  endeavour  to  limit  extension  of 

gangrene. 
Maintain  wounds  aseptic.     Stimulate  circulation  in  surrounding  parts. 
Sustain  general  strength  by  generous  diet ;  tonics  and  stimulants. 
Administer  sulphites  and  other  antiseptics. 

Gapes  in  Fowls. 

Caused  by  Strongylus  syngamus.     See  Worms. 

Gastritis. 

Inflammation  of  stomach — generally  from  action  of  irritants ;  occurs 
in  badly-fed  foals  and  calves  ;  occasionally  in  horses  ;  and  in  older 
cattle  as  abomasitis.     In  dogs  as  hsemorrhagic  gastritis. 
In  dogs  foreign  bodies  or  irritants  removed  by  apomorphine  solution 

hypodermically.     Purgatives  contra-indicated.     Give  enemata. 
Ice,  with  hydrocyanic  acid  or  morphine,  or  morphine  hypodermically, 

relieve  irritation  and  pain.     Creosote. 
Antacids  and  bismuth,  with  or  without  small  doses  opium,  in  young 

animals  and  dogs.     Antiseptics. 
Hot  fomentations  to  abdomen. 
The  brain  symptoms  and  paralysis  occurring  in  cattle  usually  relieved 

by  full  doses  of  oil,  followed  by  demulcents,  treacle,   salines,  and 

laxative  enemata. 
Patients  nourished  with  milk,   eggs,  well-boiled  gruel,  and  nutritive 

enemas. 

Gastro-enteritis. 

Occurs  in  all  the  domestic  animals.     Nature  and  causes  very  varied. 
Subdivided  by  Friedberger  into  Simple,  Croupoiis,  Infectious,  and 
Toxic.     See  Enteritis. 
Gentle  laxatives  ;  emetic,  apomorphine  for  dog  or  pig  ;  demulcents. 
Allay  prominent  symptoms  with  analgesics,  antispasmodics,  styptics,  or 

special  antidotes. 
Hot   applications    externally ;    soothing   enemas  ;    fluid   or   semi-fluid 
digestible  food. 

Glanders  in  Horses. 

May  exist  without  nasal  ulcers  or  sub-maxillary  swelling. 
A  specific  contagious  disease  of  the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  depending 
upon  a  bacillus,  entering  the  body  with  the  inspired  air  or  food, 
specially  affecting  the  lungs,  respiratory  mucous  membranes,  and 
h'mphatic  system,  and  transmissible  to  man  and  many  animals. 
Incurable.      Clinically  glandered   horses   should   be   slaughtered.      In- 
contact  animals  should  be  isolated,  and  tested  with  mallein. 

Glandular  Swellings. 

Counter-irritants  around  or  near  ;  iodine,  merciiry  oleate,  or  iodide. 
Salines,  iodine,  and  iodides,  calcium  chlorkle,  and  sulphide  internally. 
Iron  salts  in  anaemic  patients. 
Inject  with  diluted  carbolic  acid,  naphthol,  or  other  antiseptic. 


Hi  iisDE^i   OF   DISEASES    AND    liEMEDIES 

Glaucoma. 

Disease  of  vitreous  humour  of  eye. 
Not  amenable  to  treatment ;  iridectomy  affords  relief. 
Physostigmine  diminishes  intraocular  pressure. 

Glossitis. 

Inllammation  of  tongue  with  or  without  a  wound.      Occurs  in  all 
animals. 
Irrigate  with  mild  astringent  solutions. 
Electuary  of  bismuth  and  oxymcl,  or  treacle  and  vinegar. 
Furnish  soft  nutritive  food.     If  tongue  lacerated,  amputation  may  be 
necessary. 

Grapes  in  Horse3. 

Inflammation,  oedema,  and  hypertrophy  of  the  papillary  structures  of 
the  skin  of  horses'  heels. 
Remove  by  knife,  scissors,  hot  iron,  or  caustics. 
Dress  with  mixture  of  zinc  sulphate,  carbolic  acid,  and  vaseline. 
Dry  the  discharges  with  one  part  corrosive  sublimate,  five  to  ten  parts 

hydrochloric  acid,  1000  water. 
Laxative  diet ;  exercise  or  suitable  work. 
Iron  salts,  arsenic,  iodine,  salines  internally. 

Gkeasb. 

Chronic  inflammation  of  the  skin  of  the  horse's  fetlock  and  pastern. 
By  many  authorities  regarded  as  pustulous  or  impetiginous  eczema. 
But  Professor  Miiller,  of  Berlin,  has  shown  that  the  verrucose 
characters  distinguish  it  from  eczema,  and  terms  it  Dermatitis 
chronica  verrucosa.  The  rete  niucosum  produces  an  excessive  cell 
growth,  which  rapidly  degenerates,  irritating  the  surface  skin  and 
causing  sero-purulent,  greasy,  ftvtid,  irritant  discharges.  The 
proliferative  process  extends  to  the  papillary  layer,  developing 
fungoid  warty  growths.  The  hair  follicles  and  cutaneous  glands  are 
involved.  Pathologically  it  is  allied  to  canker  in  the  foot  {Journal 
of  Comparative  Pathology,  1890). 
Clip  or  shave  hair,  and  thoroughly  cleanse  with  soap  and  warm  water. 
Wash  daily  with  one  part  corrosive  sublimate,  ten  parts  hydrochloric 

acid,  1000  water. 
Envelope  in  wood-wool  wadding,  which  absorbs  discharge  and  protects 

denuded  surfaces,  and  is  kept  in  place  with  circular  bandage. 
When,  after  a  few  days,  discharge  thus  reduced,  apply  a  pad  of  jute 
saturated  with  one  part  creosote  to  six  parts  spirit  to  disinfect  and 
repress  proliferating  growth,  and  continue  to  keep  dry  with  wood-wool 
wadding. 
Dust  any  ulcerating  spots  with  zinc  oxide  or  iodoform.     Dry  dressings 

usually  preferred. 
With  knife,  scissors,  or  hot  iron  remove  grapes  or  wart}'^  growths. 
When    the    discharge    is    abated,    mercuric    oxide    ointment    or    tar 
dressings. 

Grogginess.    5'ee  Navicular  Disease. 

Grouse  Disease. 

Depends  iipon  micrococci,  found  by  Dr.  Klein  in  viscera  of  infected 
birds. 
In   order  to   limit  production   and  distribution   of  microbe,    diseased 
birds  should  be  destroyed  and  burned  with  all  found  dead. 

HiEMATEMESIS. 

Hajmorrhage  from  stomach.     Occasional  in  all  animals. 
Iced  food,  fluid  and  concentrated. 

Astringents  :  lead  acetate  and  opium  ;  ergot  hypodcrmically. 
When  bleeding  from  bowels  give  styptic  in  pills  coated  with  keratin. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND   REMEDIES  745 

HEMATURIA. 

Bloody  urine  from  injury  or  disease  of  urinary  organs.     Occurs  in 
all  animals. 
Oleaginous  laxatives,  sulphuric  acid,  iron  salts,  lead  acetate  internally. 
Ergotin  and  belladonna  hypodermically. 
Fresh  sheep-skins  to  loins  of  horse,  spinal  hot-water  bag. 

H^MOGLOBINUKIA   OR   H^MOGLOBIN^MIA   OF   HoRSES. 

Azoturia.     This  disease  invariably  occurs  in  horses  which  have  been 

rested  for  a  day  or  two.     Cause  unknown,  probably  a  nerve  toxine. 

The  urine,  although  its  specific  gravity  is  unaffected,  is  albuminous 

and   high-coloured  from    suspended    granular  pigment,   probably 

derived  from  extravasated  blood  in  the  voluntary  muscles,  which 

are   suddenly  affected  by  spasm,  and  subsequently  become  pale, 

flaccid,  and  wasted  ;  while  both  the  muscles  and  various  internal 

organs   contain   after    death   a   crystalline    pigment  (Professor  J. 

M'Fadyean,  Journal  of  Covi  par  alive  Pathology,  1SS8). 

Dose  of  physic ;  action  seconded  by  laxative  enemata  or  by  venesection. 

Physostigmine  hypodermically,  where  prompt  catharsis  required. 

Chloral  hydrate  and  opium,  or  nitrous  ether  and  turpentine  used  as 

antispasmodics.     Large  doses  of  sodium  bicarb,  are  recommended. 
Ammonia  and  turpentine  liniments  applied  over  loins. 
Frequently   repeated   moderate   doses    of   alcohol,    ether,    or  spirit  of 
ammonia,    with    sulphuric   acid    and   quinine,    combat  tendency   to 
cardiac  failure. 
Where  urine  is  not  regularly  passed  use  catheter  thrice  daily. 
Attacks  prevented  by  regular  work  or  exercise,  and  sloppy,  unstimu- 
lating  food  when  resting. 

H.*;moglobinuria  of  Ruminants. 

Red  and  black  water.  Consists  apparently  in  the  breaking  down  of 
the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  probably  from  the  action  of  a 
bacterium,  and  the  removal  of  the  disintegrated  products  by  the 
urine.  Occurs  enzootically  in  impoverished  young  cattle  and 
occasionally  sheep,  and  in  cows  shortly  after  parturition. 
Change  of  diet;  careful  feeding  ;  restrict  supply  of  roots. 
Salines  and  oils  remedy  the  earlier  constipation.     Common  salt  should 

be  tried. 
Astringents  and  demulcents  the  later  diarrhwa. 
Iron   salts,    bitters,    mineral   acids    relieve   antcmia.       Large    dose    of 

quinine  has  been  recommended. 
Prevention  consists  in  proper  feeding  and  shelter  of  stock. 

HEMOPTYSIS. 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs.     Occasionally  in  horses  and  in  other  animals. 
Abundance  of  fresh  air,  and,  where  lungs  congested,  friction  to  skin, 

embrocation     to     legs,    which     subsequently     envelop     in     flannel 

bandages. 
Ice  to  swallow  ;  cold  compresses  over  chest ;  ferric  chloride  or  ergot. 
Alcoholic  stimulants,  repeated  every  hour  or  oftener,  to  restore  balance 

of  circulation. 
Ergotin  hypodermically. 

Digitalis  where  heart  action  weak  or  irregular. 
In  dogs  and  small  animals  moisten  chest  externally  with  chloroform. 

HiEMORRHAGE.       BLEEDING. 

Bleeding  from  superficial  wounds,  when  only  small  veins  are  lacerated, 
usually  arrested  by  pressure,  application  of  cold  water,  ice,  refriger- 
ants, or  styptics, 

A  bleeding  artery,  as  in  castration,  sealed  by  touch  of  hot  iron,  by 
torsion,  or  ligature  ;  sometimes  by  severing  a  partially  divided  vessel. 


746  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

HiSMORRHAGE.       BLEEDING. — COntinUcd. 

Bleeding  wliicli  cannot  be  got  at  arrested  by  cold  or  heat  applied  so  as 
to  act  reflexly  ;  by  administration  of  .such  styptics  as  lead  acetate 
and  opium,  sulphuric  or  tannic  acids,  ferric  chloride,  or  by  ergotin 
hypodermically.  Morphine  diminishes  blood  pressure,  and  thus 
favours  formation  of  a  firm  clot. 

Hi*;MOKKHAGE,    PoST-PARTUM. 

Occasionally  occurs  in  mare,  cow,  sow,  and  bitch. 

Promote  uterine  contraction  by  removal  of  foetal  mcmliranes  and  intro- 
duction of  ice  into  uterus  or  rectum,  or  both. 

Contraction  also  produced  by  injection  of  water  at  about  110°  Fahr. 

Also  by  packing  uterus  with  antiseptic  tow  or  cotton  wool. 

Injection  into  uterus  of  ferric  chloride  or  ergot  solution,  or  ergotin 
hypodermically. 

Raise  hind-quarters  ;  hot- water  bag  to  dorsal  region. 

Alcoholic  stimulants  with  laudanum  ward  off  collapse.  Prevent  strain- 
ing by  using  a  binder,  and  by  giving  anodynes. 

Heart,  Fatty. 

Common  in  pampered  dogs,  and  in  horses  that  have  suflfered  from 
serious  or  repeated  attacks  of  reducing  disease. 
No  over-exertion  ;  suitable  dietary. 
Iron  salts,  arsenic,  strychnine. 

Heart,  Hypertropiiied. 

Occurs  in  hard-worked  aged  horses,  generally  due  to  valvular  disease. 
Discover  and  mitigate  producing  conditions. 
Aconite  and  digitalis  in  small  doses  if  heart  action  violent. 
Moderate,  slow  work,  caffeine,  nutritive  diet. 

Heart,  Palpitation. 

Rest,  perfect  quiet,  generous  diet ;  iron  tonics  where  there  are  anaemic 

murmurs. 
Aconite,  small  doses,  where  cardiac  action  violent. 
Digitalis  where  action  weak  and  irregular. 

Bromides  sometimes  useful  where  action  irregular  and  fluttering. 
Laxatives  when  connected  with  digestive  derangement. 
Belladonna  where  condition  associated  with  strain  or  over-exertion. 
Strychnine  acts  as  heart  tonic. 

Heart,  Valvular  Disease. 

Endocarditis,  in  horses,  sometimes  follows  strangles,  pneumonia,  etc. ; 
in  dogs  rheumatism  and  distemper,  etc. 
Treatment  only  palliative. 

Over-exertion  and  excitement  avoided  ;  nourishing  diet. 
Steady  circulation  by  digitalis  and  alcoholic  stimulants. 
Purgatives,  nitrites,  arsenic,  lower  vascular  tension. 
Relieve  dropsy  by  caffeine,  pilocarpine,  and  diuretics. 
Combat  dyspnoea  and  palpitation  by  morphine  hypodermically,  and  pot. 

bromide  by  mouth. 

Hepatitis. 

Inflammation  of  the  liver. 
Cathartic,  salines,  amm.  chloride;  aconite  if  febrile  symptoms  prominent. 
Ipecacuanha  valuable,  especially  in  dogs. 
Fomentation  and  stimulation  over  region  of  liver. 
Digestible,   laxative   diet  ;    suitable    exercise    when    acute    symptoms 

relieved. 
Nitro-hydrochlorie  acid  in  chronic  cases. 
Salines   and    careful  dietary  safer   than   more  active  remedies   when 

hepatic  inflammation  or  congestion  associated  with  epizootic  or  other 

debilitating  disease. 
Chronic  cases  usually  terminating  in  cirrhosis  or  amyloid  degeneration. 

Treatment  only  palliative. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  747 

Hernia. 

Prutrusion  of  organ  from  natural  cavity. 
UmhiliccU. — Exomphalos,  chietly  occurs  in  young  animals. 
Patient,  after  fasting  for  several  hours,  must  be  cast,  placed  on  back, 

and  protruding  portion  of  intestine  returned. 
Retained  in  position  by  sutures,  clamps  of  wood  or  iron,  skewers,  or 

elastic  ligature. 
Cantharides  blister,  or  other  irritant,  applied  to  adjacent  skin,  causes 

swelling,  and  in  slighter  cases  occludes  opening. 
Ventral. — Protrusion  of  bowel  or  omentum  through  rupture  in  abdominal 

wall,  usually  through  staking  or  thrust  of  a  horn. 
Unless  large,  or  liable  to  strangulation,  seldom  causes  inconvenience. 
Where  small  and  recent,  opening  usually  closed  by  a  blister. 
Radical   cure  effected  by   returning  viscus,   and   cutting  down  and 

suturing  opening  in  abdominal  walls. 
Inguinal  and  .S'cro<aT.— Although  occurring  in  entire  horse,  extremely 

rare  in  gelding. 
Cast,  and  return  the  bowel  by  taxis,  and  if  need  be  by  application  of 

ice  or  refrigerants. 
If  this  fail,  enlarge  constricting  ring. 
Covered   castration  operation  in   entire  animal.     Ligation  of  cord, 

clamp  or  suiures. 
HoosE  IN  Calves — caused  by  Strongylus  micrurus.     See  Worms. 
HovEN  AND  Gastric  Impaction  in  Cattle  or  Sheep. 
When  riLinen  distended,  chiefly  with  gas — 
Full  dose  diluted  ammonia,  ether,  turpentine,  or  alcohol. 
Exercise  with  friction  to  abdomen  hastens  expulsion  of  gas. 
Introduction  of  hollow  probang  allows  escape  of  gas  when  food  in 

stomach  limited  in  amount. 
In  serious  cases  puncture  rumen  through  left  flank  with  trocar  and 

canula,  or  with  butcher's,  or  other  large  knife. 
Administer  cathartic  to  remove  any  irritant,  and  feed  for  several  days 

on  sloppy,  digestible  food. 
When  rumen  distended  with  food — 
A  smart  purge  conjoined  with  an   active   stimulant ;   but  repeated 

purgatives  are  injurious. 
Solid  food  interdicted  ;  slops,  treacle-water,  and  ginger,  freely  given. 
Water  containing  salines  offered  at  short  intervals. 
Nux-vomica,  emetine  and  veratrine  useful  when  viscus  in  atonic  state. 
When  distension  and  distress  increase,  there  should  be  no  delay  in 

emptying  the  engorged  stomach  by  rumeuotomy. 

Hydatid  on  Brain  of  Sheep  or  Cattle. 

Ccenurus  cerebralis  ;  tapeworm  scolex  or  cj'st. 
Bore   or  trephine ;    remove   sac  and   contained   hydatid.      Success  of 

operation  depends  on  position  and  number  of  cysts. 
Effectually  treat  all   dogs  with   tapeworm,  and  prevent  their  eating 
hydatid-affected  brains. 

Hydrocele. 

Dropsy  of  scrotum.     Rare  in  veterinary  patients. 
Evacuate  by  trocar  and  canula. 
Injection  of  dilute  iodine  or  astringent  solution. 

Hydrocephalus. 

Chronic  cranial  dropsy,  not  infrequent  in  horses,  rare  in  cattle,  dogs,  or 
swine.     Arrests  brain  development,  producing  gradual  immobilite, 
usually  appearing  after  third  year.     Common  in  certain  valleys  of 
the  Alps  and  Rhone  (Friedberger). 
Treatment  unsatisfactory.     Quiet ;  light  but  nutritive  diet. 
Pilocarpine,  calcium  phosphates,  iron  salts. 
Trephine  to  relieve  pressure  in  extreme  cases. 
Hydrophobia.     See  Rabies. 


7 IS  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    KEAIEDIES 

Hydrothorax. 

Fluid  in  the  chest.     AfTects  all  patients. 
Digitalis  ;  pot.  nitrate  twice  daily  for  a  week. 
Follow  up  with  pot.  iodide  and  iron  salts. 
Pilocarpine  hypodermically  (Friedberger  and  Fruhner). 
Iodine  ointment  and  rubefacients  externally. 
When  such  measures  ineffectual,  and  no  diminution  of  Huid,  or  when 

dyspn(JCd  increases,  tap  with  trocar  aud  canula,  or  aspirator. 

Indigestion.    See  Dyspepsia. 

Indigestion,  Acute,  of  Hokses. 

Stomach  or  grass  staggers. 
Aloes  or  calomel  and  oil  to  unload  stomach  and  bowels. 
Ether  or  spirit  of  ammonia  every  two  hours  overcomes  liatulence  and 

spasm. 
Repeated  copious  laxative  cnemata,  vigorous  hand-rubbing  of  abdomen, 

and  walking  exercise,  encourage  action  of  bowels  and  relieve  spasm.- 
Hot  fomentations  or  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  aud  in-rubbing  of 

mustard,  abate  spasm  and  pain. 
Where  pain  persists,  morphine  and  atropine  hypodermically. 
One  or  two  small  doses  of  aconite  tincture  sometimes  useful. 
Elood-letting  sometimes  advisable  where  brain  symptoms  or  dyspnoea 

occur. 
Paralysis  resulting,  use  strychnine  and  counter-irritants  to  spine. 
In  young  animals,  where  stomach  overloaded  with  curd,  prescribe  oil, 

followed  by  ether  or  spirit  of  ammonia,  and  intestinal  antiseptics. 

Inflammation,  Acute. 

Aconite,  small  doses  in  early  stages,  repeated  three  or  four  times  until 

pulse  and  temperature  reduced. 
Blood-letting  in  first  stage  in  robust  patients,  especially  where  serous 

membranes  sharply  attacked. 
Calomel  and  other  mercurials,  although  useful  in  human  patients  when 

serous  and  fibrous  membranes  are  affected,  arc  seldom  so  serviceable 

in  veterinary  subjects. 
Place  patient  in  .suitable  quarters  ;  ensure  cool,  pure  air. 
Clothe  body,  bandage  legs. 

Hot  fomentations  or  poultices  most  useful  where  inflammation  is  com- 
paratively superficial. 
Mustard  or  other  stimulant  embrocation  applied  to  warm  skin  without 

blistering. 
Ice  or  refrigerants  applicable  where  inflammation  limited  or  superficial, 

and  in  pharyngitis  and  laryngitis. 
Cathartics  to  open  bowels  and  lower  arterial  tension  and  temperature. 
When  more  acute  symptoms  relieved,  salines  in  small  repeated  doses — 

pot.  nitrate  and  chlorate,  magnesium  sulphate,  ammonium  salts,  sodium 

sulphite. 
Simple  digestible  diet ;  diluents. 
Cannabis  indica,  opium,  belladonna ;   other  analgesics  internally  and 

topically. 
Provide  for  removal  of   morbid  products  by  maintaining  activity  of 

excretory  channels. 
Salicylic  acid,  salicylates,  alkalies,  and  salines  in  rheumatic,  and  with 

belladoinia  in  cj'stic  inflannnations. 

Tnpiammation,  Chronic. 

Secure  removal  of  morbid  products  by  keeping  excreting  channels,  when 

not  inflamed,  in  good  working  order  by  clothing,  suitable  diet,  diluents, 

occasional  laxatives,  etc. 
Salines  and  antiseptics.     Sec  Inflaminiation,  Acute. 
Wiiere  patient  reduced  give  digestible  nutritive  food. 
Bitters,  acids,  and  alcohol  promote  appetite. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  749 

Inflammation,  CnROfnc— continued. 

Alcohol  and  volatile  oils  most  useful  in  worn  town  horses,  or  where 

blood-poisoning  has  occurred. 
Iodine  and  pot.  iodide  liquefy  and  remove  exudate. 
Counter-irritants   frequently   valuable — mercury   oleate,   embrocations, 

mustard  occasionally  applied  and  washed  off. 
Hypodermic  injection  of  Savary's  liquid  mustard. 
Opium,  Ijelladonna,  other  analgesics  topically. 
Ice  and  cold  applications  occasionally  answer  better  than  hot. 
When  joints  or  bones  affected,  mercuric  iodide  ointment,  seton,  or  firing 

after  subsidence  of  urgent  symptoms. 

Influenza. 

Contagious  febrile  epizootic  of  horses,  affects  primarily  the  respiratory 
tract,  but  also  involves  the  nerve  centres,  circulatory  system, 
digestive  mucous  membrane,  eyes,  and  subcutaneous  structures. 
Communicable  chiefly  directly,  but  also  indirectly  ;  producible  by 
inoculation  of  exudate  ;  occi;rs  in  ass  and  mule  ;  is  not  transferable 
to  or  from  man. 
Two  varieties  described  by  Friedberger  and  other  authorities — 

(1)  Catarrhal  influenza  or  epizootic.  Horse  distemper.  Pferdestaupe. 
Severe  case  constitutes  Pink-eye. 

(2)  Infectious,  croupous,  or  gangrenous  pneumonia,  with  secondary 
pleurisy  and  parenchymatous  degeneration  of  principal  organs. 
Chest  plague.  Depends  iipon  a  small  ovoid  transversely  scgminated 
bacterium  (Schiitz),  which  has  been  cultivated,  and  reproduces  the 
disease,  not  only  in  horses,  but  in  mice,  rabbits,  and  pigeons. 
Besides  this  bacterium,  pyogenic  microbes  are  subsequently  pro- 
duced, which  are  probably  chief  factors  in  the  production  of  gastro- 
intestinal or  other  complications.  This  pneumonic  form  is  more 
serious  than  the  catarrhal. 

Isolate  patients,  for  their  own  comfort  and  safety  of  healthy  subjects. 

Disinfect  premises  daily.     Provide  special  attendant  for  sick. 

Comfortable  box,  temperature  60°  to  65°  Fahr. ,  pure  air. 

Rugs,  hood,  bandages  to  legs. 

Enemata,  linseed  mashes,  and,  if  need  be,  occasional  laxative ;  maintain 

bowels  in  regular  state. 
Liquor  amm.  acetatis,  Epsom  salt,  and  nitre  allay  slight  pyrexia. 
More  acute  fever  treated   by  antifebrin,  antipyrine,  thallin,  digitalis, 

camphor,  alcohol,  and  ether. 
Sodium  salicylate,  pot.  iodide,  and  digitalis  conjoined,  advised  by  Trasbot. 
Restrict  to  mash  diet,  with  a  little  green  food,  but  when  pyrexia  abates 

give  digestible  concentrated  nutritive  food. 
Catarrhal  forms  treated  by  steaming  head,  medicated  inhalations,  or 

sprays.     See  Catarrh. 
Flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  mustard,  or  other  embrocations  to 

throat,  relieve  congestion  of  upper  air-passages, 
(Edema  requires,  with  salines  and  antiseptics,  early  use  of  alcohol,  ether, 

oil  of  turpentine,  or  ferric  chloride  solution. 
Purpura  combated  by  silver  colloid,  pot.  iodide,  chlorate,  and  quinine, 

alternated  with  ferric  chloride  and  oil  of  turpentine. 
Pneumonic  cases  are  more  difficult  to  treat.     Liquor  amm.  acetatis,  other 

stimulating  expectorants,  with  pot.  nitrate  or  chlorate  and  camphor, 

relieve  dyspnoea. 
Hot  fomentations  to  chest ;  mustard  applied,  biit  washed  off  in  fifteen 

to  twenty  minutes  ;   reapplied  if  needful ;   or  injection  of  Savary's 

mustard  extract. 
Cardiac  asthenia  combated  by  alcohol  or  ether  given  early,  in  moderate 

doses,  every  three  hours,  and  conjoined  with  camphor  and  digitalis,  or 

with  caffeine  and  atropine. 
Diuretics,  alkalies,  and  pilocarpine  prescribed  by  Friedberger. 
When   lung   secretions   are   fcutid,    antiseptics,   phenols,   per  orem,  or 

inhaled ;  benzoates. 


750  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Intlttenza — contmued. 

Gastro-intestinal  complications  treated  in  earlier  stages  by  a  few  doses 

of  grey  powder  or  calomel,  conjoined  with  laxatives. 
In  later  stages,  and  with  hepatic  symptoms,  by  nitro-hydrochloric  acid, 

sodium  salicylate,  or  hyposulphite. 
Abdominal  pain  relieved  by  chloral  and  cannabis  indica  internally,  or  by 

morphine  liypodermically. 
Rheumatic  .symptoms   treated   with   salicylic   acid,    oil   of   turpentine, 

diuretic  doses  of  digitalis  and  salines,  with  stimulation  of  affected 

muscles  and  joints. 
When  febrile  symptoms  abate,  coax  patient  to  eat  mash,  green  food, 

malt,  steamed  oats. 
When  strength  reduced,  give  milk,  eggs,  beef  tea,  and  frequent  alcoholic 

stimulants. 

Intussusception, 

Invagination  of  a  portion  of  intestine. 

No  treatment  of  much  avail.    Restricted  to  limited  amount  of  soft  food. 

Avoid  cathartics. 

Opium  and  cannabis  indica  allay  spasm  and  pain. 

In  the  horse  long  enema  tube  may  be  tried. 

Failing  other  means,  open  abdomen  and  endeavour  to  rectify  the  dis- 
placement. 

Iritis. 

Inflammation  of  the  iris.     Occurs   in   specific  ophthalmia  in  horse, 
which  see. 
Dark  box,  cathartics,  salines  :  continuous  cold  irrigation  or  ice-bag. 
Belladonna     or    atropine,    alternated     with     physostigmine,    prevent 

adhesions. 
Cannabis  indica,  opium,  and  other  anodynes  internally  and  locally. 

Jaundice. 

The  Yellows.     Icterus.     Skin  discoloration  from  bile  pigments.     1. 

Catarrhal,  affecting  the  bile  ducts.     2.   Retention  or  reabsorption  of 

bile.     3.  Hepatic,  from  congestion,  inflammation,  or  degeneration 

of  liver. 

Laxatives  clear  away  excess  of  bile  lodged  in  the  bile  tubes  or  duodenum. 

Simple  digestible  food  beneficially  diminishes  formation  of  bile. 

Massage  of  liver  region,  mustard  embrocations,  and  faradisation  relieve 

biliary  torpidity  and  retention. 
Amm.  chloride  and  salines  in  catarrhal  cases. 
Nitro-hydrochloric  acid  ;  where  patient  weak  conjoin  quinine. 
Little  can  be  done  for  cirrhosis  or  fatty  degeneration. 

Kennel  Lameness.     See  Rheumatism. 

Keratoma. 

Horn  tumour,  growing  from  sole  or  horny  laminae. 
Relieve  pressure  by  rasping  and  poulticing.     Excise  tumour. 

Laminitis, 

Acute,  subacute,  and  chronic.     Inflammation  of  sensitive  laminre  and 
other  parts  of  the  feet  of  horses.     Occasionally  in  cattle,  sheep  and 
goats. 
Shoes  removed,  horn  thinned,  box  bedded  witli  several  inches  chaff  or 

cut  straw  or  tan. 
Continued  hot  fomentations  or  poultices  soften  horn  and  relievo  tension 

and  pain. 
Largo  cold  bran  poultices  sometimes  afford  more  relief  than  hot. 
Bleed  from  jugular  or  toe  in  acute  cases. 
Bleeding  more  suitable  when  attacks  result  from  concussion  than  from 

gastric  derangement ;  arecoline  hypodcrmically. 
Repeated  small  doses  of  aconite,  nitre,  and  other  salines  relieve  fever. 
Bowels,  if  need  be,  regulated  by  half  dose  physic  and  laxative  enemata. 
Vapour  bath  frequently  serviceable.     Pilocarpine. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND   REMEDIES  751 

Laminitis — continued. 

Wiien  inflammation   subdued,  removal  of  exudate  hastened   by  cold 

applications,  and  later  by  blisters  to  coronet,  and  exercise. 
Keep  heels  low  and  toe  short ;  use  stout,  wide-webbed,  rocker  bar  shoes. 
Neurectomy  sometimes  subsequently  useful  where  lameness  persistent. 

Laryngitis. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  lining  of  larynx.     The  following  fourfold 
classification  adopted  by  Friedberger  : — 

(1)  Catarrhal. — Occasionally  epizootic  and  contagious.    Occurs  especially 

in  horses  and  dogs. 
Comfortable  box,  suitable  clothing,  moist  atmosphere  of  60"  to  70° 

Fahr. 
Steam  head  and  throat  persistently  with  medicated  vapour  ;  heat  and 

moisture  externally. 
Aconite  and  laxatives  abate  fever  :  emetics  in  dogs  and  pigs. 
Ammon.  acetate  solution,  camphor  and  belladonna  electuary. 
Counter-irritants  of  soap  and  opium  liniment,  mustard,  cantharides. 
Intratracheal  injection  of  solution  of  morphine  and  hydrocj-anic  acid 

used  successfully  in  200  acute  cases  by  Jelkmann  {Jour,  of  Comp. 

Path.,  1SS9). 
Tracheotomy  where  dyspnoea  becomes  dangerous. 

(2)  Chronic. — Usually  a  sequel  of  the  catarrhal  form. 

Alum  or  ferric  chloride  as  electuary  or  spray  ;  glycerin  of  carbolic  or 

tannic  acid. 
Belladonna  and  camphor,  with  glycerin  and  w-ater  as  anodyne  gargle. 
Counter-irritants ;  essence  of  mustard  hypodermically. 
Intratracheal  injection   of   alum,    lead    acetate,   glycerin   of    tannin 

(Friedberger). 

(3)  Croupal  or  fibrinous. — Occurs  in  cattle  and  cats  ;  rare  in  horses  and 

dogs.     Usually  rapidly  fatal. 
Steam  throat  with  watery  vapour  medicated  with  benzoic  acid  or  tar 

oils. 
Emetics  for  the  cat  and  dog. 
Hot  compresses  ;  mustard  or  other  counter-irritant ;  tracheotomy. 

(4)  (Edema  glottidis. — CEdema  of  submucous  tissue  of  glottis.  From  (a) 
acute  laryngitis,  from  smoke  or  hot  air,  choking,  corrosive  irritant 
liquids  ;  (6)  infective,  as  in  anthrax,  glanders,  etc. 

Watery  medicated  vapour  ;  hot  fomentations  ;  blister. 
In-rubbing  or  hypodermic  injection  of  mustard  essence. 
Tracheotomy. 

Leucorrhcea. 

Fluor  albus.  The  Whites.  Intermittent  muco-purulent  discharge 
from  the  uterus. 

Common  cause  of  vaginitis,  perhaps  of  abortion,  also  of  balanitis  in 
male  having  connection  with  affected  female. 

Syphon  or  syringe  the  uterus  and  vagina  with  tepid  alkaline  solutions, 
and  subsequently  with  dilute  carbolic  acid  or  zinc  chloride. 

Belladonna  or  iodoform  in  suppository,  or  injection,  where  there  is  exces- 
sive discharge  or  pain. 

Copper  and  iron  salts,  turpentine  internally,  especially  in  delicate  sub- 
jects, or  in  obstinate  recurring  cases  associated  with  tuberculosis. 

Lice. 

Pediculi.  Each  of  the  domestic  animals  infested  by  its  own  species, 
and  also  by  the  allied  apterous  insects,  the  Trichodectes. 

Cleanse  skin  with  soft  soap  and  warm  water,  and  rub  in  decoction  of 
stavesacre — one  to  forty  water.  For  limited  areas,  one  part  staves- 
acre,  twenty  vinegar  ;  creolin  solution,  4  per  cent. 

Oil  of  tar,  one  part ;  oil  of  rape  or  other  bland  oil,  four  parts. 

Oil  of  tar,  five  parts  ;  liquor  amm.  fort.,  one  part ;  water,  fifty  parts. 

Equal  parts  carbolic  acid  and  soft  soap,  ten  of  oil ;  tolu  balsam. 


752  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Lice — continued. 

Sulphur  iodide  or  mercuric  nitrate  ointment  used  cautiously  for  isolated, 
thickly-infested  spots. 

Patients  long  and  seriously  infested  should  have  long  coarse  hair  clipped 
and  dressing  well  rubbed  in. 

The  usual  dipping  mixturcs'for  sheep. 

Diluted  solution  of  chloroform,  or  oil  of  sassafras,  for  pet  dogs. 

Strong  tobacco  decoctions  and  mercurial  ointments  apt  to  produce  con- 
stitutional effects. 

Isolate  infested  subjects  and  their  belongings,  and  thoroughly  cleanse 
premises  occupied  by  them. 

Lichen. 

Chronic  papulo-vesicular  eczema.     See  Eczema. 

Laxatives,  salines,  oleaginous  diet. 

Apply  locally,  night  and  morning,  an  alkaline  wash,  to  which — if  there 
is  itching — add  a  little  thymol,  chloroform,  or  pot.  cyanide. 

Tonics  and  arsenic,  with  iodide  of  sulphur  ointment,  and  tar  oils  alter- 
nated in  chronic  cases. 

LiTHiAsis  :  Gravel.     See  Calculi  and  Urinaby  Deposits. 

Lockjaw.    iS'ee  Tetanus. 

LoupiNG  III  in  Sheep.    See  Meningitis. 

Luxations.    See  Dislocations. 

Lymphangitis  in  Horses. 

Weed.      Monday  morning  disease.     Inflammatory  oedema.     Inflam- 
mation (probably  infective)  of  lymphatic  glands  and  vessels  of  the 
limbs  ;  usually  affects  the  inguinal  glands  ;  sometimes  symptomatic 
of  glanders. 
Cathartic,  laxative  enemata,  salines  in  drinking  water  remove  irritant 

waste  products.     Bran  mashes  and  wet  food. 
Aconite  where  fever  acute.     Antipyrine  or  antifebrin  per  orem  or  sub- 

cutaneously  in  inflamed  region  (Cagny). 
Hot   fomentations  persisted  with   for   several   hours,   and   limb  then 

swathed  in  woollen  or  hay  bandages. 
Where  limb  tender  and  painful  after  fomenting,   moisten  with  soap 

liniment  and  laudanum. 
When  weather  cold,  clothing  needful  to  promote  skin  functions. 
Stimulants  useful  where  preliminary  rigor  severe  or  continued. 
Exercise  serviceable. 

In  hard-worked,  debilitated  subjects,  aconite  unsuitable. 
Give  half  dose  physic  and  salines,  foment  limb,  and  administer  turpentine 

and  alcoholic  stimulants. 
Aid  removal  of  swelling  by  exercise,  and,  subsequently,  moderate  work  ; 

smart  friction  of  limb  daily  with  oil;  diuretics  and  tonics;  iodine  or 

pot.  iodide  internally  ;  laxative  diet  and  green  food. 
Careful  regulation  of  food,  work,  and  rest  prevents  recurrence. 

Lymphatics,  Inflamed. 

Occurs  specially  in   horses  ;    from   pricks,   other   injuries,  infective 
material,  as  of  glanders. 
Remove  if  i)ossible  the  original  cause. 
Cooling  diet,  salines,  pot.  iodide. 
Foment  while  heat  and  tenderness  continue. 

When  tenderness  abates,  apply  friction,  bandages,  iodine  ointment; 
continue  salines  in  drinking  water. 

Maladie  nu  CoiT  of  Horsi:.'!.     Covering  Disease. 

A  specific  ciironic  equine  disease  of  the  male  and  female  genitals, 
cliaracteriscd  by  catarrhal  discharges,  rtdematons  and  phlegmonoug 
swellings  and  ulcerations.  There  supervenes  a  vaso-norvous  urticaria 
with  spinal  par.alysis.     The  disease  is  communicable  in  coition  by 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  753 

Maladie  du  CoiT  OF  Horses.     Covering  Disease — continued. 

affected  horse  or  mare,  and  is  doubtless  caused  by  a  microbe ;  the 
period  of  incubation  varies  from  eight  to  sixty  days  ;  the  mortality 
in  the  horse  is  greater  than  in  the  mare,  reaching  70  per  cent. 

Thorough  daily  irrigation  of  affected  parts  with  corrosive  sublimate 
one  part,  common  salt  ten,  water  1000. 

Ulceration  treated  with  strong  solution  silver  nitrate  or  copper  sitlphate. 

The  horse  cast  and  penis  thoroughly  examined,  and  treatment  adapted 
to  special  lesions. 

Concentrated  nourishing  food. 

Iron  and  copper  salts,  iodine  and  iodides,  arsenic,  quinine,  mercuric 
chloride. 

Months  of  patient  treatment  often  elapse  before  cure  effected. 

In  Prussia  no  affected  stallion  can  be  used  in  the  stud  until  three  years 
after  recovery  has  been  reported. 

A  contagious  exanthematous  vesicular  eruption  of  a  comparatively  benign 
type  affects  the  genital  mucous  membrane  of  dogs  and  cattle,  occa- 
sionally of  horses,  and  less  frequently  of  goats,  sheep,  and  hogs.  The 
male  suffers  more  than  the  female.  The  incubation  stage  three  to  six 
days. 

Astringent  lotions  ;  ulceration  treated  as  above. 

Maggots  from  Flyblow. 

Turpentine  and  oil ;  phenol  solutions  ;  oil  of  tar. 

Mallenders  and  Sallenders. 

Chronic  squamous  eczema  of  the  skin  in  the  flexures  of  the  horse's  knee 

and  hock.     The  chronic  scaly  condition  preceded  by  an  erythematous 

and  vesicular  stagf. 
Soft  soap  and  water,  or  carbonated  alkali  and  vaseline  remove  scales. 
Boro-glycerin  or  zinc  oxide  ointment  relieves  irritation. 
Mercuric  nitrate,  or  iodine  ointment  abates  thickening  and  infiltration. 
Tar  oils  or  decoction  of  oak  bark  in  chronic  cases. 
Half  dose  physic,  salines,  laxative  diet  and  regular  exercise. 
In  debilitated  subjects  iron  tonics  and  arsenic. 

Malnutrition. 

Liberal  oleaginous  dietary  ;  change  of  food. 

Acids  and  bitters,  iron  salts,  calcium  phosphate  in  young  animals. 

Alcohol,  arsenic,  nux-vomica. 

Mammitis. 

Garget.    Inflammation  of  the  udder  :  (1)  Catarrhal,  affecting  primarily 
the  mucous  membrane  ;  and  (2)  Lobular  or  glandular.     Occasionally 
in  all  milking  animals,  but  most  frequent  in  good  dairy  cows.     May 
be  tubercular. 
Cathartic  ;  antipyretics  in  drinking  water. 
In  cold  weather  clothe  to  promote  skin  functions. 
Draw  teats  three  or  four  times  daily,  or  oftener  ;   and   with   careful 

pressure   remove  drippings,  which  ferment  and  increase  irritation ; 

then  inject  through  syphon  boric  acid  solution,  or  other  antiseptic. 
The  teat  syphon  sometimes  facilitates  removal  of  milk,  but  must  be  used 

very  carefully.     Support  udder  by  bandage. 
Apply  heat  and  moisture  by  persistent  fomentations,  or  poultices  of  spent 

hops,  supported  by  wide  web  of  sacking  round  the  body. 
Belladonna  extract  and  vaseline  applied  several  times  daily  lessens  con- 
gestion, milk  secretion,  and  tenderness. 
When  gland  acutely  inflamed  inject  solution  of  atropine. 
When  inflammation  abates  encourage  removal  of  exudate  by  in-rubbing 

iodine  ointment,  and  by  iodine  and  salines  internally. 
When  abscess  forms  and  matures  open  it  and  treat  antiseptically. 
When  gangrene  occurs  excise  dead  tissues  and  dress  with  antiseptics. 
After  earlier  pyrexia  removed  sustain  strength  by  concentrated  food, 

tonics,  and  stimulants. 

3b 


754  INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES 

Mammitis — continued. 

Until  udder  again  in  normal  state  restrict  to  dry  food,  so  that  produc* 
tion  of  milk  be  minimised. 

Mange. 

Scabies.     See  Acari.     Skin  irritation  and  itching  produced  by  several 
varieties  of  acari. 

(a)  Tlie  Psoroptes  or  Dermatodectes  live  on  surface  of  skin,  and 
are  distributed  generally  over  the  body.     Horse,  ox,  sheep. 
(h)  The  Sarcoptes  burrow  subcutaneously,  prefer  the  head  and 
portions  of  body  sparsely  covered  witli  hair.   Horse,  ox,  dog. 
(c)  The  Chorioptes  or  Symltiotes  are  more  limited  in  tlieir  distri- 
bution, affect  chiefly  the  limbs  of  horses  and  sheep,  the  base 
of  the  tail  of  cattle,  and  the  external  ear  of  dogs. 
Isolate  infected  subjects. 

Thoroughly  cleanse,  wash,  .and  disinfect  with  carbolic,  or  corrosive  sub- 
limate solution,  clothing,  harness,  stable  fittings,  rubbing-posts,  etc. 
Clip,  collect,  and  l)urn  liair. 
Crusts  softened  and  removed  by  soap  and  water,  pot.  carbonate,  with  oil, 

vaseline,  or  glj^cerin  and  water. 
Psoroptes  or  Symbiot'S  are  destroyed  without  much  skin  irritation  or  risk 
of  poisoning  by  stavesacre  ointment  or  solution,  sulphur  iodide  oint- 
ment, or  creolin  solution,  applied  daily  for  a  week. 
Tar  oil  one  part,  palm  oil  six  parts,  laid  on  tolerably  thick,  and  allowed 

to  remain  undisturbed  for  four  or  five  days. 
Wood  tar  and  sublimed  sulphur  each  one  part,  soft  soap  and  alcohol  each 

two  parts. 
The  dressing  used  must  be  thoroughly  rubbed  in,  and  when  washed  oflf 

should  within  a  week  be  reapplied. 
To  kill  the  burrowing  Sarcoptes  the  parts  affected  are  lathered  with  soap 
and  water,  soaked  for  some  hours  with  solution  of  pot.  carbonate  and 
oil,  and  the  parasiticide  rubbed  in  with  a  brush.  To  destroy  subse- 
quent hatchings  a  second,  and  in  bad  cases  a  third,  dressing  may  be 
needed,  at  an  interval  of  a  •week. 
Oil  of  cade  and  coal  tar,  each  one  part,  mixed  in  a  mortar,  and  three 

parts  benzine  added,  commended  by  Trasbot. 
Corrosive  sublimate  and  common  salt,  each  two  parts,  100  water,  con- 
joined with  an  equal  quantity  of  a  1 5  per  cent,  solution  of  tobacco 
(Friedberger).     But  this  strong  solution  must  be  used  very  cautiously. 
Persistent  spots  over  limited  area  dressed  with  mercurial  ointment. 
Change  dressings  repeatedly. 

For  ears  of  dogs  naphthol  ten  parts,  ether  thirty,  olive  oil  100. 
For  poultry  dust  skin  thoroughly  with  pyre  thrum  powder  (Cagny). 
Treatment  in  sheep  specially  noticed  under  Scab. 

Mange,  Follicular. 

Caused  by  the  Demodex  foUiculorum.     Inhabits  the  sebaceous  glands 
and  their  tubes,  usually  about  the  head  and  extremities  ;  produces 
erythema  of  adjacent  skiu,  atro^Dhy  of   hair  roots,  muco-purulent 
discharge,  formation  of  small  abscesses  ;  often  assumes  a  squamous 
tyi)e.     Occurs  in  dogs,  cats,  and  occasionally  in  pigs. 
Separate  patient  from  other  animals. 
Treatment  uncertain  and  tedious  ;  may  occupy  months. 
Shave  the  parts  affected  ;  latlier  with  terebcne  soap,  and  rub  in  daily  for 

several  weeks  balsam  of  Peru  (Siedamgrotzky). 
Creosote  one  part,  caustic  pot.  solution  two,  olive  oil  fourteen  (Hunting). 
Creosote  or  oil  of  cade  and  caustic  pot.  arc  rendered  more  penetrating 

Viy  addition  of  chloroform. 
Solutions  of  benzine  or  naphthol,  sulphur  iodide  ointment. 
Creolin  and  ichthyol  are  said  to  be  effective  if  the  dog  is  placed  in  a  bath, 
containing  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  either  remedy,  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
daily  for  two  months  (Friedberger). 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  755 

Mange,  YohiACVhX'R—conthmed. 

Creolin  five  parts,  lanoline  100,  vigorously  rubbed  in  uight  and  morning 
(Guinard). 

Scrub  tlioroughly  every  affected  spot  with  forty  grains  put.  sulphide  in 
a  pint  of  water,  dress  limited  sections  of  the  legs  or  body  with  cantha- 
rides  ointment,  and  rub  the  head  and  remaining  portions  with  balsam 
of  Peru.  Repeat  daily  for  a  week,  applying  the  cantharides  to  fresh 
spots.  After  a  few  days'  rest  resume  (Brusasco,  Veterinary  College, 
Turin). 

Megrims. 

Vertigo  :  Giddiness  ;  occurring  in  horses  ;  pathology  undetermined. 
Remove  any  pressure  interfering  with  cerebral  circulation. 
Dash  cold  water  over  head  and  neck. 
Walking  exercise  ;  hand-rubbing  of  body  and  legs. 
Dose  of  physic  sometimes  useful. 
Horses  subject  to  megrims  should  be  driven  carefully. 

Melanosis. 

A  pigmented  Sarcoma,  usually  localised  where  pigment  already  exists. 
Most  frequent  in  grey  horses. 
Remove  by  knife  or  caustic. 
Dress  with  antiseptics.     Recurrence  frequent. 

Meningitis. 

Inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  The 
intensity  of  the  attack  and  the  parts  specially  affected  determine 
excitement  or  paralysis  of  the  central  nervous  system.  Occurs  in 
all  veterinary  patients ;  frequent  and  fatal  in  cattle  and  sheep,  in 
which  often  associated  with  gastric  derangement. 

Where  cerebral  excitement  prominent,  dark  box,  active  cathartic  ;  blood- 
letting in  robust  subjects  ;  ice  to  head.     See  Phkenitis. 

Cathartics,  physostigmine,  and  pilocarpine  (Friedbergcr). 

When  functional  activity  of  cord  exalted  hot  or  cold  compresses  to 
spine  ;  laxatives,  bromides,  or  chloral. 

Remove  retained  contents  of  bladder  or  rectum. 

When  acute  sjnnptoms  relieved,  pot.  iodide  and  salines. 

Chronic  paresis  treated  by  strychnine,  and  embrocations  to  poll  or  spine. 

Epizootic  form  in  horses — cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  which  see. 

Sheep  suffer  from  chronic  spinal  paralysis,  characterised  by  hyperaisthesia 
and  convulsive  movements,  general  muscular  feebleness,  paresis  of  the 
hind-quarters,  and  progressive  wasting ;  no  definite  pathological 
lesions  ;  popularly  known  as  Louping-ill,  described  by  Friedberger  as 
Lumbar  prurigo,  by  Traabot  as  Maladie  des  trotteurs,  and  believed  by 
Professor  Williams  to  result  from  a  microbe  with  which  the  sheep  are 
inoculated  by  ticks — the  Ixodes  ricinus. 

Treatment  unsatisfactory.     Remove  affected  animals  from  breeding  flock. 

Feed  young  stock  liberally. 

Improve  poor  pastures  on  which  disease  occurs. 

Metritis.     Metro-peritonitis. 

Inflammation,   usually  septic,   affecting   the    uterus   and  peritoneal 
membrane.      Occurs  in  all  females,  usually  about  three  days  after 
difficult  parturition.     Liable  to  spread  by  contagion. 
Syphon  or  sj^ringe  uterus  and  vagina  with  1  per  cent,  creolin  or  1  per 

1000  corrosive  sublimate  solution. 
Remove    foetal    membranes    and    blood    clots ;    render    aseptic    any 

wounds. 
Where  walls  of  uterus  dilated  or  flaccid  inject  solution  of  ergot,  bella- 
donna tincture  or  astringent  antiseptic. 
Woollen  cloth  or  lint  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  over  loins  and 
round  abdomen  relieves  spasms  and  pain. 


756  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Metritis.     Mktro-peritonitis — continued. 

As  in  other  septic  cases,  creolin,  ether,  phenols,  naiihthol,  or  Bul[)hite3 

are  given  internally. 
If  bowels  torpid  half  dose  physic  with  laxative  enemata. 
Remove  urine  by  catiieter. 

Sustain  strength  liy  generous  diet,  tonics,  and  stimulants. 
Isolate  patients  from  gravid  or  parturient  animals,  and  use  disinfectants. 

Murrain. 

Foot-and-mouth  disease.     Set  Anixnous  Epizootic. 

Myositis. 

Inflammation  of  muscle,  usually  from  direct  violence,  strains,  rheuma- 
tism.    Occurs  in  all  animals. 
Rest.     Injured  muscles  if  possible  kept  relaxed. 

Fomentation  succeeded  by  application   of  belladonna   or   opium  lini- 
ment. 
Cathartic  and  antipyretics,  especially'  when  dependent  upon  rheumatism. 
Counter-irritation,  galvanism,  regular  exercise  if  atrophy  supervene. 
Free  incision  if  pus  form. 

Nagana  or  Tsetse  Fly  Disease. 

Affects  cattle,  horses,  and  dogs.     So  far  arsenic  has  given  the  best 
results  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease. 

Nasal  Gleet. 

Ozsena.     Usually  occurs  in  horse. 
Sulphurous  acid,  iodine,  iodoform  inhalations. 

Nasal  douches  of  salt  and  water  containing  a  few  drops  of  iodine  tincture. 
Bleaching  powder  scattered  in  box.    Insu Illation  of  iodoform  or  chinosol. 
Copper  or  iron  sulphate,  arsenic,  turpentine,  buchu,  and  copaiba. 
Remove  faulty  teeth. 

Trephine  sinuses  ;  wash  out  with  antiseptics  ;  solution  hydrogen  peroxide. 
Isolate  all  horses  with  suspicious  nasal  discharges. 

Navicular  Disease. 

Grogginess.  Rarifying  ostitis  with  chronic  sj'no\ntis  of  the  bursa  and 
ulceration  of  the  fibro-cartilage  of  the  navicular  bone.  The  flexor 
pedis  perforans  tendon  is  sometimes  adherent  to  tlie  navicular  bone. 
Concussion,  constant  hard  work,  and  rheumatoid  diathesis  believed 
to  be  the  chief  causes. 
Stand  horse  in  warm  water  bath,  or  apply  wet  swabs  to  coronets  for 

several  hours  daily. 
Apply  at  night  poultice,  but  not  too  unwieldy,  or  it  may  prevent  patient 

lying  down. 
Dose  of  physic  and  cooling  diet. 
After  fortnight  or  three  weeks  blister  coronet. 
If  marked  benefit  does  not  result,  relegate  horse  to  slow  work  and  shoe 

with  wedge-heeled  shoes. 
Lameness   sometimes  diminished  by  shoeing   with  leather,   and  using 

shoes  thick  at  quarters  and  thin  at  toe. 
Where  foot  and  limbs  otherwise  good,  perform  neurectomy  above  the 
fetlock. 

Necrosis. 

A  general  term,  formerly  restricted  to  death  of  bone  in  whole  or  in 
part ;  but  now  applied  to  local  death  of  any  tissue. 
In  bone,  remove  sequestrum  ;  iodoform  and  other  antiseptic  dressings. 
Encourage  reparative  process  by  local  and  general  treatment. 

Nettle  Rash. 

Surfeit.     See  Urticaria. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  757 

Nephritis. 

Inflammation  of  kidnej-s.     Of  several  forms. 
Absolute  rest,  light  laxative  food  ;  diluents,  milk  diet  for  dogs. 
Maintain  activity  of  other  excreting  channels. 
Fomentations,  hot  compresses  ;  fresh  sheep-skin  to  loins  of  horses ;  hot 

bath  for  dogs. 
Pilocarpine  hydrochloride  (Friedberger  and  Fi'ohner). 
In  suppression  of  urine  Professor  Williams  orders  digitalis  decoction, 

repeatedly  applied  to  the  loins. 
When  heart  weak  or  inquiet  digitalis  or  caffeine. 
Chronic  cases  reqiiire  similar  treatment. 
Digestible  nutritive  food  to  sustain  strength. 
Digitalis,  caffeine,  and  pilocarpine  to  combat  effusion. 
In  purulent  cases  alkaline  sulphites,  copaiba,  and  eucalyptus  oil. 
Where  abscess  diagnosed  pus  may  be  withdrawn  by  aspirator. 
Extirpation  of  kidney  has  been  successfully  practised. 

Neuralgia. 

Pain  along  course  of  a  sensory  or  mixed  nerve. 
Endeavour  to  discover  and  remove  any  cause  of  nerve  irritation. 
Any  wound  likely  to  cause  or  aggravate  the  condition  should  be  fomented 

and  dressed  antiseptically. 
Laxative  beneficially  promotes  action  of  bowels  and  excretory  channels. 
Analgesics  topically ;  morphine  hypodermically  along  course  of  nerve. 
Administer  salines,  iodine,  with  pot.  iodide,  arsenic,  phosphorus ;  pot. 

bromide  where  patient  irritable. 
Counter-irritants,   mustard,   iodoform,  veratrine,  electricity  in  chronic 

cases. 
Nerve-stretching  by  extension  of  parts  or  cutting  down  on  nerve. 
Iron  salts,  strychnine  internally. 
Generous  diet,  with  fair  proportion  of  oleaginous  matters  where  patient 

debilitated. 

Neuritis  or  Perineuritis. 

Inflammation  of  the  sheath  or  tissue  binding  the  nerve  fibres.     Occa- 
sionally in  all  patients,  from  injury,  rheumatism,  lead-poisoning. 
Remove  cause  if  possible. 

Rest  of  parts  supplied  by  nerve.     Fomentations,  analgesics. 
In  chronic  cases  blister  along  course  of  nerve. 

CESTRUS  Equi.     See  Bots. 

OESOPHAGEAL   OBSTRUCTIONS. 

Mechanical  tumours  ;  Peri-cesophageal  abscesses. 
Pass  probang  or  sound. 
Remove  obstruction  if  possible. 

(Esophageal  Dilatations. 
Difficult  to  treat. 
Feed  frequently  in  small  quantity  on  concentrated  or  semi-fluid  food. 
Excision  of  pouch  and  insertion  of  sutures  successful  in  horse  (Fried- 
berger). 

ffiSOPHAGEAL   PARALYSIS. 

Pass  sound  ;  embrocations  externally  ;  administer  strychnine. 

CESOPHAGITIS. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  or  muscle  of  gullet. 
Give  fluid  soft  food  cold  ;  ice. 
Refrigerant  compresses. 
Antiseptic  and  mild  astringent  electuaries. 
Stimulant  embrocations  to  absorb  hard  circumscribed  swellings. 

Open  Joint. 

Healing  by  first  intention  promoted  by  cleansing  wound,  and  antiseptics. 
Corrosive  sublimate  one  part  to  1000  water. 


758  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Open  Joint — continued. 

If  wound  of  several  clays'  standing  inject  with  sterilised  glycerin. 
Sprinkle  with  iodoform  or  cliinosol ;  apply  several  layers  absorbent  lint. 
Severed   surfaces   may   be    sutured,    provided  movement   of  joint  and 

tearing  can  be  prevented. 
Splints  aiul  bandages  secure  support  and  protection. 
Slinging  liorse  prevents  movements  which  might  reopen  wound,    and 

removes  weight  which  in  injuries  of  limbs  aggravates  inflammation. 
Inflammation  relieved  by  half  dose  of  physic ;  cooling  diet,  and  weak 

antiseptic  solution  allowed  continuously  to  trickle  over  a  calico  bandage 

lightly  laid  over  the  joint.     Continuous  irrigation  with  cold  water. 
Wiien  the  wound  is  unlikely  to  close  quickly,  or  simple  treatment  lias 

failed,    apply   synovial   stj'ptics   or  a   blister,   with  view   of   closing 

opening,  limiting  motion,  and  relieving  pain. 
Anchylosis  apt  to  result  where  injury  has  been  serious  or  case  neglected 

or  badly  treated. 

OfllTIIALMIA. 

(a)  Simple  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eye  or  conjunc- 
tivitis ;  occurring  in  all  animals. 
(h)  Periodic  or  Specific  ;  Specific  inflammation  of  most  structures  of  the 
eye  of  horses  ;  hereditary ;  liable  to  recur,  and  eventually  causing 
cataract  and  blindness. 
Remove  any  foreign  bod3%     The  raembrana  nictitans  has  sometimes  to 

be  first  secured  with  a  tenaculum. 
Fomentation  witli  tepid  water  and  decoction  of   poppy-heads   abates 

irritation.     Four  per  cent,  solution  cocaine.     Half  dose  physic. 
Antiseptics,  mild  astringents  ;  vaseline  to  prevent  lids  sticking  together. 
Belladonna  and  atropine,  locally  and  generally,  diminish  irritation  and 

prevent  adhesion  of  iris. 
Protect  the  eyes  from  light. 

Periodic  form  relieved  by  cathartics,  febrifuges,  anodynes,  belladonna 
or  atropine,  locally  and  internally. 

Orchitis  and  EriDiDYJiiTis. 

Inflammation  of  the  testicles  and  epididymis. 
Fomentations,  anodynes,  dose  of  physic ;  support  testicle. 
Iodine  liniment ;  pot.  iodide  internally. 
If  pus  foi-ms  must  be  evacuated  by  free  incision. 
Tubercular  form  intractable  ;  castrate  in  early  stage. 

OSTEO-MALACIA  Or  MoLLITIES  OSSIUM. 

Fragilitas  ossium.  Softening,  with  deformity,  in  consequence  of 
removal  of  lime  salts,  of  the  bones.  Cause  unknown.  Exceedingly 
rare  in  the  domestic  animals. 

Concentrated  nutritive  food,  fresh  air,  exercise;  dry  healthy  surroundings. 

Calcium  phosphates.     Remove  any  gastro-intestinal  troubles. 

Ostitis. 

Chronic  or  subacute  inflammation  of  bone  ;  associated  with  periostitis  ; 
occurring  in  exostoses  ;  sometimes  tuberculous. 
Heat  and  moisture  ;  cold  applications  ;  allow  escape  of  any  exudate. 
Cooling  diet,  salines,  alteratives. 
Rest ;  blister ;  pyro-puncture. 

Otorehcea. 

Catarrh  of    lining   membrane  of   external   ear.     Occurs   in   dogs,  as 
sequel   of    distemper,    or   from    being    much    in   water.     May   be 
parasitic. 
Cleanse  the  ear,  disinfect  with  antiseptic  dissolved  in  spirit. 
Warm  solution  of  boric  acid  or  glycerin  of  tannin  dropped  or  syringed 
into  e.ar.      Stop  canal  with  absorbent  cotton.     Solution   of    copper 
sulpliate,  silver  nitrate,  or  leail  acetate,  10  grains  in  an  ounce  of  water 
often  bcneflcial.     Ten  per  cent.  sol.  iodine  in  spirit. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  759 

Otorrhcka— continued. 

Cathartic  ;  cooling  diet.     Strict  attention  to  cleanliness. 
If  pain  great  and  membrane  much  swollen  carefully  scarifj'. 

OVER-KEACH   IX   HORSE. 

Wound  or  bruise  of  coronet  of  fore-limb,  caused  by  the  shoe  of  the 
hind  foot. 
Foment ;  antiseptic  dressing. 
Protect  coronet  with  pad. 
Use  light  shoes ;  shorten  and  round  off  offending  shoe. 

Par-vlysis. 

Paresis.  Palsy.  Impairment  or  loss  of  motility  or  sensation. 
Impaired  motilitj'  most  common  in  animals.  Classified  as — (1) 
General ;  (2)  Unilateral  or  Hemiplegia  ;  (3)  Bilateral  or  Paraplegia  ; 
(4)  Local.     This  last  most  frequent. 

Pot.  iodide  and  salines  if  dei)endent  on  pressure  from  fluid. 

Treplune  and  raise  bone  if  arising  from  depression  of  cranial  bones. 

When  caused  by  embolism  or  thrombosis  treatment  almost  liopeless. 

Remove  gastric,  uterine,  or  other  local  irritation,  or  blood-poisoning. 

Rest,  quiet,  light  digestible  food. 

When  bladder  affected  remove  urine  by  catheter. 

Salines,  tonics,  and  other  remedies  to  improve  general  vigour. 

When  chronic,  strj-chnine  to  stimulate  motor  centres  and  nerves. 

Friction,  kneading,  and  occasional  application  of  counter-irritants  and 
electricity  impart  nervous  and  muscular  tone. 

In  cattle,  paresis  when  depending  on  gastric  derangement  treated  by  full 
dose  of  physic  and  subsequent  nerve  tonics.  As  a  sequel  of  milk 
fever,  pot.  iodide  followed  by  nux-vomica,  and  counter-irritants  to 
spine.     Connected  with  ansemia,  liberal  dietary  and  tonics. 

In  dogs,  after  dose  of  castor  oil,  prescribe  pot.  iodide,  and,  if  stomach 
irritable,  bismuth  and  hydrocyanic  acid. 

Parotitis. 

Inflammation  of  parotid  gland.    Traumatic.    Idiopathic.    Metastatic. 
Actinomycosic  (Friedberger). 
Hot  moist  compresses  or  poultices. 

Infriction  as  required  of  mildly  stimulating  or  anodyne  ointments. 
When  chronic  or  indolent,  iodine  or  cantharidcs  dressings. 

Patella,  Dislocation  of. 

Occurs  in  colts,  occasionally  in  calves,  and  in  horses  of  any  age. 
After  reduction  keep  limb  extended  and  slightly  forward  for  sevci-al 

hours  by  cord  attached  to  the  fetlock  and  carried  round  the  neck. 
Put  on  a  shoe  high  at  the  toe  and  projecting  forward. 
Blister  stifle. 

Pericarditis. 

Inflammation  of  serous  covering  of  heart.  Rare  in  horses  and  dogs, 
in  Avliich  usually  rheumatic  or  septic ;  more  frequent  in  cattle  and 
goats,  from  their  swallowing  sharp-pointed  bodies,  which  pass 
through  the  walls  of  stomach  and  diaphragm,  and  enter  the  peri- 
cai-dium,  producing  cardo-pericarditis.  Frequently  fatal. 
Morphine  hypodermically  usually  relieves  acute  pain. 
Woollen  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  to  the  chest  for  an  hour 

or  two  at  a  time. 
Soap  liniment  containing  one-twentieth  part  opium  tincture  rubbed  in 

freely  between  the  fomentations. 
Digitalis,  strophanthus,  caffeine,  moderate  rapid,  violent,  irregular  heart 

action. 
When  fluid  effused,  supporting  treatment ;  medium  doses  of  stimulants  ; 

pot.  or  ferrous  iodide,  with  counter-irritants  to  chest. 
Digitalis  and  strychnine  assist  absorption   of   fluid   by  raising  blood- 
pressure  in  renal  arteries  and  promoting  diuresis. 


7()0  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Pbricarditis — continued. 

Where  hydropericardium  persists,  the  fluid  may  be  removed  by  special 

trocar  and  canula. 
Needles  and  other  foreign  bodies  have  been  removed  by  operation. 
Pkkiostitis. 

Inflammation  beginning  in  or  chiefly  afi'ecting  the  periosteum  ;  may 
be  acute  or  chronic ;  simple,  as  from  kicks  or  injuries,  or  difluse  or 
infective.    The  vascular  structures  of  the  bone  are  involved.    Occurs 
in  all  patients. 
Rest,  cold  applications,  analgesics,  astringent  lotions,  iodine  ointment. 
Free  incision  if  pus  form  ;  antiseptics. 

Liberal  diet ;  stimulants  and  quinine  if  blood-poisoning  imminent. 
Peritonitis. 

Inflammation  of  serous  membrane  covering  the  bowels  and  lining  the 
abdominal  walls.;  often  septic. 
Blood-letting  or  two  or  three  small  doses  aconite  in  early  stages  of  acute 

non-epizootic  cases  in  robust  subjects,  antiseptics  internally. 
Opium  in  full  doses  quiets  movement  of  bowels  and  relieves  pain. 
Morphine  and  atropine  liypodermically  prompt  and  efl'ectual,  quinine 

useful. 
Woollen  rugs  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  for  two  hours  continuously, 
surface  thorouglily  dried  and  rubbed  with  soap  liniment  and  opium 
tincture. 
Light  mustard  dressing  applied  for  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes;  but  active 

counter-irritation  injurious. 
Milk,  eggs,  beef  tea,  and  oatmeal  gruel  support  strength. 
When  more  acute  symptoms  past,  salines  in  drinking  water  and  enemata 

maintain  natural  condition  of  bowels. 
Alcoholic  or  etherous  stimulants  and  camphor  useful  in  second  stages  and 

in  young  and  weakly  subjects,  and  earlier  in  most  influenza  cases. 
A  cantharides  blister  and  pilocarpine  where  fluid  remains  unabsorbed. 
Pharyngitis. 

Inflammation  of  lining  of  pharynx. 

(a)  Catarrhal  or  from  local  irritants  ;   (h)  Extension  of  neighbouring 
inflammation  ;  (c)  Specific  infection.     Occurs  in  all  animals, 
notably  horses,  under  the  familiar  title  of  Sore-throat. 
Comfortable  quarters,  pure  air,  soft  nutritive  food. 
Drinking  water  impregnated  with  borax,  pot.  chlorate,  or  vinegar. 
Sponge  lips  and  nostrils  ;  gargle  or  syringe  with  mild  antiseptics. 
Combat  acute  inflammation  by  liot  compress  or  poultices. 
Belladonna  and  camphor  relieve  spasms  of  pliaryngeal  muscles. 
When  swelling  hard  and  circumscribed  apply  stimulating  embrocations. 
Glycerin  of  tannin  or  ferric  chloride  solution  when  throat  relaxed. 
Liquor  chlori  or  tinct.  iodi  in  infective  cases. 
Pharyngeal  abscesses  are  matured  by  steaming  and  fomentation,  and 

may  be  opened  by  a  guarded  knife. 
Tracheotomy  when  swelling  produces  dangerous  dyspnoea. 
Phlebitis. 

Inflammation  of  vein.     Generally  due  to  bacterial  invasion  or  septic 
thrombosis. 
Apply  antiseptics.     Ligation  and  excision  of  obstructed  vein. 
Open  any  abscesses  ;  give  cathartic  ;  laxative  diet. 
Horse  witii  impervious  jugular  should  not  be  turned  out  to  grass. 
Diffuse  phlebitis  treated  antisejitically,  but  rarely  succes.sfully. 
Phrknitis. 

Cerebri tis ;  Mad  staggers  of  herbivora  ;   Inflammation  of  tlie  brain, 
usually  also  affecting  the  membranes.     Not  common  in  veterinary 
patients. 
Bleeding  where  symptoms   urgent.     Cathartics,   eserine,   croton,   and 
laxative  enemata. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  761 

Phrenitis — continued. 

Cold  applications  ;  ice  to  head  ;  perfect  quiet. 

Bromides  or  cannabis  indica  when  more  acute  symptoms  abate  but 
patient  still  remains  excitable  and  restless. 

Phthiriasis.    See  Lice. 

Piles. 

Haemorrhoids.     Swellings  inside  or  around  the  anus,  consisting  of 
dilated  or  varicose  blood-vessels.     Occur  in  dogs. 
Remove  hardened  faces  by  enema;  cooling  digestible  diet;  oily  aperients 

if  needful.     Glauber's  salt  in  small  doses  continued  for  ten  days. 
Gall  and  opium  ointment  or  zinc  benzoate  ointment. 
In  persistent  cases  remove  by  ligature,  clamp,  cautery,  or  knife. 

Plethora. 

Defined  as  a  superfluity  or  hypertrophy  of  blood.     Although  not  a 
disease  it  occasionally  predisposes  to  disease. 
Remedied  by  regulating  diet,  reducing  its  quantity  or  nutritive  quality. 
In  horses  that,  in  stable  language,  are  'gross,'  give  half  dose  physic, 

followed  by  salines  in  drinking  water. 
Reduce  amount  of  corn,  especially  of  beans. 
Substitute  a  little  green  food  for  part  of  hay. 
Secure  sufEcient  exercise  or  work. 

Pleurisy. 

Inflammation  of  serous  covering  of  lungs  and  lining  of  chest.  Caused 
by  bacteria.  Usually  unilateral.  May  occur  as  a  primary'  affection 
or  from  wounds,  foreign  bodies  ;  frequently  secondary  tostrangles, 
glanders,  pneumonia,  or  tuberculosis,  etc. 

Hygienic  treatment  as  in  pneumonia. 

Blood-letting  in  acute  attacks  in  vigorous  horses  and  cattle. 

Emetic  and  antimonials  in  animals  that  vomit. 

Two  or  three  doses  aconite  tincture,  or  calomel  and  opium,  relieve 
pyrexia. 

Salines  and  antipyretics  as  in  bronchitis  and  pneumonia. 

Pot.  iodide  and  colchicum  promote  absorption  of  exudate ;  ferric  chloride 
tincture  relieves  debility  and  anaemia  (Professor  Williams). 

Digitalis  and  nux-vomica  aid  removal  of  fluid. 

Rugs  wrung  out  of  hot  water  to  sides,  or  in-rubbing  of  mustard,  washed 
off  in  twenty  minutes. 

Moderate  counter-irritation  maintained  by  ammonia  and  soap  liniment. 

Refrigerant  compresses  to  chest  advised  in  earh'  stage  by  Friedberger. 

Pain  reduced  by  opium,  or  by  morphine  hypodermically. 

Tapping  requisite  where  outpoured  fluid  considerable  and  not  under- 
going absorption.     See  Hydkothorax. 

Pleuro-pneumonl\.  Epizootic. 

Contagious  lung  complaint  of  cattle.  An  infective  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  and  pleurae  of  horned  cattle,  probably  caused  by  an  anaerobic 
micro-organism.  Does  not  attack  all  cattle ;  25  per  cent,  appear 
to  escape.  Spreads  generally  by  direct  cohabitation ;  incubation 
stage  twenty  to  forty  days. 

Treatment  generally  unsatisfactorJ^     Mortality  30  to  50  per  cent. 

Prevention.— Vndev  British  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act,  cattle 
affected,  and  those  in  contact,  immediately  slaughtered.  Slightly 
affected  subjects  in  good  condition  are  passed  for  beef;  other  carcases, 
disinfected,  used  for  manure. 

Infected  premises  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected. 

The  value  of  protective  inoculation  still  doubtful. 

Pneumonia.     Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. 
The  chief  distinctive  forms  are — 
(1)  Croupous  or  lobar,  characterised  by  fibrinous  exudation  ;  reaches  its 
height  of  red  hepatisation  about  fifth  or  sixth  day ;  the  bacillus  of 


762  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Pneumonia.     Inflammation  of  the  Lungs — co-ntinued. 

Schiitz  appears  an  essential  factor ;  tlie  pleura  frequently  involved, 
especially  in  cattle.     The  most  common  form  in  horses. 

(2)  Catarrhal  or  broncho-pneumonia.      Caused   by  irritants,  including 

worms,  and  characterised  by  exudation  and  epithelial  proliferation 
and  desquamation.  Of  less  definite  and  usually  slower  progress. 
Not  frequent  in  liorses,  but  common  in  cattle,  sheep,  and  dogs. 

(3)  Interstitial  or  chronic  pneumonia.     A  sequel  to  the  croupous  or 

catarrhal  affection. 
Contagious  pneumonia  of  horses  is  generally  classed  as  influenza. 
General  principles  of  treatment  tlie  same  in  both  types. 
Suitable  sanitary  conditions,  diet,  and  nursing. 
Hot  compresses  changed  every  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes. 
Antipyretics,  salines,  bowels  regulated  by  enemas. 
If  cathartic  needful,  oil  better  than  aloes  or  salines. 
In  neither  form  is  blood-letting  required  or  desirable. 
In  both,  especially  in  catarrhal,  ammonium  acetate  solution,  pot.  chlorate 

or  nitrate,  given  in  draught  or  drinking  water. 
Two  or  three  small  doses  aconite  where  pyrexia  acute  and  horse  or  cow 

robust. 
Emetic  in  outset  of  attack  in  strong  dogs. 
Mustard  applied  to  sides  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  reapplied  as 

required.     More  useful  in  catarrhal  than  croupous  cases. 
Frequent  doses  alcohol,  ether,  or  spiritus  setheris  nitrosi  where  patient 

feeble. 
Digitalis  if  heart  weak. 
Pot.   iodide  and  moderate  counter-irritation  encourage  absorption  of 

exudate. 

Poll  Evil.    See  Abscess  and  Fistula. 

Prolapsus  of  the  Rectum,  Uterus,  or  Vagina. 

More  common  in  cows  that  have  had  several  calves  than  in  other 
veterinary  patients. 
Remove  any  causes  still  in  action. 
Raise  hind-quarters.     Carefully  return. 
Cleanse  and  wash  organ  with  mild  astringent  solution. 
If  swollen,  support  on  large  linen  towel  or  linen  web. 
Cross  and   twist   in   opposite  directions   ends   of  web,    thus   inducing 

pressure,  and  keep  web  soaked  with  ice-cold  water. 
Knead  repeatedly  with  hands. 

Scarification  not  advisable.     Excision  sometimes  necessary. 
Straining  combated  by  chloral  hydrate  by  mouth,  injection  of  morphine 

hypodermically  and  pressure  on  loins. 
Subsequent  prolapse  prevented  by  clamp,  truss,  or  sutures  ;   the  latter 

most  effectual. 

Prostatitis. 

Inflammation  of  prostate  gland,  usually  from  gonorrhoea,  cj-stitis,  or 
calculi.     Occurs  in  dogs. 
Hot  fomentations.     Catlieter  if  needful  to  remove  urine. 
Alkalies  and  pot.  iodide,  belladonna  and  eucalyptus  oil. 
If  abscess  forms  free  incision  in  middle  line  of  perineum. 

Pruritus. 

Itching.     Defined  by  Professor  Robertson  as  a  cutaneous  neurosis, 
occurring  independently  of  eruption  or  inflammation,  and  attacking 
both  horses  and  dogs. 
Resulting  from  exposure  to  sun-heat,  the  animal  is  brought  into  tlie 
shade,  waslied  with   pot.    bicarbonate,   any  specially  irritable  spots 
moistened  with  lotion  of  two  parts  glycerin,  one  each  of  sugar  of 
lead  and  laudnnum,  sixty  water. 
Belladonna  in  cliloroform  solution,  alternated  with  alkaline  waslies,  allays 
hyper-sensibility. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  763 

Pruritus — continued. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  tlij'mol,  or  volatile  oils,  locally  when  itching 
depends  upon  parasites. 

Cathartics,  salines,  careful  dietary,  when  associated  with  gastric  derange- 
ment. 

Iron  salts,  oleaginous  food,  alkalies,  arsenic,  internally  when  patients 
impoverished. 

Pso.E  Muscles  Strain.     Occurs  both  in  horses  and  dogs. 

Rugs  wrung  out  of  hot  water  applied  over  loins  and  round  abdomen. 

Anodyne  enemata.     Rest. 

Slings  essential  when  both  sides  affected. 

Psoriasis. 

In  veterinary  nomenclature  the  term  is  applied  to  the  scaly  forms  of 
eczema,  sucli  as  mallenders  in  horses,  which  see. 

In  human  medicine  it  is  defined  as  an  inflammatory  infiltration  of 
the  papillary  skin  layer,  with  a  chronic  eruption  of  dusky  patches 
covered  with  thick  white  adherent  scales.  Notliing  answering  to 
this  description  is  recognised  in  the  lower  animals. 

Pumiced  Foot  in  Horses. 

•  Unhealthy  horn  with  convexity  and  weakness  of  the  sole,  the  result 
of  laminitis. 
Bar  shoe  with  wide  web. 

Lessen  concussion  by  tar  dressing  and  leather  sole. 
Stimulate  coronet. 

Punctured  Foot. 

Injury  from  nail  in  shoeing  or  from  gathered  nail. 
Remove  shoe,  search  foot,  and   thin  hoof  at  puncture.     May  enlarge 
wound,  then  disinfect  and  bandage  antiseptically. 

Purpura  Hemorrhagica  in  the  Horse. 

Petechial  fever.  A  fever  characterised  by  circumscribed  swellings 
of  the  skin  and  haemorrhagic  petechia3  of  the  mucous  membranes, 
and  their  subareolar  textures.  Similar  extravasations  appear  in 
the  substance  of  muscles,  in  the  lungs,  and  other  organs.  Fre- 
quently a  sequel  of  exhausting  disease,  but  etiology  not  fully 
explained. 
Remove  to  spacious  airy  quarters,  clothe  warmly. 

Pot.  chlorate,  three  or  four  drachms  two  or  three  times  daily,  subse- 
quently half  doses  ;  usually  given  in  drinking  water. 
Iron  salts,  sulphate,  perchloride,  quinine,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  milk. 
Boric  acid  and  cinchona  bark  in  electuary  (Friedberger). 
Concentrated    nourishment ;    oatmeal   gruel,  milk   and   eggs,  alcoholic 

stimulants.     Silver  colloid. 
Bland  oil  or  vinegar  diminishes  skin  tension  and  tendency  to  slough. 
Limited  swellings  about  head  bathed  with  cold  water  and  refrigerants. 
About  throat,  body,  and  legs,  hot  fomentations  preferable,  especially  in 

cold  weather. 
Inject  intratracheally,  5viii.  to  5xii.  twice  daily  of  a  solution  containing 

one  part  iodine,  six  pot.  iodide,  100  water  (Professor  Dieckerhoff). 
Scarification  avoided  unless  swellings  large  and  causing  much  incon- 
venience. 
Scrupulous  cleanliness  and  antiseptic  dressings  essential  while  portions 

of  skin  ulcerating  or  sloughing. 
Tracheotomy  desirable  where  dyspnoea  distressing. 

Pus  in  Facial  Sinuses.     See  Nasal  Gleet. 

Pyaemia. 

A  variety  of  Septicaemia,  characterised  by  pyrexia  of  an  intermittent 
type  and  formation  of  secondary  abscesses. 
Any  wounds  whence  infective  products  may  arise  must  be  laid  open, 
cleansed,  and  rendered  aseptic. 


764  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

PyjEmia — continued. 

Injection  of  iodine  tinctnre  or  dilute  carbolic  acid  into  inflamed  glands 

sometimes  checks  destructive  suppuration. 
Sanitary  conditions  must  be  attended  to. 
The  patient  coaxed  to  take  digestible,  nutritive,  concentrated  food  to 

sustain  strength  and  ward  off  collapse. 
Moderate  doses  of  alcoholic  and  etherous  stimulants  repeated  every  three 

or  four  hours  ;  quinine,  sulphites,  creolin. 

Quarter  Evil.    See  Black  Quarter. 

QUITTOR. 

See  also  Fistula.     A  sinuous  wound  of  the  horse's  coronet. 
Poultice  to  soften  horn,  thoroughly  cleanse,  remove  dead  and  detached 

tissue,  provide  dependent  opening. 
Inject  Villate's  solution,  or  aqueous  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  to 

1000.     Get  perfect  asepsis. 
Envelop  foot  in  antiseptic  tow  or  jute,  kept  wet  with  sublimate  or  other 

antiseptic  solution. 
In  four  days   to  a  week  remove  dressings ;   with   knife  and   curette 

remove  any  necrosing  or  dead  tissue,  and  dress  as  before. 
Where  foot  strong  no  shoe  needed  ;  but  if  weak  or  broken,  bar  shoe 

relieves  pressure. 
Stimulant  embrocations  to  the  coronet  promote  reparative  action. 
Rabies. 

A  specific  febrile  disease,  occurring  especially  in  the  canine  and  feline 
races,  produced  by  a  virus  found  in  the  central  nervous  system  and 
most  organs  and  secretions,  and  usually  communicated  by  the  bite 
of  a  dog  and  the  infected  saliva  entering  the  wound.  The  incuba- 
tion period  ranges  from  twenty  to  forty  days.  All  warm-blooded 
animals  are  susceptible.  The  disease  is  most  certainly  and  rapidly 
produced  by  inoculation,  and  when  developed  is  incurable. 
Under  the  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act,  rabid  dogs  and  animals 

bitten  by  them  are  destroyed. 
When  a  person  is  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  circulation  through  the  part  should, 
if  practicable,  be  checked  by  a  ligature,  the  wound  sucked,  washed 
with  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  and  it  may  further  be  cauterised. 
M.  Pasteur  has  demonstrated  that  dogs  and  other  animals  inoculated 
with  attenuated  virus  do  not  take  the  disease  when  bitten  by  a  rabid 
dog  or  inoculated  with  virus  which  would  kill  unprotected  animals. 
Like  protection  is  generally  secured  if  the  man  or  animal,  within  a  few 

days  after  being  bitten,  is  inoculated  with  the  protective  vaccine. 
The  mortality  of  persons  bitten  by  rabid  dogs  previous  to  18S6  was 
16  per  cent.     Since  then  upwards  of  10,000  bitten  persons  have  been 
treated  at  the  Pasteur  Institute,  with  the  result  that  the  mortality 
has  been  reduced  to  less  than  1  per  cent. 

Rheumatism. 

Inflammation  of  fibrous  structures  of  muscles,  tendons,  and  joints ; 
usually  attributed  to  cold  and  damp ;    but  sometimes  to  specific 
infection ;  by  some  believed  to  depend  upon  accumulation  in  body 
of  some  product  of  nutritive  derangement,  possibly  lactic  acid,  but 
more  probably  a  toxine.     Occurs  in  all  classes  of  patients. 
Alkalies,  pot.  bicarbonate  and  nitrate  in  drinking  water. 
Sodium  salicylate,  salol,  naphthol,  antipyrine. 
Veratrine  or  morphine  hypodcrmically,  repeated  daily  for  a  week  or  ten 

days  (Friedberger).     Potass,  iodide  5ij  daily  for  a  fortnight.  ' 
Amm.  acetate  and  colchicum  (Robertson). 
Pilocarpine  hypodcrmically  (Frohner). 

Blood-letting  believed  to  increase  tendency  to  cardiac  symptoms. 
Hot  fomentations,  or  flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water  or  oil,  applied  to 

aff"ected  parts.     Wet  pack  in  robust  patients. 
Subsequently  moisten  with  aconite,  opium,  or  other  analgesic. 
When  acute  symptoms  abated,  quinine,  arsenic,  Donovan's  solution. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  765 

Rheumatism — continued. 

In  strong  dogs  an  emetic  at  outset,  antipyretics,  salicylate  of  sodium. 

Perfect  quiet  in  comfortable  quarters. 

Stifihess  or  swelling  subsequently  removed  by  massage ;  by  flannels 
soaked  with  hot  oil  and  alkaline  solutions,  kept  in  position  for  an  hour 
or  two  with  lightly-fitting  bandages  ;  soap  liniment  subsequently  rubbed 
in  ;  such  treatment  will  not  prevent  the  horse  doing  light  work. 

If  milder  remedies  fail,  apply  cantharides  ointment  either  near  or 
immediately  over  affected  part. 

The  actual  cautery  sometimes  required  in  chronic  articular  rheumatism. 

Articular  rheumatism  most  frequent  in  cattle  and  dogs. 

Salicylates,  antipyretics  ;  joints  enveloped  in  cotton  wool. 

Embrocations  of  carbolic  oil,  iodine  solution,  mercury  oleate. 

Cases  simulating  articular  rheumatism  in  young  foals,  calves,  and  lambs, 
sometimes  result  from  infection  of  umbilical  vessels. 

Prevented  by  aseptic  ligation  of  the  cord  at  birth,  and  thorough  disinfec- 
tion of  adjacent  skin,  by  phenol,  or  other  application,  repeated  daily 
for  a  week. 

Rickets. 

Rachitis.     Faulty  development  and  softening  of  the  bones  of  young 
animals,  depending  upon  malnutrition. 
Nourishing  diet ;  milk,  crushed  oats  with  linseed  for  herbivora ;  milk, 

meat  soup,  cod-liver  oil  for  dogs  ;  healthful  surroundings. 
In  young  animals  sucking,  see  that  mother's  milk  sufficient  in  quantity 

and  quality. 
Aperients  or  antacids  to  rectify  any  digestive  derangement. 
Calcium  phosphate  ;  Squire's  food  ;  iron  salts. 
Splints  and  bandages  may  be  requisite  to  support  the  softened  bones. 

Rinderpest. 

Cattle  plague.  A  specific  malignant  contagious  fever  aflfecting  the 
bovine  race,  but  communicable  to  sheep  and  other  ruminants, 
depending  upon  a  specific  virus,  and  characterised  by  lesions  chiefly 
localised  in  the  mucous  membranes  and  skin.  Indigenous  to  the 
Asiatic  Steppes  of  Russia  and  other  parts  of  Asia. 
Treatment  ineffectual. 

Slaughter  of  infected  animals,  and  those  in  contact  with  them,  and 
effectual  disinfection  promptly  exterminated  the  disease  imported  into 
Great  Britain  in  1865,  as  well  as  the  limited  outbreak  of  1872. 

Ringbone. 

Exostosis  on  a  pastern  bone  or  the  coffin  bone  ;  sometimes  in  both 
positions.     Most  serious  when  involving  a  joint. 
When  occurring  in  the  fore-limb,  use  a  thin-heeled  bar  shoe  ;  when  in 
the  hind-limb,  a  high-heeled  shoe,  thus  diminishing  pressure  and  con- 
cussion. 
Put  to  slow  work  on  soft  land.     When  in  stable  apply  wet  swabs. 
Where  there  is  lameness — rest,  give  dose  physic,  and  fire  and  blister,  or 
unnerve. 

Ringworm. 

Tinea.  Circular  elevated  spots,  becoming  itchy,  scaly,  and  hairless, 
appearing  usually  on  the  skin  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body,  pro- 
duced by  the  Trichophyton  tonsurans,  which  invades  especially 
the  hair  bulbs.  It  is  more  common  in  cattle  than  in  horses,  dogs, 
or  cats  ;  ;  is  rare  in  sheep,  pigs,  and  poultry  ;  is  ti'ansmissible  from 
one  animal  to  another. 
Isolate  affected  animals,  and  disinfect  all  brushes,  clothing,  harness,  or 

whatever  the  fungus  may  have  lodged  on.     Burn  the  crusts. 
Washing  with  soap  and  water,  or  soaking  with  oil  and  pot.  carbonate, 
removes  scabs  and  crusts.     Paint  spots,  after  removing  crusts,  with 
iodine    tincture,    or    apply    solution   or   ointment  of   carbolic   acid, 
creosote,  or  naphthol. 


766  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Ringworm — continued. 

If  these  ineffectual,  substitute  mercuric  nitrate  oiutmeiit ;  solutions  of 

mercuric  chloride,  ferric  chloride,  or  copper  sulphate  ;  or  iodoform. 
Salines,  tonics,  arsenic,  internally,  help  to  abate  irritation  and  cfdema. 
Grooming  or  dressing  of  affected  subjects  should  bo  mterdicted,  as  it 

may  spread  the  disease. 

ROAKINO. 

May  depend  on  thickening  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  nares,  pharynx, 
or  larynx,   or  on  fibrous  growths  in  these  regions ;   but  in  most 
instances  roaring  is  due  to  paralysis  of  tlic  recurrent  nerve,  with 
wasting,    and   fatty  'degeneration    of    the   whole   of    the    intrinsic 
muscles  of  the  left  side  of  the  larynx  supplied  by  the  recurrent 
nerve.     The  opening  through  which  the  air  passes  being  narrowed, 
the  characteristic  noise  is  produced,  especially  when  inspiration  is 
quickened  by  excitement  or  exertion. 
Spurious   or   temporary  roarinr),    depending   upon   cold,    strangles,    or 
influenza,    is  treated   sometimes   successfully   by  stimulation  of  the 
tliroat,  and  by  pot.  iodide  and  arsenic  internally. 
True  roaring,  depending  on  paralysis  or  muscular  wasting,  is  incurable. 
Smart   blistering,    the   actual   cautery,    and   galvanism   in   the   earlier- 
stages,  sometimes  retard  atrophy. 
Relegate  the  animal  to  slower  work. 
A  pad  fitted  on  the  nostrils  regulating  the  supply  of  air  lessens  the 

noise  in  bad  cases. 
Tracheotomy  also  affoi'ds  relief. 
Strychnine  persisted  with  for  weeks  in  the  earlier  stages  appears  to 

arrest  and  may  prevent  the  muscular  wasting. 
Of  various  surgical   operations   attempted,    excision   of  the   arytenoid 
cartilage  has  given  the  best  result. 

Rot  in  Sheep.     Distoma  Hepatigum.     See  Worms. 

Saddle  Galls. 

Bruises  from  badly-fitting  saddles  or  harness. 

Relieve  from  weight  and  prevent  friction. 

Apply  hot  compress  and  antiseptic  dressings. 

Swollen  sebaceous  follicles  in  the  early  stages  are  reduced  by  friction 
with  soap  liniment ;  in  chronic  cases  by  fomenting,  lancing,  or 
cauterising  with  undiluted  carbolic  acid. 

Portions  of  dead  tissue  or  exudate  constituting  sitfasts  should  be  dis- 
sected out,  and  the  wound  treated  in  the  usual  way. 

Sandcrack. 

Fissure  in  horn  of  horse's  foot,  usually  on  inner  quarter  of  fore-  and 
toe  of  hind-feet. 
Remove  shoe,  thin  wall  on  each  side  of  fissure,  cleanse  and  disinfect. 
Fomentation,    poultice,    and    rest  relieve    pressure,   inflammation  and 

pain. 
When  these  abated,  clamp  or  wedge  the  fissure,   or  groove  the  wall 

transversely  or  obliquely  to  the  direction  of  the  crack,  and  blister 

coronet. 
Bar  shoe,  made  to  relieve  fissured  horn  from  pressure  and  concussion. 

Dress  hoof  frequently  A\ith  wood  tar. 

Septicemia  or  Septic  Infection. 

A  febrile  state,  the  result  of  the  circulation  in  the  blood  of  patho- 
genic organisms  or  the  toxines  to  which  they  give  rise.  The 
organisms  multiply  at  the  seat  of  inoculation,  and  have  the  power 
of  entering  the  circulation,  and  thus  forming  secondai-y  infective 
foci.  Septicaemia  occurs  in  puerperal  metritis  in  cows  and  ewes, 
in  the  fever  occasionally  following  castration  and  other  surgical 
operations,  as  well  as  accidental  wounds  in  horses,  and  in  the 
infective  fever  artificially  produced  by  inoculating  animals  with 
various  micrococci. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND   REMEDIES  767 

SeptiCjEMIA — continued. 

Pyoimra  is  a  form  of  septicsemia. 
Arrest  if  possible  the  primary  source  of  inoculation. 
Cleanse  and  render  aseptic  any  wound.     Sterilise  dead  tissue. 
Corrosive  sublimate  solution  1  to  1000.     Zinc  chloride  1  to  100. 
Adaiinister  antiseptics,  antipyretics,  creolin,  sulphites,  quinine. 
Generous  dietary  ;  milk,  eggs,  oatmeal  gi'uel,  beef  tea. 
Alcoholic  stimulants,  acids,  and  bitters. 

Sarcomatous  Tumours 

Are  chiefly  composed  of  embryonic  or  immature  connective  tissues ; 
they  contain  blood-vessels,  but  neitlier  nerves  nor  lymphatics  have 
been  clearly  made  out ;  they  difTer  greatly  in  ajipearance,  rapidity 
of  growth,  and  malignancy,  and  occur  in  all  the  lower  animals. 
Melanosis  and  actinomycosis  belong  to  this  group. 
In  the  earlier  stages,  especially  if  likely  to  interfere  with  any  important 
function,  they  may  be  removed  by  the  knife. 

Scab  in  Sheep. 

Skin  irritation,  inflammation,  and  scabbing,  caused  by  Dermatodectes 
ovis.     See  Acari  and  Mange. 
In  all  bad  cases  the  sheep  should  be  bare  shorn  and  affected  parts  soaked 

with    pot.    carbonate    dissolved   in   twenty   parts   water   before  the 

insecticide  is  applied. 
Dress  carefully  and  thoroughly  with  a  soft  brush  every  itching  spot  with 

corrosive  sublimate  one  part,  common  salt  eight  parts,  water  1000  parts. 
Or  creolin  and  alcohol  each  one   part,  soft  soap   eight   parts.      Non- 
poisonous  (Fruhner). 
Within  a  few  days  immerse  each  sheep  for  three  minutes  in  bath  of  two 

parts  each  of  creolin  and  pot.  carbonate  and  100  parts  water.     Repeat 

bath  in  eight  days. 
Watch   for  any  rubbing,  examine   each   sheep  twice   a  week,  and,    if 

required,  apply  either  the  corrosive  sublimate  or  creolin  dressing. 
Decoctions  of  tobacco  and  stavesacre  and  solutions  of  arsenic,  tar  oil, 

and  creosote  are  also  used,  both  as  lotion  and  bath. 
All  affected  sheep  should  be  isolated  ;  Avhile,  to  prevent  the  spread  of 

the  parasites,  racks,  rubbing-posts,  and  anything  on  which  they  may 

have  lodged,  are  washed  with  the  coi-rosive  sublimate  sohition. 

Seedy  Toe  of  Horses. 

A  perverted  secretion  of  horn,  with  excavation  between  the  laminal 
.     sheath  and  outer  wall  of  the  foot,  the  space  being  partly  filled  with 
soft    mealy   horn.      It    frequently  follows    laminitis.      A  similar 
condition  occurs  in  sheep. 
All  diseased  horn  must  be  removed  and  the  cavity  disinfected. 
Healthier  growth  encouraged  by  moisture,  and  blisters  to  coronet. 
A  bar  shoe  relieves  pressure.     If  space  not  large,  recovery  may  follow 
careful   disinfection   of   the   cavity.     In  other   cases  the   outer  wall 
should  be  excised,  and  the  exposed  surface  dressed  with  antiseptics. 
To  prevent  deformation  of  hoof,  the  shoe  must  be  removed  frequently 
and  the  hoof  trimmed  into  shape. 

SUIVERTNG. 

Chronic  myelitis  with   sclerosis  of  motor  tracts  of  spinal   cord,  and 
characterised   by  a  peculiar  spasmodic   contraction  of  muscles  of 
hind  or  fore  extremities. 
Hereditary  ;  occurrence  generally  preceded  by  strangles,  influenza,  or 

pneumonia.     Frequently  symptoms  difficult  to  discover.     Incurable. 

The  horse  may  do  moderate,  slow  work. 

Shoulder  Slip  (Suprascapular  Paralysis). 

Injury  to  nerve,  or  extensor  muscles  of  the  horse's  shoulder.     Rare  in 
other  animals. 


768  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Shoulder  Slip  (Suprascapular  Paralysis) — continued. 
Foment,  rest,  purgatives,  massage. 
Blister  wlicn  tenderness  and  swelling  removed. 

Side  Bone. 

Ossification  of  lateral  cartilage  of  horse's  foot.  When  uncomplicated 
seldom  causes  lameness. 
The  treatment  has  been  bar  shoe,  cold  applications,  rest,  blisters,  firing, 
with  neurectomy  in  chronic  cases  if  feet  otherwise  sound.  In  some 
cases  the  wall  may  be  grooved  with  knife  or  wedge  firing-iron,  or 
divided  in  two  or  three  places,  and  the  foot  afterwards  shod  with  a 
bar  shoe. 

SoRE-THKOAT.     See  Pharyngitis. 

Sore  Shins.    See  Ostitis  and  Periostitis. 

South  African  Horse-sickness. 

An  infective  disease,  characterised  by  tissue  dropsy,  stated  to  be 
caused  by  a  mould  (Edington)  ;  but  more  prol^ably  by  a  toxine 
(M'Fadyean).  Disease  transmitted  by  forage  ;  can  be  produced  by 
inoculation  or  ingestion  of  blood  obtained  from  an  infected  horse. 
Treatment  unsatisfactory — medicines  unsuccessful. 

Spavin,  Bog.    See  Bog  Spavin. 

Spavin,  Bone. 

(a)  An  exostosis  on  the  inner  and  lower   part  of  the   horse's  hock, 
arising   from  arthritis  and  ostitis  of  the  cuneiform,  scaphoid, 
and  metatarsal  bones,  terminating  generally  in  anchylosis. 
(6)  Articular  disease,  without  appreciable  exostosis,  terminating  in 
anchylosis,  central  and  peripheral. 
Rest ;  cathartic  and  fomentation  where  there  is  much  lameness. 
In  young  horses  hasten  the  inevitable  anchylosis   by  a   blister,  firing, 
seton,  periosteotomy,  or  cunean  tenotomy.      Anterior  tibial  neurec- 
tomy is  sometimes  beneficial. 

Splenic  Apoplexy.     See  Anthrax. 

Splint. 

An  exostosis  on  the  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bone  of  the  horse; 
occasionally  of  the  ox. 
In  slighter  cases  stop   fast  work,  give   half   dose   physic,  foment,  and 

subsequently  blister. 
In  more  acute  cases  fire  and  blister,  or  subcutaneous  periosteotomy. 
Pyro-puucture  preferable  to  line-firing  as  it  blemishes  very  little. 
Mercuric  iodide  ointment  to  reduce  exostosis. 

Speedy-cut. 

A  bruise  on  the  inner  aspect  of  the  horse's  knee,  caused  by  the  oppo- 
site foot. 
Fomentations  ;  open  any  abscess  ;  antiseptic  dressing. 
Prevent  by  reducing  inner  crust  of  ofiending  foot,  using  nicely-fitting 

three-quarter  slices,  and  removing  shoes  every  three  weeks. 
A  boot  sometimes  worn  on  the  leg  liable  to  cutting. 
Avoid  over-pacing  such  horses. 

Sprains  of  Muscles,  Tendons,  and  Ligaments. 

The  fibres  are  severely  stretched,  in  serious  cases  ruptured,  causing 
inflammation  and  subsequent  contraction,  and,  in  case  of  muscles, 
atrophy. 
Endeavour  to  rest  horse  at  once. 

Relieve  injured  parts  from  strain  and  weight.     In  severe  cases  sling. 
In  strains  connected  with  back  tendons  tack  on  high-heeled  shoe. 
Foment    until    tenderness  removed.      Sui)port  with  elastic    pressure 

bandage. 
Subsequently  cold  applications  ;  regular  exercise. 
Blister,  or  fire  and  blister,  and  turn  out  to  grass. 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  769 

Sprains  of  Muscles,  Tendons,  and  Ligaments— conimMccZ. 

In  bad  or  repeated  ligament  or  tendon  sprains,  contraction  occurs  which 
is  incurable.  Tenotomy  of  little  avail.  Median  neurectomy  may 
be  tried  in  some  cases. 

Stomach  Staggers  in  Horses.    See  Indigestion. 

Stomatitis. 

Inflammation  of  buccal  mucous  membrane,  chiefly  occurring  in  young 
animals— (a)  erythematous  and  catarrhal ;  [b)  aphthous,  vesicular, 
pustular,  frequently  contagious  ;  (c)  parasitic  (mycosis). 
Soft  digestible  food,  laxative,  salines.    Remove  any  gastric  derangement. 
See  to  any  irritation  of  gums,  carious  or  faulty  teeth. 
Give  slowly  pot.  chlorate  or  borax,  1  to  4  per  cent,  in  glycerin  solution. 
In  sucking  foals  and  calves,  besides  local  treatment,  see  that  mother's 

milk  is  sound  and  that  she  is  projierly  fed. 
Ulcerous  spots  dressed  with  glycerin  of  tannin  or  painted  with  silver 

nitrate,  ten  grains  to  ounce  distilled  water. 
A  contagious  pustular  form  amongst  horses,  is  described  by  Professor 
Friedberger,  and  treated  by  pot.  permanganate  or  creolin  solution. 

Strangles  in  Horses. 

Febra  pyogenica.  _  A  contagious  catarrhal  eruptive  fever,  peculiar  to 
the  equine  species,  caused  by  a  streptococcus.     Usually,  abscesses 
develop  in  the  connective  tissue  in  the  space  between  the  branches  of 
the  lower  jaw,  and  involve  adjacent  glands,  while  infective  pyogenic 
organisms  are  liable  to  be  carried  to  and  inflame  other  glands  in  the 
shoulder,  groin,  or  internal  organs.     The  disease  occurs  chiefly  in 
young  animals. 
Good  nursing  ;  perfect  sanitary  surroundings. 
Steam  head  where  catarrhal  symptoms  troublesome. 
Fomentations  or  poultices  to  the  throat  hasten  formation  of  abscess. 
Sodium  sulphite  and  pot.  chlorate  dissolved  in  drinking  water. 
Horse  at  grass  shelter  at  night,  unless  weather  warm  and  case  slight. 
Supply  mash,  gruel,  grass,  sliced  roots,  malt,  steamed  oats,  or  whatever 

soft  digestible  food  patient  will  eat. 
Milk,  eggs,  beef  tea,  with  ale  or  wine  if  animal  weak. 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre  or  quinine  if  pyaemia  supervene. 
Abscess  should  be  fully  matured  before  it  is  opened  ;  indeed  many  prac- 
titioners prefer  that  it  be  allowed  to  burst. 
While  discharging,  keep  parts  clean  ;  dress  daily  with  antiseptics. 
Tracheotomy  performed  when  dyspnoea  not  relieved  by  steaming  and 
fomentations ;  its  timely  performance  may  prevent  roaring,  and  often 
saves  life. 
Isolate  infected  subjects  and  disinfect  premises. 

Inoculation  with  attenuated  virus  secures  immunity,  but,  besides  other 
disadvantages,  creates  centres  of  contagion. 

Stringhalt  in  the  Horse. 

Involuntary  spasmodic  contractions  of  muscles  of  one  or  both  hind 
or  fore  (rare),  limbs  ;  not  traceable  to  definite  pathological  lesions. 

Seldom  curable  ;  may  become  worse  with  hard  work  and  advancing 
years. 

Relieve  spavin  or  other  condition  which  may  aggravate  reflexly. 

Temporary  benefit  results  from  a  laxative,  a  course  of  bromides,  and 
moderation  of  work.  Peroneal  tenotomy  and  aponeurotomy  some- 
times beneficial. 

Stretching  and  section  of  the  tibial  nerves  of  no  avail. 

Sturdy.    Hydatid  in  Brain.    See  Worms. 
Surfeit.     Nettle-rash.     .See  Urticaria. 

3c 


770  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

Surra. 

A  specific  fever,  affecting  horses  and  dogs,  rarely  cattle,  and  caused 
by  a  hismatozoon  (Trj'panosoma  Evansi).    Transmitted  by  ingestion 
or  by  inoculation. 
Prevent  by  giving  pure  water,  clean  grain  and  forage.     Treat  disease 
by  arsenic  (Fowler's  solution)  in  the  drinking  water. 

Swine  Fevers.     Swine  Plagues. 

Under  these  titles  are   grouped  three  specific  contagious  epizootic 
fevers  of  the  pig,  each  depending  on  its  special  microbe. 

(1)  Swine  fever  proper.   In  America  termed  hog  cholera.   A  contagious  and 

infectious  disease  of  the  pig,  associated  with  a  necrotic  and  ulcerative 
condition  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestine,  nearly  always 
most  marked  in  the  large  intestine.  The  large  intestine  exhibits 
'  ringed '  patches  of  necrosis,  in  more  chronic  cases  nodular  eleva- 
tions ;  the  skin  discoloured.  The  incubation  stage  is  eight  to  ten 
days  ;  the  mortality  40  to  50  per  cent.  ;  higher  among  young  pigs  ; 
death  occurs  in  eight  to  sixteen  days.  Attacks  swine  of  all  ages  ; 
is  the  disease  of  which  the  British  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals) 
Act  takes  cognisance. 

(2)  Swine  erysipelas.    Mai  rouge.    An  acute  septicaemia,  characterised  by 

erysipelatous  inflammation  of  the  skin,  which  at  first  is  bright  red, 
becoming  blue  or  brown  red.  The  gastro-intestinal  mucous  mem- 
brane is  acutely  inflamed,  the  spleen  is  enlarged,  there  is  generally 
nephritis  and  endocarditis,  but  no  pneumonia.  Incubation  stage 
three  to  four  days  ;  swine  three  to  twelve  months  chiefly  affected  ; 
mortality  50  to  75  per  cent. 

(3)  Swine  plague.     Described  by  German  authors  as  pneumonic  inflam- 

mation, with  fever,  discoloration  and  swelling  of  skin,  but  no  gastro- 
intestinal lesion  or  notable  enlargement  of  spleen.     Very  fatal. 
Principles  of  prevention  and  treatment  the  same  in  the  several  forms. 
Slaughter,  burn,  or  deeply  bury  infected,  especially  first  cases.     Isolate 

in-contacts.     Disinfect. 
An  emetic  in  earliest  stages.     Antipyretics. 

In  erysipelas  form,  vaccination  with  attenuated  virus  (although  causing 
mortality  of  1  or  2  per  cent.)  is  stated  to  render  most  subjects  immune 
for  a  year. 

Synovitis. 

Inflammation  of  the  synovial  membrane  from  injury,  puncture,  or  local- 
isation of  the  rheumatic  or  tubercular  virus.     See  aLso  Arthritis. 

Fomentation  or  swathing  the  joints  with  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water, 
persisted  with  for  some  hours,  parts  afterwards  rubbed  with  soap  lini- 
ment and  laudanum. 

Anatomical  rest  may  be  helped  by  splints  and  bandages. 

Slings  where  hock  or  other  large  joint  of  horse's  hind  limb  affected. 

If  not  relieved  in  a  few  days,  V)lister  ;  fire  in  chronic  cases. 

Mercury  oleate  in  rheumatic  and  tubercular  cases,  which  are  specially 
intractable.     Internally  give  potassium  iodide,  salicylates,  alkalies. 

Tapeworms.     T^ni^.    See  Worms. 

Teats,  Obstructed. 

The  teats  of  cows  and  ewes  are  obstructed  by  curdled  milk,  calculi, 
tumours  attached  to  mucous  membrane,  inflammatory  thickening, 
or  stricture. 
Where  not  removable  by  careful  manipulation,  concretions  may  be  dis- 
placed or  broken  up  by  bougie  or  teat  syphon. 
Tumours  within  the  teat  not  reducible  by  mechanical  means  or  iodine 

dressings  are  excised. 
Warts  on  tiie  teats  removed  by  scissors  or  ligature. 
Inflammation  treated  by  fomentations  and  poultices  of  spent  hops. 
Stricture,  usually  a  sequel  of  inflammation,  relieved  by  passing  probe, 
syphon,  or  teat  bistoury. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  771 

Tendon's  or  Ligaments,  Ruptured. 

Occurs  chiefly  in  horses.     See  also  Sprains. 
Fomentations  allay  inflammation. 

Treat  as  for  fractured  bones  ;  keep  parts  perfectly  quiescent. 
SpUnts,  starch  or  plaster  bandages,  slings. 
When  inflammation  moderated  stimulate  externally. 

Tetanus. 

Lockjaw.     Tonic  muscular  spasms  depending  on  a  toxine,  produced  by 
an  anterobic  bristle-shaped  microbe.    This  organism  is  found  in  many 
soils,  is  inoculable  from  animal  to  animal ;  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  a  part,  especially  if  bruised  or  injured,  it  produces  its 
tetanising   toxine,  which  acts  like  strychnine  on  the  spinal  cord. 
Horses  and  sheep  are  most  susceptible,  cattle,  swine,  and  dogs  less 
susceptible. 
There  is  hope  of  recovery  if  the  amount  of  toxine  circulated  is  limited, 
if  its  production  by  attention  to  the  wound  can  be  arrested,  and  the 
patient's  strength  sustained. 
The  infecting  wound  must  be  rendered  aseptic ;  if  closed,  may  be  laid 
open,  and  any  irritant  removed.     In  lambs  and  other  young  animals 
cleanse  and  disinfect  the  navel  cord. 
Although  the  jaws  are  closed,  most  patients  suck  up  sloppy  food,  which 

is  rendered  as  nutritive  as  possible  and  oflered  frequently. 
Action  of  bowels  encouraged  by  mashes,  gruel,  treacle,  and  salines  in 

drinking  water,  which  should  be  within  reach. 
Place  horse  in  darkened  box,  where  he  will  not  be  disturbed  ;  slings 

may  be  required. 
Medicines  are  of  little  avail.     Bromides  and  chloral  afford  temporary 

relief,  especially  where  excitement  considerable. 
Powdered  opium   and  cannabis   indica   extract,  thirty   grains  each  in 

electuary,  placed  thrice  daily  within  the  cheek. 
Occasional  administi-ation  of  chloroform  relaxes  spasms  for  a  time,  and 
maj'  enable  food  to  be  swallowed ;  but  this  advantage  in  some 
patients  may  be  counterbalanced  by  the  irritation  caused  by  giving 
the  anesthetic. 
Kitasato  and  Dr.  Behring  have  prepared  a  tetanus  antitoxine  which 
renders  rabbits,  mice,  sheep,  and  even  horses,  resistant  to  the  inocula- 
tion of  toxic  doses  of  virus.     As  a  curative  it  is  unreliable. 

Texas  Fever. 

An  infective  hasmoglobinaemia,  produced  in  Southern  Texas  and 
adjacent  States  by  a  microbe  which  destroj's  the  red  corpuscles, 
reducing  them  to  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  their  normal  number, 
their  colouring  matters  being  excreted  in  the  urine.  The  life  history 
of  the  organism  shows  that  one  stage  of  its  existence  is  passed  in 
the  body  of  a  tick  (Dr.  Salmon's  Reports). 
Texas   cattle  cannot  be  moved  from  infected  regions  from  March  to 

November  imless  under  strict  railroad  restrictions. 
Treatment  consists  of  antiseptics,  antipyretics,  and  tonics.   Destroy  ticks. 

Thick  Wind  in  Horses. 

May  be  due  to  thickening  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  bronchial  tubes, 
or  imperfect  power  of  emptying  the  air-cells. 
Seldom  curable,  but  relieved  by  good,  rather  concentrated,  damped  food, 

and  regular  exercise. 
Allow  water  in  moderate  quantity  frequently. 
Relieve  gastro-intestinal  irregularity. 

Thorough-pin  of  the  Hock  and  Knee. 

A  bursal  enlargement  on  the  lateral  aspect  of  the  horse's  hock,  arising 
from  disease  of  the  sheath  of  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon,  or, 
when  co-existing  with,  bog  spavin,  from  dropsy  of  the  true  hock 
joint,  without  disease  of  the  tendon  sheath. 
Rest,  high-heeled  shoe,  flannel  bandages. 


772  INDEX    OF    DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Thorough-Pin  of  the  Hock  and  Knee — contimted. 
Equable  pressure  from  a  spring  truss. 
Where  the  swelling  is  not  thus  reduced  apply  a  smart  blister  or  fire 

transcurrcntly. 
Otlier  treatment  failing,  the  distended  bursa  may  be  aspirated. 
Thorourjh-pin  of  lite  knee  consists  in  distension  of  the  sheath  containing 

tlie  perforatus  and  perforans  tendons  at  the  back  of  the  knee-joint. 

Generally  caused  by  injury. 
Treated  similarly  to  thorough-pin  of  the  bock. 
Thrombosis. 

Coagulation  of  blood  in  a  vein  or  artery  ;  causing  partial  or  complete 
obstruction. 
Absolute  rest,  in  order  to  diminish  risk  of  a  portion  of  clot  being  detached 

and  obstructing  circulation  in  the  brain  or  pulmonary  vessels. 
When  affecting  main  artery  of  a  limb  causes  intermittent  paralysis,  which 

is  incurable. 
The  adema  frequently  resulting  is  abated  by  carefully  applied  bandages. 
Thrush  in  Mouth.     See  Aphtha. 
Thrush  in  Horse's  Frog. 

A  foetid  discharge  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog. 
Scrupulous  cleanliness  ;  a  leather  sole  is  sometimes  placed  under  the 

shoe,  while  the  animal  is  stabled,  to  keep  the  frog  dry. 
Calomel  dusted  over  diseased  surface  ;  dressings  of  tar  or  wood-tar  oil. 
Dose  of  physic,  especially  when  associated  with  constitutional  causes. 
Regulate  feeding,  exercise,  or  work. 

Shoo  with  tips  if  feet  strong  and  animal  works  chiefly  on  the  farm. 
Ticks. 

Belong  to  the  family  Ixodida3,  order  Acaridae. 
Ixodes  ricinus  attacks  dogs,  cattle,  and  sheep.     Infests  the  skin  of  all 

the  domestic  animals. 
Destroy  by  any  of  the  volatile  oils. 

When  not  numerous  may  be  snipped  off  with  a  pair  of  scissors. 
Melophagus  ovinus  or  keel — infests  the  skin  of  sheep. 
Bath  of  arsenic,  potashes,  soft  soap  and  water. 
Dress  with  wood-tar,  coal-tar,   or  petroleum  oils,  or  3  per  cent,  creolin 

solution. 
Tinea  Tonsurans.     See  Ringworm. 

Toothache. 

Usually  results  from  caries,  attacking  chiefly  the  molar  teeth. 
Extract  diseased  tooth  with  forceps  ;  when  this  cannot  be  done,  in  the 

horse,  the  jaw  may  be  trephined  and  tooth  punched  out. 
In  dogs,  freely  moisten  gum  with  tannin  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  ether, 

or  witli  morphine  solution ;  or  after  scraping  and  disinfection,  stop 

carious  tooth  with  dental  amalgam. 

Tread. 

A  bruise  of  the  horse's  coronet,  usually  caused  by  the  opposite  foot,  or 
by  another  horse.     See  Bruise. 
Scarification,  medicated  fomentation,  antiseptic  dressings. 
If  sloughing  occur,  apply  antiseptics  and  bandages. 

Tuberculosis. 

A  specific  disease  caused  by  the  bacillus  tuberculosis,  which  develops 
irritation  either  directly  or  by  formation  of  toxines,  or  in  both  ways. 
Nodules  are  produced  of  one  or  more  descriptions  of  cells  ;  exhibit 
a  tendency  to  necrosis,  followed  by  caseation,  occasionally  by 
calcification. 

The  disease  is  distinctly  contagious.  The  bacillus  of  one  mammal 
multiplies  in  the  bodies  of  other  mammals  ;  dogs  have  l)een  infected 
by  the  sputa  of  consumptive  human  patients  ;  the  milk  from  tuber- 
culous cows  has  infected  calves  and  pigs,  and  probably  children.  It 
is  doubtful  if  the  bacillus  of  avian  tuberculosis  is  a  distinct  species. 


INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES  173 

Tdberculosis— con<m?tec?. 

Tuberculosis  occurs  in  man  and  all  the  domesticated  animals  ;  cattle, 
swme,  and  poultry  are  most  frequently  affected  ;  horses  stand  next  • 
sheep  and  goats  are  not  so  susceptible  ;  dogs  and  cats  still  less  so. 
Ihe  tubercule  may  be  (1)  localised  in  particular  organs,  or  (2)  general- 
ised, affecting  several  systems,  their  serous  membranes  and  lymphatic 
glands.  ^ 

Tuberculosis  of  the  lungs.  Pulmonary  consumption  is  the  prominent  form 

in  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  cattle,  dogs,  and  cats  attacked. 
lubermle  of  the  7nesenteric  glands,  the  spleen,  and  liver,  is  the  form 

most  common  in  horses,  pigs,  and  poultry. 
Tubercular  arthritis,  common  in  human  patients,  is  not  so  frequent  in 
the  lower  animals,  but  sometimes  attacks  the  knee,  hock,  digital 
and  other  joints  of  cattle  and  horses. 
Preventive    more    important    than    curative    treatment.       Test    with 

tuberculin. 
Affected  animals  isolated.     No  suspects  used  for  breeding. 
Milk  from  cows  with  tuberculous  udders  or  generalised  tuberculosis 
frequently  contains  the  bacillus,  and  is  more  likely  than  the  flesh  to 
communicate  disease. 
Milk  from  afifected  subjects  should  not  be  used ;    that  from  suspects 

should  be  boiled  before  use. 
Carcases  showing  generalised  tubercule  to  be  destroyed. 
Diseased  carcases  or  organs  burned  or  deeply  buried. 
Animals  in  earlier  stages  stalled  by  themselves  in  airy,  comfortable 

quarters,  and  fattened. 
Antiseptic  inhalations  relieve  bronchial  irritation. 

Tonics,  alcoholic  stimulants,  iodine,   creosote,  and  antiseptics  relieve 
some  of  the  symptoms. 

Tympanites.    See  Hoven  and  Flatulent  Colic. 
Udder,  Inflammation  of.     See  Mammitis. 
Ulcers. 

A  breach  of  continuity  with  destruction  of  tissue,  leaving  an  indented 
wound,  dry  or  suppurating.     Ulcers  are  classified  as  Simple,  Weak 
Indolent,  Inflamed,  Phagedenic,  and  Specific, 
(a)  Simple  ulcers  discharge  thick  pus,  and  if  kept  aseptic  and 

free  of  irritation,  they  heal  quickly  by  granulation. 
(6)    Weak  or  cedematous  ulcers  require  mild  astringent  dressings 
Dust  with  calomel.     Paint  with  solution  silver  nitrate. 
A  bandage,  where  it  can  be  used,  affords  equable  healthy 
pressure.  '' 

Easily  digestible  nourishing  diet ;   the  patient  should  have 
suitable  exercise. 
(c)  Indolent  or  callous  ulcers  should  have  their  hard  edges  excised 
or  cauterised,  and  then  be  dressed  with  antiseptics,  iodine 
calomel,  or  iodoform. 
/J^  T'^l"  ^*^*^^^®  sometimes  benefits.    A  purgative  generally  useful 
(rf)  Inflamed  ulcers  require  removal  of  any  irritant,  with  medicated 
fomentation,  and  boric  acid  or  mild  astringent. 
Where  there  is  necrosis  use  antiseptics  freely. 
Purgative,  and  digestible  cooling  diet. 
(e)  Phagedenic  or  gangrenoiis  ulcers  require  free  scarification. 

Removal  of  any  irritant,  fomentations,  antiseptic  compresses. 
Occasional  painting  of  necrosing  edges  with  silver  nitrate  or 

undiluted  carbolic  acid. 
Pui'gatives,  salines,  antiseptics,  tonics  internallj-. 
(/)  Specific,  occurring  in  tuberculosis,  glanders,  and  actinomy- 
cosis ;  also  caused  by  necrosis  bacillus. 
Pare  or  scrape  away  unhealthy  tissue. 
Apply  iodoform,  iodine,  carbolic,  and  other  antiseptics. 
Glanders  ulcers  should  not  be  treated. 


774  INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES 

Urinary  Deposits.    See  Calculi. 

Urticaria. 

Surfeit ;  nettle-rash.     An  evanescent  erythema  of  the  skin,  occasion- 
ally of  the  mucous  membranes,  with  circumscribed,  rather  itching, 
serous     elevations  ;      usually    appearing    and     disappearing    with 
equal  rapidity.      Not  infrequent  in  horses,  dogs,  and  pigs ;   rare 
in  cattle  or  sheep. 
Damp  the  skin  repeatedly  with  an  alkaline  solution. 
When  rash  persists  or  recurs  give  cathartic  ;  attend  to  diet  and  cleanli- 
ness of  clothing,  avoid  washing  witli  cold  water. 

Urethritis. 

Catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  urethra  ;  discharge  containing  bacteria. 
Prepuce  and   surface  of  penis  may   be  affected.     Not  uncommon 
in  dogs. 
Copper  sulphate,  zinc  chloride,  or  silver  nitrate  injected  in  dilute  warm 

solution,  2  to  5  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water. 
Thorough  cleanliness.     Diluents  ;  alkalies. 
Copaiba  and  eucalyptus  are  useful  anodynes  and  antiseptics. 
Prevent  occlusion  bj'  cautious  introduction  of  clean  catheter. 
Persistent  obstruction  from  inflammation  or  gravel  in  male  sometimes 
requires  perineal  opening. 

Uterus,  Inflammation  of.     See  Metritis. 

Vaginitis. 

Inflammation  of  mucous  membrane  of  vagina.     Occurs  in  all  animals. 
Irrigate  with  mild  astringent  and  antiseptic  solutions. 
To  astringent  add  a  little  laudanum  if  irritation  persistent. 
Laxative  cooling  diet ;  keep  patient  quiet. 

Varicose  Vein. 

Permanent,  limited  dilatation  of  vein. 
Elastic  bandages,  cold  compresses. 
Good  food  ;  tonics. 
Where  enlarged  vein  liable  to  injury,  or  blocked  with  clot,  obliterate  by 

acupressure,  or  excise  after  double  ligation. 

Variola  Ovina. 

Sheep-pox.  A  contagious,  inoculable,  eruptive  fever,  probably  dejjcnd- 
ing  upon  a  niicrolje.  The  incubation  stage  four  to  seven  days. 
Papules  appear,  passing  into  vesicles  and  pustules.  The  mortality 
ranges  from  10  to  20  per  cent.,  but  is  greater  in  the  confluent 
malignant  form  occasionally  occurring.  Animals  attacked  are  sub- 
sequently immune.     Goats,  swine,  and  dogs  have  been  infected. 

Under  the  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Act  infected  and  in-contact 
subjects  are  slaughtered,  and  the  measures  adopted  in  other  con- 
tagious diseases  rigorously  carried  out. 

As  the  disease  runs  a  definite  course,  treatment  consists  in  good 
nursing  and  guarding  against  com])lications. 

Digestible  laxative  food.     Dress  in  bad  cases  Avith  antiseptics. 

Inoculation  of  healthy  shecj)  with  attenuated  virus  is  not  desirable, 
for  the  attack  produced  is  distinctly  contagious,  rather  severe,  and 
the  mortality  averages  2  per  cent. 

Variola  ovina  is  tlie  only  variola  which  occurs  in  the  lower  animals 
primarily  and  independently  of  inoculation. 

Variola  vaccina,  or  cow-pox,  results  from  accidental  retro-vaccination 
from  recently  vaccinated  human  patients,  and  similar  eruptions 
in  like  manner  occur  in  swine  and  occasionally  in  dogs. 

A  variola  equina  may  be  similarly  produced,  but  the  conditions 
described  as  horse-pox  are  not  variolous,  and  appear  to  be  pustular 
stomatitis  and  eruptions  on  the  genital  mucoua  membrane  (Fried- 
berger,  Frohner,  Trasbot). 


INDEX   OF   DISEASES   AND    REMEDIES  775 

Vertigo  in  Horse.    See  Megrims. 

ViLLITIS. 

Coronitis.    Inflammation  of  the  coronary  substance  in  horses.    Occurs 
from  standing  in  cold  water  or  snow.     Prevails  in  America  among 
horses  grazed  on  alkaline  marshes,  where  secretion  of  crust  checked 
or  arrested,  and  hoof  sometimes  gradually  separates. 
Remove  shoes ;  antiseptic  fomentations  and   a    laxative  abate  inflam- 
mation. 
Stimulate  coronet  with  a  mild  blister  so  soon  as  inflammation  removed. 
Where  even  one  hoof   is  undergoing  separation  the  horse  for  months 
requires  attention. 

Volvulus. 

Ileus.     Twist  of  bowel.     Affects  small,  occasionally  large,  intestine 
of  horse. 
Cannot  be  rectified  by  medical  treatment,  but  laparotomA',  if  undertaken 
early,  may  be  successful.     Rectal  exploration  useful  in  twisted  large 
colon. 

Warts. 

Verrucse.     Excrescences  on  the  skin  formed  by  hypertrophy  of  the 
papillas  and    epidermis.     Occur   in  all   veterinary  subjects :    most 
common  in  young  animals. 
Remove  by  excision,  torsion  or  ligature. 

Those  about  the  penis  liable  to  reappear  unless  their  site  is  cauterised. 
Acetic,  nitric,  and  chromic  acids,  and  silver  nitrate,  destroy  warts. 

Weed.    See  Lymphangitis. 

Whistling  in  Horses. 

Like  most  cases  of  roaring,  depends  upon  progressive  recurrent 
paralysis  and  atrophy  of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx.  It  is  a  higher- 
pitched  sound  than  roaring,  and  is  manifested  chiefly  in  the  lighter 
breeds.     See  Roaring. 

Wind-galls. 

Distended  synovial  bursae  ;  articular  and  tendinous. 
Equable  pressure  by  flannel  or  wash-leather  bandages  ;  bandages  wetted 

with  white  lotion. 
Rest,  hand-rubbing,  blisters  or  firing ;  aspiration.    Recurrence  is  common. 

Withers,  Fistulous.     See  Fistula  and  Abscess. 

Worms. 

Vermes.  A  group  of  endo-parasites,  the  following  most  frequently 
infesting  the  domestic  animals  : — 

Nematoda.     Round  and  Thread  Worms. 
Ascarides. 

Ascaris  megalocephala,  inhabiting  stomach  and  intestines  of  horses. 
Ascaris  Inmbricoides,  in  cattle  and  swine. 

Ascaris  Marginata  and  Mystax,  round  worms  of  dogs  and  cats. 
Ascaris  HeteraMs  and  other  species,  in  poultry  and  pigeons. 
Trichina  spiralis,  occurring  in  immature  form  in  flesh  of  swine,  which, 
when  eaten,  causes  trichiniasis  in  man  and  other  animals. 
In  horses  and  cattle,  aloes,  oil  of  turpentine,  bitters,  creolin,  lysol. 
Ferric  chloride  solution,  copper  sulphate,  arsenic,  salt  in  manger. 
For  dogs  and  cats,  santonin,   with  extract  of  male  fern,   repeated  at 
intervals  of  two  days,  and  second  dose  followed  by  laxative. 

Oxyures. 

Oxyuris  curvula  and  mastigodes,  in  horses,  generally  lodged  in  the 
rectum. 


776  INDEX    OF   DISEASES    AND    REMEDIES 

Worms,  Oxyttres — continued. 

Oxyuris  vermicularis,  in  dog. 
Enemas  of  vinegar,  sulphur  and  soft   soap,   salt  solution,  creolin,  or 
quassia  infusion. 

Strongylt. 

(n)  In  digestive  tract ;  (6)  In  air-passages, 
(a)  Strongylus  armatus  and  tttracanthus,  in  intestines  of  horses. 

Uncinaria  radiata,  (Esophagofstoma  injlatum,  etc. ,  in  cattle. 

Strongylus  contortus,  cervicornis,  gracilis,  and  others,  in  fourth  stomach 
and  intestine  of  sheep  and  goats. 

Uncinaria  trigonoccphcUa,  in  dog  and  cat. 

Strongylus  tenuis  and  nodularis,  in  poultr)'. 
(6)  Strongylus  micrurus,  in  air-passages  of  young  cattle,  rarely  of  horse 
and  ass. 

Strongylus  filar  in,  in  air-passages  of  sheep,  goat,  and  camel. 

Strongylus  ru/escens,  in  bronchial  tubes  and  lungs  of  sheep. 

Strongylus  paradoxus,  in  swine. 

Various  species  not  yet  identified  in  dogs  and  cats. 

Syngamus  trachealis,  in  po^lltrJ^ 
Strongyli-infested  horses  and  sheep  are  fasted,  and  receive  a  cathartic, 

conjoined  with  oil  of  turpentine,  or  thymol. 
For  the  S.  contortus  in  sheep,  give  solution  of  lysol  (1  per  cent.). 
For  dogs  and  cats  santonin  and  male  fern  extract,  or  areca  nut  and 

linseed  oil. 
For  the  S.  micrurus  in  air-passages,  turpentine  in  drench,  or  intratra- 

cheally  for  two  or  three  consecutive  daj's. 
Sulphurous  or  chlorine  inhalations.     Liber.al  concentrated  dietary. 
Remove  from  rough  old  pastures  to  seeds,  or  to  closely -cropped,  recently- 
mown  dry  grass. 
House  calves  at  night. 
Iti  poultry,  the  tip  of  a  partially-stripped  feather,  introduced  into  the 

fauces,  and  twisted  round  a  few  times,  usually  withdraws  some  of  the 

parasites. 
The  feather,  moistened  with  oil  of  turpentine  and  similarly  introduced, 

destroys  many  worms  which  it  does  not  reach. 

Trematoda.     Flukeworms. 

Disloma  hcpaticum,  causing  liver-rot  in  sheep,  rabbits,  and  hares,  and 
occasionally  cattle. 
Furnish  affected  sheep  with  concentrated  dry  food. 
Common  salt  and  ferrous  sulphate  dissolved  in  water,  given  daily,  mixed 

with  bran  or  crushed  grain. 
To  prevent  affected  sheep  losing  condition  and  disseminating  the  disease 

slaughter  as  soon  as  possible. 
Keep  sound  sheep  from  pastures  on  which  affected  sheep  have  grazed, 

from   low-lying  wet  land,    or   from   grazings  with   stagnant  pools — 

situations  which  nurture  the  fluke  embryo,  and  the  fresh-water  snail 

which  constitutes  the  intermediary  host. 
Other  species  of  distomala  occur  in  the  liver  and  organs  of  sheep  and 

other  animals. 

Cestoda.    TmtiXM.    Tapeworms. 

Most  animals  infested  with  one  or  more  species,  in  their  mature  stage 

inhabiting  the  intestines. 
Trenia  perfoliata,  plicata,  mamillana,  in  horse. 
T.  expansa,  denticulata,  and  alba,  in  cattle. 

T.  expansa,  in  sheep  and  goats,  destroj's  in  some  seasons  many  lambs. 
T.  cucumerina  (most  common),  serrata,  marginata,  ccenurus,  echino- 

coccus,  bothriocephalus,  in  dogs. 
T.  infundibuliformis  and  others,  in  poultry. 


INDEX    OF    DISEASES   AND   REMEDIES  777 

Worms,  Strongyli — continued. 

The  measles  of  pork,  beef,  and  mutton  are  tfenise  larvae,  found  chiefly 

in  the  muscles.     Each  produces  its  particulate  tapeworm. 
The  ccenurus  cerebralis,  the  hydatid  causing  sturdy  in  sheep,  is  the 
encysted  larva  of  T<x7iia  ccenurus,  and  attains  its  mature  form  in  the 
intestines  of   the  dog,   which  in  turn  disseminates  the  ova  which 
undergo  further  development  in  the  brain  of  the  sheep. 
Patients  should  be  fasted  twenty-four  hours  before  they  receive  the 

tfeniacide. 
Horses  and  cattle,  eating  tolerably  clean  vegetable  food,  are  not  so  fre- 
quently infested  as  the  dog  or  pig,  are  given  oil  of  turpentine  and  male 
fern  extract  in  milk  for  two  or  three  consecutive  days,  and  after  the 
last  dose  a  cathartic. 
Dogs  from  different  sources  swallow  the  larval  forms  of  six  different 
trenise.      Tre&ted  with   areca  nut  ten  to  sixty  grains  (accoi'ding  to 
size),  male  fern  extract  ten  to  fifteen  minims,  given  with  oil,  syrup  of 
buckthorn,  or  mucilage.     Dose  repeated  in  two  days. 
For  poultry,  areca  nut  five  to  thirty  grains,  repeated  in  two  or  three 

days,  followed  by  a  dose  of  oil. 
Taeniasis  prevented  by  isolating  and  curing  infested  subjects,  burning 
their  excreta,   and   preventing  animals   eating  uncooked  viscera  of 
sheep,  hogs,  rabbits,  or  other  animals  in  which  taenia  larvae  are  liable 
to  occur. 

Wounds. 

A  wound  is  defined  as  a  breach  of  continuity  of  any  part  of  the  body. 
Wounds  may  be  open  or  subcutaneous.     The  open  are  classified  as 
Incised,  Punctured,  Lacerated,  Contused,  and  Poisoned. 
Every  variety  requires  attention  to  the  following  conditions  :  — 

(1)  Absolute  asepsis. 

(2)  Perfect  arrest  of  haemorrhage. 

(3)  Accurate  apposition  of  severed  parts. 

(4)  Physiological  and  mechanical  rest. 
To  secure  asepsis — 

Foreign  bodies  are  removed  from  accidental  wounds. 

Adjacent  skin  is  shaved  or  closely  clipped. 

In  wounds  of  soft  parts,  the  edges,  if  very  dirty  or  damaged,  are  carefully 
cut  away. 

The  wound  and  adjacent  parts  are  thoroughly  and  freely  washed  with 
an  efifectual  germicide,  such  as  —  Carbolic  acid,  1  part  to  20  of 
water. 

Creolin  is  as  effectual  as  carbolic  acid,  but  less  irritant  and  non- 
poisonous. 

Corrosive  sublimate  1  part,  common  salt  8  parts,  water  1000  to  2000. 

Zinc  chloride  1  part,  water  40  to  SO  parts. 

Mercuric  iodide  and  pot.  iodide  each  1  part,  water  1000  parts. 

When  wounds  are  septic  several  of  these  germicides  should  be  used  in 
succession. 

Wounds  may  be  dusted  with  a  dry  dressing  of  iodoform,  iodol,  zinc 
oxide,  boric  acid,  or  chinosol. 

When  an  aseptic  state  has  been  secured,  less  powerful  agents  suffice  to 
maintain  it,  snch  as  solutions  of  boric,  salicylic,  or  sulphurous  acid, 
or  chlorinated  soda. 

Large,  lacerated,  contused  wounds  are  provided  with  drainage,  a  piece 
of  rubber  tubing  being  introduced  into  the  deepest  part,  and  a  depen- 
dent opening  secured. 

Introduction  of  fermentable,  putrefactive,  or  infective  material  pre- 
vented by  covering  with  several  folds  of  antiseptic  lint,  cotton 
wool,  or  oakum. 

Antiseptic  precautions  to  be  further  observed  as  to  instruments,  hands 
of  operator,  etc. 


Its  Index  of  diseases  and  remedies 

Wounds — continued. 

Haemorrhage  is  arrested  temporarily  by  application  of  a  tourniquet, 

permanently  by  ligature,  torsion,  pressure,  water  at  a  temperature 

of  about  12U°  Fahr.,  styptics  or  cautery. 
Accurate  apposition  of  severed  parts  effected  by  careful  suturing  with 

aseptic  silver  wire,  catgut,  horse-hair,  silk,  etc. 
Physiological  rest  is  secured  by  analgesics  ;  belladonna  liniment  and 

tincture  equal  parts,   diluted   with   O'O   to   100   water.      Laudanum 

diluted  ;  morphine  hypodemiically. 
Anatomical  rest  obtained  bj^  equable  pressure  of  dressings  and  bandages, 

support  of  splints  or  adhesives,  and  slinging  of  the  larger  animals. 
Wounds  properly  put  up  and  going  on  satisfactorily  should  be  disturbed 

as  little  as  possible,    except  for  cleansing  and   replacing  external 

dressings  ;  there  need  be  no  hurry  in  removing  aseptic  sutures. 
If  a  wound  becomes  inflamed  or  painful,  or  the  discharge  unhealthy, 

the  dressings  must  be  removed,  sutures  cut  out,  any  clots  or  other 

irritants  removed,  and  the  surfaces  irrigated  or  syringed  with  a  strong 

antiseptic. 
Opium  and  belladonna  used,  with  fomentations  and  antiseptics,  when 

there  is  much  pain. 
Excessive  granulation  checked  by  pressure,  astringents,  occasional  use 

of  caustic,  and  exposure  to  the  air. 
Attention  to   state   of  bowels,  cooling  digestible    diet,  and    healthful 

surroundings  essential  to  successful  treatment. 


INDEX  OF  MEDICINES 


PARE 

PAGE 

Absinthin 

606 

Acid,  prussic  .            .            .        418 

Absinthol 

606 

pyrogallic 

390 

Absorbents       .         590,  644, 

649,  660 

pyroligneous     . 

337 

Absorption  of  medicines  13, 

14,  15, 

salicylic 

558 

16. 

strychnic 

494 

Abstracts 

699 

sulpho- carbolic 

408 

Acacia,  gum    . 

645 

sulphuric 

324 

A.  C.  E,  anaesthetic  mixture  . 

70,  370 

sulphurous 

327 

Aceta  . 

339 

sylvic    . 

593 

Acetanilide 

SO,  383 

tannic    . 

637 

Acetate  of  ammonia    . 

168 

tartaric 

339 

copper  . 

245 

tartrate  of  potash 

186 

lead 

232 

valerianic 

589 

morphine 

460 

Acids,  general  actions 

321,  323 

potash   . 

186 

Acoin  . 

517 

zinc 

240 

Aconite 

536 

Acetates 

337 

experiments  with 

539 

Acetic  acid 

337 

extract  of 

543 

ether     . 

361 

Fleming's  tincture 

543 

Acid,  abietic    . 

593 

poisoning 

538 

acetic    . 

337 

Aconitine         .            .     537, 

543,  544 

aconitic 

537 

Acorns 

143 

arabic    . 

646 

Acrinyl  sulpho-cyanate 

569 

arsenious 

271 

Actinomycosis             .             178,  302 

benzoic . 

389 

Actions  of  medicines  explained         12 

boric  or  boracic 

341 

curative             .            .    17,  25 

camphoric 

623 

how  modified    .             .    22,  24 

carbolic 

397 

local  and  general           .           12 

carbonic 

336 

physiological     ,             .           12 

chromic 

335 

in  different  patients  19,  20,  21, 

cinnamic 

642 

269. 

citric 

340 

on  cattle,  20,  41,  94,  104,  123, 

crotonolic 

443 

168,  197,  233,  265,  269,  275, 

ergotinic 

613 

287,  352,  416,  431,  441,  443, 

gallic     , 

638 

447,  449,  464,  468,  482,  496, 

gentianic 

563 

497,  511,  516,  521,  597. 

hydrobromic     . 

335 

on  dogs,  21,  87,  94,  104,   124, 

hydrochloric     . 

330 

168,  197,  234,  238,  265,  275, 

hydrocyanic 

418 

287,  294,  313,  328,  339,  352, 

igasuric  or  strychnic 

494 

400,  41.3,  416,  421,  437,  441, 

lactic     . 

839 

443,  446,  449,  451,  464,  468, 

meconic 

459 

482,  498,  514,  516. 

muriatic 

330 

on  horses,  19,  20,  94,  103,  168, 

nitric     . 

332 

197,  233,  265,  267,  273,  287, 

nitro-hydrochloric 

334 

294,  312,  352,  413,  420,  430, 

oleic 

340 

441,  443,  449,  451,  464,  466, 

oxalic    . 

340 

480,  496,  515,  521,  596. 

phenic   . 

397 

on  pigs,  104,  197,  266,  275,  431, 

phosphoric 

334 

441,  443,  449,  468,  5 

11. 

780 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


Actions  of  medicines  on  sheep,  21,  94, 
104,  123,  197,  269,  275,  287,  352, 
413,  443,  498,  511. 


Actol                • 

1>1CS                      • 

OI 

250 

Actual  cautery 

52 

Acupuncture   . 

52 

Adeps,  hog's  lard 

671 

induratus 

674 

lanoe 

673 

Adhesives 

.'     674, ' 

083 

706 

Adjuvants 

688 

Administration    oi 

medicin* 

igj 

147, 

149,  150,  151,  693,  694,  690 

Adonidin 

527 

Adulterations . 

688 

^gyptiacum  ointment 

246 

^jrugo 

245 

iEther . 

70, 

357, 

acetic    . 

361 

chloric  . 

373 

nitrous  . 

362 

sulj)huric 

357 

^theris  nitrosi  spiritus 

362 

Age  of  patients 

. 

22 

Airol    . 

224 

Akazga,  African  ordeal  plant 

495 

Alcohol 

.     345, 

346 

347 

absolute 

, 

345 

amylic  . 

, 

348 

cthylic  . 

, 

345 

,  346 

methylic 

. 

347 

90  percent." 

70    „      „ 

60    „      „ 

. 

346 

45    „      ,, 

20     „      „  J 

poisoning 

351 

Aldehyd 

. 

345 

Ale       . 

348 

Alkalies,  general  a 

ttions 

169 

Alkaloids 

688 

Allopathy 

. 

26 

Allspice 

. 

575 

Almond  oil 

, 

703 

Aloe,  characters  of 

^ 

426 

Aloes,  Barbados 

, 

426 

caballine 

427 

Cape 

427 

comparative 

effects 

427 

East  Indian 

427 

Natal     • 

427 

Socotrine 

^ 

427 

Ejolutious  of 

, 

434 

tinctures  of 

434 

Aloetic  masses 

434 

Aloin   . 

428 

,435 

experiments 

with,    ¥. 

19, 

436, 

437. 

Alphol 

. 

393 

Alteratives,  128,  133,  171,  177,  181, 


Alteratives,  182,   188,   201,  212,  259, 

272,  278,  290,  296,  313,  314,  319. 

Althsea  radix  .  .  .         644 

Alum,  (ammonia)        .  .        219 

(potash)  .  .         219 

Alumen  exsiccatum  .  221 

Aluminium  and  its  compounds       219 

chloride  .  .         222 

sulphate  .  .         222 

Ammonia  alum  .  .        220 

derivatives        .  .         221 

Ammoniacum  gum      .  .         580 

Ammoniated  mercury  .         302 

tincture  of  opium  .         476 

Ammonium  and  its  compounds       161 

acetate  .  .         167 

bromide  .  .         163 

carbonate  .  .         166 

chloride  .  .         161 

liquor    .  .  .162 

spirit  of  .  .163 

Amorphous  quinine     .  .         552 

Amygdalin       .  .  ,         418 

Amyl-nitrite   .  .  348,  384 

alcohol  .  .         348 

Amyloform      .  .  .         387 

Amyloiodoform  .  .         387 

Amylum,  wheat-flour  .         654 

Analgesics  (Anodynes),  G6,  225,  233, 

308,  336,  373,  374,  375,  379,  380, 

382,  388,  391,  394,  409,  422,  470, 

474,   480,  484,  486,  490,  507,  510, 

512,  514,  537,  542,  625. 

Anaphrodisiaes  .         .     125,  177,  308 

Anaesthesia      .  .  .  71 

AncBsthetics,  69,  357,  365,  368,  374, 

377,  419,  424. 

administration,         74,  75,  372 

local,  70,  3G0,  371,  378,  404, 

409,  412,  416,  419,  422,  508, 

514,  516,  518,  537, 

Anethol  .  .  .        583 

Angustura  bark,  false  .        493 

Anhidrotics     .  .  .118 

Anise,  seed      .  .  .         682 

oil  .  .  .        583 

I  Anodynes  {see  Analgesics)       .  66 

!  Antacids,  95,  164,  166,  171,  174,  188, 

I      204,  211,  223,  290,  G78. 

I  Anthelmintics  (see  Vermicides)       112 

Anthcmidis  flores        .  .         588 

Antidotes        .  .     142,  144,  146 

Antiemetics,  100,  307,  374,  408,  470, 

I      545. 

Antifcbrin       .  .  .         383 

Antilithics       .  .     172,  188,  394 

Antimony  and  its  compounds         262 

chloride  .  .        264 

oxide     .  .  .        263 

sulphide  ,  ,        263 

tartariscd  .  ,        264 


INDEX   OF   MEDICINES 


781 


PAGE 

Antimony,  wine  of     .  .         271 

Antiparasitics  (see  Insecticides),  389, 

392,  393,  406,  409,  411,  412,  415, 

425,  441,  550,  585,  595,  603,  607, 

611,   624,  628,  634,  640,  641,  644, 

676,  681. 

Antipathy       ...  26 

Antiperiodics  .  .  48 

Antiputrescents  .  .  41 

Antipyretics,  136,  168,  181,  339,  349, 

354,  382,  388,  391,  394,  395,  397, 

411,  412,  554,  556,  559,  642. 

Antipyretics,    general    actions,    106, 

128,  135. 
Antipyrine  .  .  80,  381 

Antiseptics,  40,  41,  108,  177,  183,  184, 
190,  192,  195,  200,  202,  208,  223, 
239,  247,  250,  256,  261,  280,  299, 
301,  303,  306,  325,  327,  330,  335, 
341,  356,  375,  380,  382,  387,  388, 
389,  390,  391,  392,  394,  396,  397, 
402,  411,  412,  414,  415,  417,  418, 
425,  556,  559,  560,  573,  585,  587, 
593,  595,  603,  624,  627,  629,  638, 
642,  659,  660,  676. 
Antiseptics,  general  actions,  28,  36, 
37,  40. 

intestinal,   108,  223,  224,  308, 
387,  390,  391,  393,  409,  412, 
414,  417,  562,  585,  630. 
Antiseptic  surgery,  39,  402,  408,  561, 

562,  585,  628,  630. 

Antisialics       ...  93 

Antisecretories  .     479,  485,  519 

Antispasmodics,   164,  356,  359,  364, 

373,  374,  375,  377,  385,  422,  424, 

470,  480,  485,  490,  511,  524,  541, 

579,  634. 

Antispasmodics,  general  actions,  67, 

69. 
Antithermals,  106,  135,  354,  382,  412, 

541,  548. 

Antitoxines     .  .  ,        5,  6 

Antizymotics  ...  35 

Aperients  [see  Laxatives)        .         101 

Aphrodisiacs   .  .  125,  623 

Apomorphine  hydrochloride  461 

Apothecaries'  weights,  etc.    .         714 

Aqua    ....         153 

camphoraj  .  .         625 

chloroformi       .  .         373 

regia     .  ,  .         334 

fortis     .  ,  .         332 

Arabin  .  ,  .         646 

Arbutin  .  .  .        535 

Areca  catechu  .  .         604 

Areca-nut         .  .  ,         604 

Arecoline  hydrobromidc  ,         604 

Argentum  coUoidale  .  .         249 

Argenti  nitras  .  .         247 

Argentol  .  .  .250 


PAGE 

Argol  or  crude  tartar  ,         186 

Argonin            .            .  ,        250 

Aristol              .            .  .        417 

Arnica              .             .  .         580 

Arnicin            .             .  .         580 

Aromatic  carbon  compounds  388 

oils        .             .  .         704 

Arrowroot       .             .  .         654 

Arsenic  and  its  compounds  .         271 

antidotes           .  .         277 

poisoning           .  274, 276 

Arsenical  sheep-dips  .  .         280 

solutions           .  .        284 

Arsenious  acid             .  .        271 

Artemisia  absinthium  .         605 

maritima           .  ,         605 

Asafoetida        .            .  .         579 

Ascarides         .            .  .114 

Aseptic  suture  twist  .  .        407 

wounds              .  .           40 

Aseptol            .             .  .         408 

Aspidium  filix-mas      .  .         608 

Astringents,  206,  220,  223,  225,  231, 

233,  236,  238,  240,  244,  246,  247, 

256,   259,  261,  325,  330,  387,  567, 

636,  638. 

Astringents,  general  actions      56,  57 

intestinal,  107,  223,  234,  387, 

471,  561,  640. 

Atomic  weight  of  medicines  .  7 

Atropa  belladonna      .  .         477 

Atropine          .             .  .477 

compared  with  morphine     480 

Autumn  crocus            ,  .         619 

Avoirdupois  weight    .  .         713 

Axunge  or  hog's  lard  .         671 


Bacteria 
Bacterial  products 
Bactericides  (see  al.^o 
Germicides),  48,  19 
Bacteriology    . 
Balls  or  boluses 
Ball  mass 
Balsam,  Canada 

Friar's 

of  Gilead 

of  Peru 

of  Tolu 
Balsams 

Balsamodendron  myr 
Bandages 
Barbados  aloes 

tar 
Barbaloin 
Barium  chloride 
Bark,  cinchona 

oak 
Barley 
Barley  sugar    . 


nti 
250 


sept 


31,32 
33 

ics  and 
300. 

3 
692 
693 
592 
642 
592 
643 
643 

G43,  705 
573 

130,  6G0 
426 
424 
435 
216 
551 
566 
644 
657 


782 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


FAOB 

Barm  ....        645 

Bassorin  .  .  •         646 

Baths  .  .  .690 

cold       .  .  .690 

hot        .  .  .        691 

medicated         .  .         691 

sponge  .  .         692 

vapour  or  Turkish  .         691 

Bearberry  leaves         .  .         535 

Bear's  foot       .  .  .         610 

Beer     .  .  .  .348 

Bees  wax  .  .  .         683 

Belladonna       .  .  .         477 

compared  with  opium  480 

poisoning  .  480, 481 

preparations     .  .         487 

Benzin — petroleum  spirit        389,  424 

Benzene  •  .  388,  389 

Benzene  or  benzol  series  .         388 

Benzoated  lard  .  .         672 

Benzoates         .  .  .         642 

Benzo-naphthol  .  .         393 

Benzoic  acid    .  .  389,  642 

Benzoin  .  .  .         641 

compound  tincture  of  642 

Berberine  .  .  .         555 

Beta-naphthol  .  .         392 

Betel-nut         .  .  .604 

Betol    .  .  .  .393 

Bhang  .  .  .490 

Bicarbonate  of  potash  .         172 

soda      .  .  .         188 

Bile      .  .  .  ,109 

Bismuth  salts  .  .         222 

Bismuth  benzoate        .  .         224 

beta-naphthol  .  .         224 

dithio-salicylate  .         224 

liquor    .  .  .224 

oxide     .  .  .223 

oxycarbonate   .  .        223 

oxy-iodo-gallato  .         224 

oxynitrate         .  .         223 

salicylate  .  .         223 

subgallate  .  .         224 

tribromophenol  .         224 

Bisulphate  of  potash  ,  ,         176 

Bitters,  433,  438,  499,  535,  555,  560, 

5G4,  565,  566. 

Bituminous  shales       .  .         425 

Black  Alder     .  .  .         438 

bone  or  ivory    .  •         343 

hellebore  .  .         610 

oil  .  .  .         653 

sugar     .  .  .         653 

wash     .  .  .292 

Black-quarter  vaccine  .         685 

Bladder,   urinary,    drugs   acting  on, 

122,  389,  391,  392,  .394,  396,  485, 

500,  514,  535,  536,  625,  664. 

Blast  furnace  oils        .  .         399 

Bleaching  powder       .  .  48,  208 


Blisters  (see  also  Counter 
49,  53,  55. 

application  of 

fly 

Blood-letting  • 

topical  . 
Blue  pill 

ointment 

Prussian 

stone 

vitriol   . 
Boluses,  how  made,  etc. 

mass  for 
Bone  or  ivory  Idack 
Boracic  acid    . 
]>orax  . 
Boric  acid 
Borneo  camphor 
Boro-glyceride 
Bots  in  horses . 
Bottles 

Brain,  medicines  acting  on 
Bi'andy 
Brayera 
Bryonia 
Brimstone 
British  gum     . 
Bromide  of  ammonium 

potassium 

zinc 
Bromides 
Bromine 
Bromism 
Bromol 
Broom . 

Brucine  or  brucia 
Buckthorns 

syrup  of 
Buchu  . 

Burgundy  pitch 
Burnett's  disinfecting 
Burning 
Butter  of  antimony 

zinc 
Butyl- chloral  hydrate 
Buxine 

Caballtne  aloes 
Cade,  oil  of 
Caffeine 

citrate  . 
Cajuput 
Calabar  bean   . 
Calabarine 
Calcined  magnesia 
Calcii  carljonas 
Calcium  and  its  compounds 

oxide  of 

carbonate 

chlorata 

chloride 


litjuid 


PAO« 

irritants), 

55 
60 

138,  139 
140 
291 
288 
418 
243 
243 
693 

651,  693 
343 
341 
190 
341 
623 

343,  677 
113 
695 
62,63 
347 
607 
448 
316 
646 
163 

179,  307 
308 
306 
307 
308 
308 
534 
494 
438 
438 
535 
592 
46,  240 


45 
264 
232 
378 
535 

427 
586 
488 
488 
584 
502 
503 
210 
205 
202 
203 
205 
208 
208 


INDEX   OF   MEDICINES 


783 


PAGE 

Calcium  phosphate     . 

207 

Calisaya  bark  . 

551 

Calomel 

292 

Calumba  bark 

565 

Calvert's  disinfecting  powder 

398 

Calx  chlorinata 

208 

Camphor 

622 

artificial 

623 

Borneo  • 

623 

compound  liniment 

625 

oil  or  liquid 

623 

spirit     . 

625 

Campli  orated  oil 

625 

Camphoric  acid 

623 

Camphors 

623,  704 

Canada  balsam 

592 

Cane  sugar 

657 

Cannabin 

490 

Cannabis  indica 

489 

Cantharides     . 

661 

liniments  of 

669 

ointments  of 

667 

plasters  of 

669 

tinctures  of 

667 

vinegars  of 

667 

Cantharidin     . 

662 

Cantharis  vesicatoria  . 

661 

Capsaicin 

575 

Capsicum 

575 

Caraway 

583 

Carbo  animalis 

343 

hydrates 

654,  659 

ligni       . 

343 

Carbolic  acid  . 

397 

tow 

408 

wool 

408 

Carbon 

343 

Carbonate  of  ammonia 

166 

iron 

256 

lead 

231 

of  lime  . 

205 

magnesia 

211 

potash  . 

172 

soda 

188 

zinc 

237 

Carbonic  acid  . 

336 

Carbo  sapol 

400 

Cardamoms      . 

583 

Cardiac  sedatives       91,171, 

453,  538 

stimulants,  87,  167,  363,  484, 

525,  586. 
tonics,  89,  479,  495,  525,  529, 
533,  534. 
Carminatives  (see    also  Stomachics), 

106,  359,  363,  455,  555,  577. 
Carron  oil         .  .     205,  403,  650 


Casca  or  doom 

Cascara  sagrada 

Cascarilla  bark 

Cascarillin 

Cassia  acutifolia  or  senna 


537 
438 
566 
566 
449 


PAGE 

Castor  oil        .  .  .        439 

seeds     ,  .  ,        439 

Cataplasmata  (poultices)        .        707 

Catechin  .  .  ,        635 

Catechu  pale   .  ,  .        635 

black     .  .  .         635 

infusion  .  .         636 

tincture  .  .         636 

Cathartics,  100,   101,   176,  191,   199, 

212,  214,  296,  428,  435,  438,  4.39, 

441,  442,  443,  446,  447,  449,  455, 

620,  651,  659. 

Cathartics  for  cattle,  104,  176,  191, 

199,  214,  441,  443,  447,  652,  659. 

dogs,  104,  211,  291,  431,  437, 
438,  441,  443,  446,  449,  647,  652. 

horses,  103,  428,  434,  436,  441, 
443,  652. 

sheep    .         104,  433,  441,  447 

pigs         104,  431,  441,  443,  449 

Caustic  ammonia         .  .         162 

lime       .  .  .203 

lunar     .  .  .         246 

potash  .  -  .         246 

soda       .  .  .188 

Caustics,  49,  172,  239,  246,  247,  262, 

264,  272,  279,  299,  301,  326,  330, 

333,  335,  399,411. 

Caustics,  general  actions         .  61 

Cautery,  actual  .  .  52 

Cayenne  pepper  .  ,         575 

Cera  alba         .  .  .683 

flava      .  .  .683 

Cerates  .  .  683,  705 

Cerebral  sedatives,  62,  357,  374,  379, 

380. 

stimulants  62,  346,  357,  373 
Cerevisife  torula  or  yeast  .31,  645 
Cerin    .  .  .  .683 

Cetaceum         .  •  .         682 

Cevadilla  .  .  .         547 

Chalk  .  _  .  .  .205 

mixtures  .  .         206 

Chamomile  flowers      .  ,        588 

Charcoal,  animal         .  .        343 

wood     .  .  .343 

Charges  .  .  .707 

Chemical  constitution  of  medicines,  8 
Chillies  .  .  .575 

Chinaseptol      .  .  .         394 

Chinese  twist  .  .  .         407 

Chinoline         .  .  .395 

Chinosol  .  .  ,396 

Chiretta  .  .  .565 

Chloralamide  .  .  .         379 

Chloral  hydrate  .         65,  71,  374 

Chloralum        .  .  .222 

Chlorate  of  potash       .  .         182 

Chloric  ether  .  .  .373 

Chloride  of  ammonium  ,         161 

antimony  .  .         264 


784 


INDEX   OF   MEDICINES 


Chloride  of  barium 

lime 

sodium  . 

zinc 
Chlorides  of  mercury 
Chlorinated  lime 

soda 
Chlorine 
Chlorodyiie 
Chloroform 

compared  with  ether 

precautions  in  using 

spirits  of 


Cholagogues  {see  Hepatic  stimulants) 


102,  110,   161,  176 
429,  449,  450,  453 
621. 
Chondrin 
Christmas  rose 
Chrysarobin     . 
Chrysophan     , 
Chrysophanic  acid 
Chromic  acid  . 
Churrus 
Cicuta  virosa  . 
Cinchona 

alkaloids 

grey  or  pale 

red 

tinctures 

yellow  . 
Cinchonidine 
Cinchonine 
Cinchonism 
Cinnabar 

Cinnamic  aldehyde 
Cinnamon 

oil 
Cocaine  hydrochloride 

substitutes 
Citrate  of  iron  and  quinine 
Citric  acid 
Citrine  ointment 
Classifications  of  medicines,  7,  8,  9 

10,  11. 
Claviceps  purpurea     .  .         612 

Climate  modifying  medicinal  action, 

22. 
Clothing  .  .  130,  660 

Clysters  or  enemata,    15,    149,   157, 

359,  378,  475,  599,  676,  678,  695. 
Coal  tar  .  .  .425 

Codeine  .  .  .         460 

Cod-liver  oil    .  .  .669 

for  feeding  purposes    .        670 
Colchicine       .  .  .620 

Colchicum  autumnale  .         619 

Cold  applications        .  .         158 

a  natural  tonic  .  49 

sponging  .  158,  692 

Collidine  .  .  .631 


PAGE 

216 

208 

195 

239 

292,  298 

208 

201 

309 

373 

70 

370 

73,  369 

373 


295,  300,  333, 
455,  546,  560, 


674 
610 
641 
454 

454,  641 
335 
490 
509 
551 

552,  553 
551 
551 
557 
551 
553 
553 
555 
285 
578 
578 
578 
70,  514 

517,  518 

255,  557 
340 
304 


PACK 

Collodion  contractile .  .        361 

flexible.  .  .        362 

styptic .  .  .640 

CoUonsonia  canadensis  .        536 

Collunaria       .  .  .         703 

CoUutoria        .  .  .703 

Collyria  .  .  .703 

Colocynth         .  .  .449 

Colophony — resin        .  .         601 

Combination  of  medicines       .         687 

Common  mass  .  660,  692 

salt        .  .  .195 

Compound  powder  of  catechu         636 

Condy's  fluid    .  .  .  46,  184 

Confections      .  .  .         711 

Conine  hydrobromide  .         509 

Conium  maculatum     .  .         508 

Constipation    .  .     105,  522,  697 

Contagious  disorders  .  .        2,  3 

prevention    of,    3,    5,    33,  42, 

44,46. 

Convallaria  Majalis     .  .         537 

Convolvulus  Scammonia         .         448 

Cooper's  salts  ...  46 

Copper  acetates  .  .        245 

iodide    .  .  .         245 

poisoning  .  .         242 

resinate  .  .         245 

sulphate  .  .         243 

Coriander        .  .  .         583 

Corn  flour,  Oswego     .  .        655 

Cornutine        .  .  .         613 

Correctives      .  .  .        688 

Corrosives,    140,   171,  247,  272,  299, 

300,  321,  325,  330,  ,332. 

Corrosive  sublimate    .  .         298 

antidotes  for     .  .         300 

poisoning  by     .  .         299 

Goto  bark        .  .  .107 

Cotton  ,  .  .644 

Counter-irritation       .  .  49 

Counter-irritants  (blisters),  49,  53,  54, 

158, 165,  270,  2S8,  .303,  314, 338,  445, 

550,570,598,  610,  662,  664,  665,  668. 

Cough    mixtures,   86,    87,    168,  371, 

473,  530. 


Cramp . 

68 

Cream  of  tartar 

186 

Creolin  (Jeyes') 

41,  412 

Creosote 

408 

Cresol . 

412 

Creta  prceparata 

205 

Croton               .             .% 

442 

cake 

443 

cascarilla 

566 

oil 

443 

seeds     . 

442 

Croton-olic  acid 

443 

Cryptopine 

459 

Cubebs  pepper 

575 

INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


785 


PAGE 

Cumulative  medicines 

18 

Cuprea  Ijarks  . 

552 

Cupri  acetas  . 

245 

iodidum 

245 

sulphas 

243 

Cuprum 

241 

Curare 

61,  523 

Curarina 

523 

Curative  action  of  medicines 

26 

Ciisso  . 

607 

Cyanide  of  potassium 

422 

Cj^anogen  gas  . 

418 

Cymogene 

423 

Danda  oil  or  Assu  juice 

439 

Dandelion 

568 

Datura  stramonium    . 

513 

Deadly  nightshade 

477 

Death  during  anaesthesia 

73 

Decoctions 

694 

Deliriants 

66 

Delphinium  staphisagria 

607 

Demulcents,  58,  644,  646,  6 

51,  656, 

659,  673,  674,  676,  682. 
Deobstruents  .  .  .134 

Deodorisers,  28,  36,  46,  184,  192,202, 

208,  309,  310,  327,  338,  344,   386, 

406,  412,  415,  627,  660. 
Depressants    .  ,  .  63 

Derivation  or  Counter-irritation      49 
Dermatol         .  .         224 

Desiccants,  205,  206,  220,  223,  224, 

225,  231,  236,  297,  344,  387,  391, 

392,  393,  397,  414,  416,  417,  562, 

585,  656,  682. 
Detergents       .  .    172,  678,  692 

Dextrin  .  .  ,         655 

Dextrose — grape  sugar  •         655 

Diachylon  plaster        .  .         231 

Diaphoretics,  116,  168,  262,  264,  364, 

519,  520,  544,  604,  620,  629. 
Diaphoretics,  general  actions,  116, 117 
Diarrhoea  .  .  106,  206 


Dick's  (Professor)  cough-balls 

531 

iodine  balls 

312 

■w  hite  lotion 

239 

Dieting 

129 

Diffusible  stimulants,  63, 164,  349 

,359 

Digitalein 

525 

Digitalin 

524 

varieties 

532 

Digitalis 

524 

experiments  with 

528 

Digitin 

525 

Digitonin         .    **       . 

525 

Digitoxin 

525 

Diluents 

59 

Diphtheria  antitoxine 

5 

Diseases  treated  by  inoculation 

5,6 

Diseases  modify  actions  of  medi- 

cines 

24 

PAGE 

Diseases,  how  cured  .  .  25 

Disinfectants,  36,  38,  42,  46, 184, 202, 

208,  222,  240,  258,  301,  309,  310, 

327,  338,  344,  386,  387,  397,  406, 

412,  414,  415,  573,  627,  629. 

Disinfectants,  general  actions,  29,  36 

Dithion  .  .  .562 

Diuretic  ball   .  .  .112 

mass      .  .  .         181 

Diuretics,   161,   16S,   174,    176,    177, 

181,  183,  186,  187,  297,  364,  381, 

383,  520,  525,  533,  534,  535,  573, 

586,  593,  620,  629,  642. 

Diuretics,  general  actions,  118,  120, 

121. 
Dogs,  actions  of  medicines  on,  21,  87, 
94,  104,  124,  168,  197,  234,  238, 
265,  275,  287,  294,  313,  328,  339, 
352,  400,  413,  421,  431,  441,  449, 
464,  482,  498,  516. 

emetics  for.  99,  100,  167,  201, 

220,  239,  244,  246,  264,  461, 

545,  679. 

vermicides  for,   112,  597,  605, 

606,  608,  609,  611,  619. 

Dolomite  .  .  .210 

Donovan's  solution      .  .         284 

Doses  of  medicines      .  .         147 

Dover's  powder  .  476, 546 

Drastic  cathartics       .     101,  443,  446 

Drenches,  draughts,  or  drinks       694 

Drenching  horn  .  .         695 

Dried  alum      .  .  .221 

Drj'  cupping    ...  53 

Drying  milch  cows      .  .         127 

Dryobalanops  camphora         .         623 

Ductal  .  .  .412 

Easton's  syrup  .  255,  501 

Ecbolics  .  .     126,  012,  617 

Elaterium        .  .  .         446 

Elective  afEnity  .  .  17 

Electricity       ...  80 

Electrolysis     ...  81 

Electuaries      .  .  .  86,  711 

Elemi  resin      .  .  .         574 

Eliminatives   .  .  .         295 

Elixirs  .  .     306,  390,  712 

Ellerman's  fluid  .  .  46 

Embrocations  .  .         706 

Emetics,  100,  167,  201,  220,  238,  244, 

246,  247,  265,  461,  545,  570,  620, 

679. 
Emetics,  general  actions      96,  98,  99 
Emetine  .  .  .         545 

Emollients,   58,  425,   646,   651,  656, 

676,  682. 
Emplastra        .  .  .         706 

Emulsions        .  .  417,  703 

Endermic   application  of   medicines, 

151. 


3d 


786 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


Enemata,    157,    182,   359,   432,   475, 

599,  634,  657,  678,  695,  697. 
Enzymes-organic  ferments  30,  36 


PAQE 

Fats  and  fixed  oils      .  .         647 

Febrifuges  (see  Antipyretics),  138, 212, 
215,  296,  364,  381, 383,  541,  548,  554 


Epidermic  administration 

10 

'  Fennel 

,            , 

583 

Epsom  salt 

212 

Fenugreek 

583 

Ergot  . 

612 

Fermentation,  acetous 

337 

Ergotin 

617 

vinous  . 

345 

Ergotinic  acid 

613 

Ferments,  organic 

30 

Errhines 

84 

organised 

30,37 

Erythroxylon  coca 

514 

Fern  rhizome  . 

608 

Escharotics  (see  Caustics) 

51 

Ferri  carbonas 

256 

Eserine 

502 

carbonas  saccharatus   . 

256 

Eseridine 

508 

iodidum 

259 

Essential  oils  . 

704 

peroxidum  humidum.  . 

259 

Ether  . 

357 

pernitratis 

261 

acetic    . 

361 

sulphas 

256 

chloric  . 

373 

Ferric  salts 

251 

nitrous . 

362 

perchloride 

260 

sulphuric 

357 

Ferrocyanides 

251 

Ethereal  oil    . 

361 

Ferrous  salts   . 

251 

Ethyl  alcohol  , 

345 

sulphate 

256 

bromide 

346 

Ferrum 

251 

chloride 

346 

Ferruni  redactum 

255 

nitrite  . 

302,  363 

Ferratin 

255 

Eucaine 

518 

Fever  medicines  (see  Antipyretics)  135 

Eucalyptus  globulus  . 

582 

Flax,  cominon 

648 

Eucalyptol 

584 

Flexible,  collodion 

362 

Eulyptol 

585 

Flies,  blistering 

661 

Euphorbium    . 

609 

Flowers  of  sulphur      . 

317 

Euphorbon 

610 

Fhiid  extracts 

698 

pjurophen 

417 

Fomentations  . 

700 

Evacuants 

157 

Fool's  parsley . 

509 

Excipients,  647,  654,  659,  6 

60,  675, 

Foot-rot  dressings,  244,  264,  280 

,403, 

679,  682,  692. 

411,  425,  603,  619. 

Excitants — stimulants 

63 

Formaldehyd  . 

386 

Exercise 

131 

Formalin 

386 

Exalgin 

67,  394 

Fowler's  solution 

280 

Exhilarants 

64 

Foxglove 

524 

Expectorants,  84,  161,  164,  1 

67,  177, 

Frankincense  . 

590 

181,  265,  270,  272,  313,  3 

89,  522, 

Freezing  mixtures 

159 

534,  545,  573,  579,  593,  600 

,  642. 

Friar's  balsam 

642 

Experiments  on  actions  of  mc 

dicines. 

Friction 

50 

2,  267,  368,  375,  385,  400,  4 

01,  404, 

Fructose  or  Insvulose 

658 

410,  413,  435,  436,  437,  4 

i4,  451, 

Fullers'  earth  . 

222 

466,  467,  481,  482,  491,  5 

35,  528, 

Fumigations    . 

713 

539,  544. 

Extract,  Goulard's 

233 

Galactagogues 

126 

Extract  of  aconite 

543 

Galbanum 

581 

belladonna 

i86,  487 

Gallic  acid 

638 

ergot 

617 

Galls  or  GalL-e 

637 

Indian  hemp 

490 

Gambier 

635 

male  fern  . 

609 

Gamboge 

446 

nux  vomica 

502 

Gargles  and  sprays,  86,  161,  182, 

200, 

opium 

t76,  477 

249,  328,  414,  556,  585,  588, 

639, 

Extracts          .             .             ( 

398,  699 

660. 

Eye,  remedies  acting  on,  82,  1 

95,221, 

Gastric  juice    . 

13 

234,  238,  244,  249,  301,  3( 

)4,  479, 

Gastric  stimulants  or  tonics,  95, 

278, 

486,  503,  515,  605. 

323,  495,  501,  507,  547,  548, 

555. 

564,  565,  573,  605,  624,  680,  681. 

F^x  saccharl  .            , 

-      658 

sedatives,  371,  470,  485. 

Farad  ism 

80 

Gelatin 

. 

674 

INDEX    OF    MEDICINES 


787 


PAGE 

Gelsemine        •  .  .        495 

Gentian            .  .  ,         563 

infusion  .  .         565 

tincture  .  .         565 

Gentiana  lutea  .  •        563 

Gentianin         .  .  .         563 

Gentiopicrin    .  .  .         563 
Germicides  (see  Antiseptics),  48,  250, 

408,  412,  559. 

Ginger             .  .  .         576 

preserved  .  .         576 

tincture  .  .         578 

Gingerin          .  .  .         578 

Gins     .            ■  .  .347 
Glandular  stimulants,  177,  290,  520, 

565,  573,  604. 

Glauber  salt    .  .  .         191 

Glonoin            .  .  .386 

Glucose  or  dextrose  .  .        658 

Glucosides       .  .  .690 

Glue     .            •  .  .674 

plasters  .  .         675 

Glusidum  (saccharin)  .         390 

Glutol.            .  .  .387 

Glycerin           .  .  .675 

of  alum  .  221,  677 

,,  belladonna  .  .         487 

,,  boric  acid  .  .         343 

,,  borax  .  .         120 

,,  carbolic  acid  .         676 

,,  iodine  .  .         316 

,,  pepsin  .  .         681 

,,  starch  .  .         676 

,,  tannic  acid  .  640,  676 

Glycerina         .  .  .         701 

Glycoformal    .  .  .387 

Glycyrrhizse  radix  .  .         653 

Glycyrrhizin    .  .  .         653 

Golden  eye-ointment  .  .         304 

Golden  seal     .  .     126,  555,  564 

Goose  grease   .  .  .        672 

Gossypium      .  .  .         644 

Goulard's  extract  .  .         232 

Grape  sugar    ,  .  .        658 

Green  vitriol   .  .  .         256 

Gregory's  mixture  .  .         455 

Grey  powder  .  .  .        290 

Guaiacol          .  .  .411 

Guarana           .  .  .        488 

Gum  acacia     .  .  .         645 

ammoniacum  .  .         580 

Arabic  .  .  .         645 

Bassorin  .  .        646 

benzoin  .  .         641 

British .  .  646,  655 

Cape     .  .  .         646 

resins    .  .  .         710 

Senegal  .  .         646 

tragacanth  .  .         645 

Gun  cotton      .  .  .361 

Gun  j  ah            .  .  .        490 


162 

490 

(see 


4.5 

708 

45 

49,  701 

610 

549 

349 

611 

527,  611 

527,  610 

508 

512 

513 

110 


Habit  modifies  the  action  of  medi- 
cines, 23. 
Hsematinics — blood   tonics,    23,    123, 

133,  252,  255,  258,  259. 
Hfematoxylon  (logwood)        .         636 
Haemoglobin    ...  29 

Hjemostatics,  57,  234,  236,  344,  355, 

383,  409,  530,  596,  616,  639. 
Hartshorn 
Haschisch 

Heart,     medicines    acting     on 
{      Cardiac),  87. 
I  Heat    . 

and  moisture 
a  disinfectant 
a  stimulant 
Hellebore,  black 
green    . 
white    . 
Helleborin 
Helleborein 
Helleborus  niger 
Hemlock 

succus  . 
Henbane  or  hyoscyamus 
Hepatic  depressants   . 

stimulants    (see    Cholagogues), 

110,  300,  333,  429,  449,  450,  453, 

455,  546,  560,  621. 

Hoffmann's  anodyne  .  .  .         361 

Hollands  .  .  .347 

Holocaine         .  .  .517 

Homatropine  hydrobromide,  477,  488 

Homoeopathy  ...  26 

Honey  or  mel .  .  .         659 

Horse,   action   of  medicines   on   (see 

p.  779),  19,  20. 

alteratives        .  134,  182 

anaesthetics       •  .  70 

anodynes  .  .  67 

antipyretics      .  .         135 

cathartics,  103,  428,  436,  441, 

443,  652. 
diuretics 
sedatives 
stimulants 
tonics    . 
vermicides 
Hordeum 

Horses  do  not  vomit 
Hot  fomentation 
Hot  iron 
Huile  de  cade  . 
Hyderabad — chlorofor 

72,  369,  370. 
Hydragogue  cathartics  ,         102 

298 
292 
290 
290 
302 


121 
65 

64,  350,  364 

133 

113 

644 

20 

157 

52 

586 

m  experiments, 


Hydrargyri  bichloridum 
chloridum 
,cum  creta 
emplastrum 
iodida  . 


788 


INDEX    OF    MEDICINES 


PAGE 

Hydrargyri  linimentum         .  2S1> 

nitratis               .             .  304 

unguentum         .  288 

oleas      .            .            .  289 

oxidum  flavura             .  292 

nigrum  .            .  291 

rubrum  .             .  292 

perchloridum    .             .  298 

pilula    .  .  .291 

subchloridum   .             .  292 

unguentum        .             .  288 

Hydrargyrum .             .             .  285 

Hydramel  or  pentane              .  46 

Hydrastis  Canadensis     126,  555,  564 

Hydrobromic  acid       .             .  335 

Hydrochloric  or  muriatic  acid  330 

Hydroctarnine             .             .  459 

Hydrocyanic  or  prussic  acid  .  418 

Hydrogen  peroxide     .             .  627 

Hydronaphthol            .             .  393 

Hydrotherapy              .             .  117 

Hydroquinone              .             .  390 

Hygienic  remedies      .            .  130 

Hyoscine         .            .            .  513 

Hyoacyamine  .            .            .  513 

Hyoscyamus  niger      .            .  513 

Hypnone          ...  65 

Hypnotics  produce  sleep,  64,  374,  379, 

380,  490. 

Hypodermic  injections,  17,  152,  377, 

382,  385,  396,  437,  461,  467,  475, 

481,  487,  489,  502,  508,  512,  514, 

517,  518,  522,  543,  544,  547,  548, 

557,  605,  617,  622,  643- 

Hypodermic  S3'ringe  .             .  152 

Hypochlorite  of  calcium         .  208 

Ice       .  .  .  .        159 

Ice-bag  .  •  .         159 

Ichthyol  .  .  .681 

Idiosyncrasies  .  .  23 

Indian  hemp   .  .  .         489 

tobacco  .  .         634 

Infusion  of  catechu     .  .         636 

cinchona  .  .         557 

ergot     .  .  .        617 

gentian  .  .        565 

opium   ,  .  .        476 

tobacco  .  .         634 

Infusions  .  .  .         702 

Infusoria  .  .  .30 

Inhalations,  87,   149,  328,  372,  396, 

410,  599,  642,  712. 
Injections,  intramuscular,   501,    548, 
562,  617. 

intratracheal,  15,  87,  150,  284, 

378,  383,  40,'"),  411,  482,  508, 

512,  522,  557,  597,  622,  643. 

intravenous,  150,218,  376,  378, 

429,  605. 
rectal    .  .  ,15,  149 


Injections,  subcutaneous  (see  Hypo- 
dermic),  17,   151,  200,  284, 
461,  475,  487,  489,  502,  508, 
512,  517,  521,  544,  547,  548. 
Iiijectio  apomorphina,'   hypodermica, 
461. 

atropinjB  hypodermica         487 

ergotje  ,,  617 

morphinaj  ,,  475 

Inoculations    .  .  4,  5,  6,  7 

Insecticides  (see  Antiparasitics),  48, 

192,  607. 
Intestinal  antiseptics  and   disinfect- 
ants, 108,  223,  224,  308,  389,  390, 
391,  393,  405,  409,  412,  414,  417, 
562,  585,  630. 


astringents,            107, 

387 

640 

stimulants      216,  502, 

519 

604 

Iodide  of  copper 

245 

iron 

255 

lead 

232 

mercury 

302 

potassium 

177 

starch    . 

311 

sulphur 

316 

Iodine  • 

310 

ointment 

316 

solutions 

315 

tinctures 

316 

lodism 

178 

313 

Iodoform 

415 

Iodoform  substitutes,  387, 391 

417,418 

lodoformal 

418 

lodoformin 

418 

lodoformogen  . 

418 

lodol    . 

417 

lodum , 

310 

lodo-salicylic  acid 

418 

Ipecacuanha    . 

544 

Iron  and  its  salts 

251 

and  quinine  citrate 

255 

557 

arsenate 

255 

carbonate 

256 

chloride 

260 

hydrated  peroxide 

259 

iodide    . 

259 

phosphate 

255 

501 

saccharine  carbonate 

256 

sulphate 

256 

salicylate 

562 

tincture 

260 

Isinglass 

674 

Itrol     . 

250 

Izal       . 

415 

Jarorandi 

519 

Jaborine 

519 

Jalap    . 

448 

Jamaica  ginger 

577 

pepper .             • 

575 

James's  powder 

263 

INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


789 


PAGE 

Jasmine            •             .  ,         495 

Jervine             .             .  .         549 

Jesuits'  bark    .             .  .551 

Jeyes'  fluid       •             .  ,         412 

Jonah's  gourd               .  .         439 

Juniper  tops  and  berries  .         5S6 

Juniperus  communis  .  .         586 

sabina  .            .  .         617 

oxycedrus          .  .         586 

Jute     .             .             .  .649 

Kaieine          .            .  .         396 

Kaladana  purgative  seeds  .         448 

Kalium  or  potassium  salts  .         169 

Kamala  a  vermifuge   .  114,611 

Kaolin               .             .  .         2'22 

Kelp     .            .            .  .310 

Keratin            .            .  .         679 

Kermes  mineral          .  .        263 

Kidneys            .             ,  .119 

Kino    .            .            .  .636 

Koch,  Professor          .  3,  38,  299 

Kousso  a  vermifuge    ,  .        607 

Krameria  triandra       .  .         636 

Kreosote  or  creosote  •  .         408 


Labaeraque's  soda  disinfecting  fluid, 

201. 

Lactose  or  lactine        .  .         658 

Lanoline           .             .  .         673 

Lanthoptine    •            .  .459 

Laudanine       .            .  .         459 

Laudanosine    .            .  .         459 

Lcevulose— left-handed  sugar  658 

Lapis  infernalis            .  .         246 

Lard    .            .            .  .671 

Larkspur  or  stavesacre  .         606 
Laudanum  or  tincture  of  opium     476 

Laughing  gas  .             .  .           70 

Lavender          .             .  .         587 

Laxatives,   101,   175,    186,  211,  290, 

314,  319,  438,  455,  646,  651,  659, 
678. 

Lead  and  its  compounds  •        225 

acetate  •            .  ,         232 

carbonate          .  ,         231 

iodide    •            .  .        232 

oxide     .            .  ,        231 

oleate    .             ,  .231 

plaster  .            .  .231 

poisoning  with  .         226 

antidotes  for  .         231 

sugar  of              .  .         232 

■white     •            .  .231 

Leopard's  bane  or  arnica  .         580 

Leucocytes       ...  29 

Lime,  burnt     •            .  .         203 

carbonates        .  .        205 

chloride             .  .         208 

chlorinated       .  .         208 

hydrate             .  .         204 


PAGE 

Lime,  phosphate         .  .        207 

saccharated       •  .         205 

water    .  .  .         204 

Liniment  of  ammonia  .         166 

belladonna         .  .         487 

camphor  .  .         625 

cantharides       .  .         669 

croton    .  .  .         445 

lime       .  .  .205 

mercury  .  .        289 

opium    .  .  .        477 

soap       •  .  ,         679 

turpentine         .  .         599 

Liniments,    166,  205,   231,  407,  445, 
474,  477,  487,  543,   599,  625,  667, 
689,  706. 
Linseed  .  .  .         648 

cake      .  .  .        649 

meal      .  .  -649 

oil  .  .  .         649 

Lint     .  .  .  .649 

Linum  usitatissimum .  •        648 

Liquor  ammonice  fortis  .         162 

acetatis  .  .         167 

arsenicalis         .  .         284 

arsenici  et  hydrargyri  iodidi, 

284. 
atropinte  sulphatis        •        487 
calcis     .  ,  .         204 

carbonis  detergens        .         425 
chlori    .  .  .309 

ethyl  nitritis     .  .         362 

ferri  perchloridi  .         260 

hydrargyri  perchloridi         301 
iodi        .  .  .316 

pancreatis         .  .         681 

picis  carbonis    .  .        425 

potassEe  .  .         171 

trinitrini  .  .        386 

Liquors  .  .  .         702 

Liquorice  root  .  .        653 

sugar     .  .  .653 

Litharge— oxide  of  lead  .         231 

Lithium  salts  .    .        .  .         169 

Lithontriptics .  .     123,  172,  174 

Liver,  drugs  acting  on  ,  .  109 
stimulants,  109,  110,  333,  429, 
449,  450,  455. 
Lobelia — Indian  tobacco  .  634 
Logwood  an  astringent  dye  .  636 
Long  pepper    .  .  .         574 

Loose  box        .  .  .1.30 

Loretin  .  .  .418 

Losophan  .  .  .418 

Lotions,  179,  181,  184,  186,  235,  237, 
240,  245,  301,  326,  329,  3.32,  33.3, 
338,  342,  407,  422,   474,  562,  628, 
677,  702. 
Lubricants        .         425,  601,  652,  673 
Lunar  caustic .  .  .         247 

Lysol  ....        415 


79Q 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


M'Call,  Professor,  experiments 

with  counter-irritanta         .  54 

Macdougall's  disinfectants     .  44,  398 
Maguesium  and  its  compounds       210 
calcined  •  .         210 

carbonate  .  .        211 

oxide     .  .  .        210 

sulphate  .  .         212 

Maize  starch    .  .  .         654 

Male  fern         .  .  .608 

Mallein  .  .  .684 

Mallows  .  .  .         644 

Malt  extracts  .  .         645 

Maltose  .  .  .         655 

Mammary  glands,  drugs  act- 
ing on  .  .  126,  127 
Mandrake        .            .             .         449 
Mange  and  scab  dressings  (see 

Parasiticides)  .  .  48 

Marjoram        .  .  .        587 

Marsh-mallow  .  .         644 

Mass,  common  .  .         651 

Massage  ...  50 

Materia  Medica,  definition  of  1 

Matico  leaves  .  .  .         575 

May  apple  or  podophyllum    .         449 

Meadow  saffron  .  .         619 

Measures,  pharmaceutic         .         714 

domestic  .  .        715 

Meconic  acid   .  .  .        459 

Meconidine      .  .  .         459 

Medicated  spirits        .  .         712 

Medicines,  absorption  of,  13, 14, 15, 16 

acting  by  counter-action,       26 

acting  generally  .         148 

acting  hypodermically  151 

acting  intratracheally .         150 

acting  locally    .  .         148 

acting  by  mouth  .         149 

acting    by    pulmonary 

membrane     .  .         149 

acting  by  rectum  .         149 

acting  by  skin  .  .         150 

circumstances   modify- 

ing     .  .  ;  22 

classification  of  7,  10,  11 

curative  action  of         .  25 

doses     .  .  ,147 

elective  affinity  .         17 

on  different   patients,    18,  22, 

269,  275,  287,  352. 

physiological  action  of  12 

therapeutic  action  of    .  12 

Mel — honey     .  .  .         659 

boracis  .  .         191 

Mentha  piperita  .  .        587 

pulegium  .  .         587 

viridis  .  .  ■  .        587 

Menthol  .  .  .587 

Mercurial  compounds  .        285 

liniments  .  .        289 


Mercurial  ointments,  288,  292,  297, 
302,  303,  304 

pill 

plaster  . 
Mercurialism  . 
Mercuric  salts 
Mercurous  salts 
Mercuro-zinc  cyanide 
Mercury  and  its  compounds 

ammoniated 

chlorides 

corrosive  sublimate 

iodides . 

liniment 

nitrate  . 

nitrate  ointmoii 

ointment 


oleate    . 

oxides   . 

pill 

poisoning 

plaster  . 

with  chalk 
Methylated  spirit 
Methyl  alcohol 

chloride 

Conine    • 

morphine 

strychnine 

violet     . 
Methylal 
Methylene 

blue 
Metric  weights  and  measures 
Microbes 
Milk  sugar 
Milk  of  sulphur 
Mindererus  spirit 
Mineral  Kermes 

oils 
Mixtures 

freezing 
Molasses — treacle 
Monkshood 
Morphine 

acetate . 

compared  wit) 

hydrochloride 

muriate 

tartrate 
Morrhuse  oleum 
Mortars 
Motor  depressants  ( 

62. 
Mucilages 
Muriate  of  ammonia 

antimony 

mercury 

morphia 

soda 


291 
290 

287 
285 
285 
302 
285 
302 

292,  298 
298 
302 
289 
304 
304 
288 
289 

291,  292 
291 
286 
290 
290 
347 
347 
347 
509 
459 
8,495 
391 
71 
71 
392 
716 
3,  32 
658 
317 
168 
263 
705 
703 
159 
659 
536 
459 
460 
480 
460 
460 
475 
669 
709 
see  Paralysants), 


atropin 


646,  703 
161 
264 

292,  298 
460 
195 


Muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid    330 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


791 


Muscarine        • 
Musk   • 
Muscle  poisons 

stimulants,  56, 59, 499, 


PAGE 

98 

704 

60 

59 

503,507 


59 
569 
570 
569 


522,  525,  547,  548,  614,  6nh 
Muscles,  drugs  acting  on 
Mustard 

applications 

black     . 

compared    with     other 

irritants         .  .         570 

oil  of     .  .  .         569 

white     .  .  .569 

Mydriatics,  dilators  of  the  pupil,  82, 

478,  485,  515. 
Myotics,  contractors  of  the  pupil,  82, 

503,  507,  605. 
Myricin  •  .  •        683 

Myristin  .  .  •         669 

Myrosin  .  .  •         569 

Myrrh  .  .  •        573 

tincture  of        .  .         574 

Myrrhol  .  .  •         573 


Naphthatjn  . 

Naphthalol 

Naphthas 

Naphthols 

Narceine 

Narcotics 

Narcotine 

Nataloin 

Natural  orders  of  plants 

Nauseants 

Neriin  ... 

Nerve  paralysers 

stimulants 

tonics  .  .       79, 

Nervous  system,  drugs  acting 
Neurotics 

Neutral  organic  principles 
Nicotiana  tabacum 
Nicotine 
Nicotianin 

Nightshade,  deadly    . 
Nitrate  of  mercury      . 

potash  . 

silver    . 

soda 
Nitrates 
Nitre  or  saltpetre 

sweet  spirit  of  . 
Nitric  acid 
Nitrite  of  amyl 
Nitrite  of  ethyl 
Nitrite  of  sodium 
Nitro-glycerin 

hydrochloric  acid 
Nitrous  ether  . 

oxide  gas 


392 
393 
423 
392 

459 

66 

459 

435 

8 

98 

527 

63,  79 

63,  80 

247,  494 

on       62 

62 
690 
630 
631 
631 
477 
304 
179 
246 
198 
180 
179 
362 
332 
384 
362 
386 
386 
334 
362 

70 


34S 


Nut-galls 

Nutrients,   129,   646,   650, 

670. 
Nux  vomica    . 

alkaloids  of 

poisoning 

Oak  bark 

galls 
Oakum 
Oatmeal 

ffinanthe  crocata 
Oil,  almond     . 

anise 

black     . 

cake 

Carron  . 

castor    . 

chamomile 

cod-liver 

croton   . 

drying  . 

expressed  or  fixed 

linseed  . 

olive 

volatile 

of  cade  . 

cinnamon 

ergot 

eucalyptus 

juniper . 

mineral 

mustard 

myrrh   . 

peppermint 

pine 

poppy   . 

Scotch  fir 

rapeseed 
Oil  of  savin 

tar 

thyme  . 

turpentine 

Valerian 

vitriol   . 

wine 

Ointments,  how  made,  etc. 
Ointment,  blistering 

cantharides 

carbolic 

citrine  . 

iodide  of  sulpl 

iodine    . 

mercury 

red  iodide 

resin 

savin     . 

silver  nitrate 

simple  . 

sulphur 

zinc  oxide 


PAGE 

637 
654,  659, 

493 
494 
496 

566 
637 
649 
654 
509 
651 
582 
653 
649 
650 
439 
588 
669 
442 
650 

647-703 
649 
647 

582,  704 
586 
578 
613 
584 
586 

424,  705 
572 
573 
587 
600 
456 
600 
651 
584 
602 
629 
590 
589 
324 
361 
705 
667 
667 
408 
304 
316 
316 

288,  304 
302 
601 
619 
249 
601 
320 
237 


792 


INDEX    OF    MEDICINES 


PAGE 

PAOE 

Oleates             .            .      236-289,  706 

Pain  relievers  (see  Analgesics)          66 

Oleate  of  lead 

231 

Palma  Christi 

439 

Oleo-resins      ,            .     578, 

591,  704 

Papaverine 

459 

Oleic  acid 

340 

Papaver  somniferum  . 

456 

Oleum  setherum 

361 

rhcjeas    . 

456 

anisi 

582 

Paraffin  oils     . 

425 

anthemidis 

588 

Paraldehyde     . 

.  65,  380 

crotonis 

442 

Paralysants,  60,  61,   63, 

64,  67,  71. 

ergot;e  . 

613 

76,  79,  91,  340,  351,  384,  386,  419! 

juniperi 

586 

422,  484,  510,  515,  523, 

542,  547. 

lini 

649 

Paramorphine 

461 

menthjE  piperitfu 

587 

Parasiticides    {see    a/,so 

Insecticides 

morrliuiu 

669 

and  Vermicides),  48,  112,  192,  208, 

oliva3     . 

647 

248,  280,  301,  304,  309,  315,  316, 

picis 

602 

319,  327,  338,  389,  39 

2,  406,  411, 

ricini     . 

439 

414,  417,  441,  547,  550, 

628,  634. 

sal)inre  . 

618 

Parcira 

535 

terebinthinJB     . 

590 

Parturients 

126 

tiglii      . 

442 

Pastes 

224 

Olibanuin  or  frankincc  use 

591 

Pearl  ashes      .             . 

172 

Olivffi  oleum    . 

647 

barley   . 

644 

Olives  . 

647 

Pennyroyal 

587 

Olive  oil 

647 

Pentane 

46 

Opium . 

456 

Peppers 

574 

alkaloids 

459 

Pepper,  Cayenne 

575 

ammoniatcd  tincture 

476 

cubeijs  . 

575 

Opium  antidotes 

469 

Peppermint 

587 

camphorated  tincture 

477 

oil 

587 

compared  with  bellado 

ina  480 

spirit     . 

588 

Egyptian 

457 

water    . 

588 

enemas 

475 

Pepsin 

680 

English 

458 

Percolation 

711 

European 

458 

Periodate 

418 

extract 

477 

Permanganate  of  potash 

184 

Indian  . 

457 

Peroxide  of  hydrogen 

627 

liniment 

477 

iron 

259 

poisoning  by     . 

465 

Peru  balsam    . 

643 

preparations  of 

476 

Peruvian  bark 

551 

purity  and  strength  of 

458 

Petanelle 

660 

Smyrna 

457 

Petrolatum 

425 

test  for 

459 

Petroleum  benzin 

389,  424 

tinctures  of 

476 

vaseline 

425 

Turkey 

457 

Petroleums 

423,  424 

Ordeal  bean  of  Calabar 

502 

Pharmacology 

1 

Organic  animal  extracts 

690 

Pharmacy 

687 

Orpliol 

224 

Phenic,  or  carbolic,  acid 

397 

Orthoform 

518 

Phenacetin 

393 

Ossein 

674 

Phenol 

397 

Oxalic  acid 

340 

-acetamide 

383 

Oxide  of  antimony 

263 

-salicylate 

.  67,  391 

calcium 

203 

Phenazone  (antipyrine) 

.  80,  381 

iron 

259 

Phenyl  hydrate 

397 

lead 

231 

Pidebotomy     . 

139 

magnesia 

210 

Pliospiiate  of  iron 

255,  501 

mercury 

291,  292 

lime 

207 

zinc 

236 

Pliosplioric  acid 

334 

Oxygen 

159 

Phospiiorus 

304 

Oxymel 

339 

Piiysic  masses 

434 

Oxymorphine  . 

459 

Pliysiological  actions  of  medicines  12 

Oxytocics  or  ecbolics       126, 

R12,  617 

rest 

131 

Ozone  .... 

160 

Physiology  of  vomiting 

97 

INDEX    OF    MEDICINES 


'93 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Physostigmatis  semina 

502 

Potassium  hydrate     . 

171 

Phj-sostigmine  sulphate 

502 

iodide    . 

177 

Picrotoxin 

67, 495 

nitrate  . 

179 

Picric  acid 

332 

permanganate 

184 

Pigs  acted  on  by  medicines  i 

nuch  in 

soaps     . 

677 

the  same  way  as   men   and    dogs, 

sulphate 

176 

22,  104,  197,  266,  275,  468. 

sulphurata 

175 

Pill,  blue 

291 

tartrates 

186 

how  made 

291 

Potash  alum    . 

219 

Pilocarpine  nitrate 

519 

Poultices 

707 

Pimento  or  allspice     . 

575 

bran 

707 

Pimpinella  anisum 

582 

charcoal 

344 

Pines    .... 

591 

linseed 

651 

707 

Pinus  Sylvestris 

591 

mustard 

572 

Piper  album    . 

574 

yeast 

645 

Chili      . 

575 

Powder,  antimocial 

263 

cubeba . 

575 

Dover's 

476 

546 

longum 

574 

Dr.  Gregory's 

455 

nigrum 

574 

•James's 

263 

Piperazin 

394 

Powders,  how  made,  etc. 

709 

Piperidine 

574 

Precautions  with  ansesthetics 

369 

Piperine 

574 

Precipitated  chalk 

205 

Pitch    . 

603 

Precipitated  sulphur  . 

317 

Pix  Burgundica 

592 

Prepared  chalk 

205 

liquida  . 

603 

Prescribing 

687 

Plasters,  adhesive     221,  232, 

683,  706 

Prescriptions  . 

687 

anodjTie 

487 

Pressure 

50 

blistering           .    552, 

572,  669 

Preventive  inoculation 

4,6 

glue       .            . 

674 

Proof  spirit     . 

346 

lead  or  sticking 

231 

Protargol 

250 

Plasters,  how  made,  etc. 

203,  706 

Protective  vaccines     . 

34 

Plumbi  acetas 

232 

Protectives       361,  362,  372, 

425 

677 

emplastra 

231 

Protopine 

459 

iodidum 

232 

Propane 

423 

oxidum 

231 

Prussic  acid     . 

418 

Plumbi  carbonas 

231 

antidotes  for     . 

421 

Plumbism 

226 

poisoning  with 

420 

Plumbum 

225 

Pulvis  antimonii 

263 

Podophyllum  . 

449 

Doveri  . 

476 

,546 

Poisons  and  antidotes,  140,  ] 

42,  144, 

rhei  compositus 

455 

146. 

Pumpkin  seed  a  vermifuge 

114 

Pomegranate  root  bark 

112 

Pure  air 

129 

Poppy  heads   . 

456 

Purgatives  {see  Cathartics  an 

d 

oil 

456 

Laxatives)    . 

100 

petals    . 

456 

Purpura  hemorrhagica 

179 

,184 

seed  cake 

456 

Pustulants       .             .      51, 

265 

,443 

Porter 

348 

Pj-ridine 

396 

631 

Position,  restorative  . 

131 

Pyoktanin 

391 

Potash  salts     . 

169 

Pyrocatechin  . 

390 

Potashes  or  pearl  ashes 

172 

Pj'rogallic  acid 

390 

640 

Potassii  acetas 

186 

Pyroligneous  acid 

337 

aqua  or  liquor  . 

171 

fusa  or  caustica 

171 

Quantities  of  medicines 

147 

Potassium  and  its  salts 

169 

Qualities  of  medicines 

688 

acetate 

186 

Quassia 

567 

bromide 

179,  307 

Quassin 

567 

carbonates 

172 

Quercin 

566 

caustic  . 

171 

Quercus  cortex 

566 

chlorate 

182 

Quicklime 

203 

citrate  . 

186 

Quicksilver 

285 

fusa 

171 

!  Quinine  hydrochloride 

653 

794 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


Quinine 

sulphate 

hydrochloride 

valerianate 

Quini-chloral  . 

Quiuidine 


PAGE 

552 
553 
553 
590 
558 
553 


Rapeseed  oil  .            .  .  651 

Kectified  spirit            .  .  346 

Red  cinchona  bark     .  .  551 

Red  ointment              .  .  302 

Refrigerants,  93,  15S,  161,  169,  200, 

340,  356,  357. 

Remedies,  hygienic     .  .  130 

Remijia  barks              .  .  552 

Resin  or  rosin             .  .  601 

Resins  .  .  601,710 

Resinate  of  copper      .  .  245 

Resolvents       .  .  314,680 

Resorcin           .             .  .  389 
Respiration,  medicines  acting  on     83 

Rest  a  restorative       .  .  131 

Restoratives,  128,  195,  200,  207,  348, 

489,  584,  645. 

Retine              .            .  .  602 

Revulsion  or  derivation  .  49 

Rhamnus  catharticus  .  438 

Frangula           .  .  438 

Purshianus       .  .  438 

syrupus             .  .  438 

Rhatany           .            .  .  636 

Rheum              .             .  .  454 

Rhceadine        .             .  .  456 

Rhubarb  .  .  ,454 

compound  powder  of    .  455 

Rice  starch      .             .  .  654 

Ricini  oleum    .             .  .  439 

Ricinus  communis       .  .  4.39 

Rosemary         .             .  .  587 

Rosin  or  resin              .  .  601 

black  or  fiddler's  .  601 

yellow  .             .  .  601 

Rowel  or  issue              .  .  52 
Rubefacients  (nee  also  Counter- 
irritants),  49,  50,  355. 

Rum    .            .            .  .  347 
Ruminants,  medicines  acting  on,  21, 
94,  104,  123,  168,  197,  233,  265, 2G9, 
275,  287,  468,  487. 

Rye,  ergot  of  .            .  .  612 


Sabadilla  or  Cevadilla 

547 

Sabi.'ia  or  savin 

617 

Saccharated  lime 

205 

Sacchari  fsex    . 

658 

Saccharin 

390 

Saccharoses     . 

657 

Saffron,  meadow 

619 

Sago  starcli 

65+ 

Salacetol 

391 

PAGE 

Sal-ammoniac  .  .        161 

Salicylates       .  .  224,558 

Saline  purgatives        .  102 

Salol     .  .  .  42,391 

Sal-prunelle     .  .  .         180 

Sal- volatile      .  .  .163 

Salicin  .  .  .         558 

Salicylate  of  iron        .  .         562 

sodium  ,  .         559 

Salicylic  acid  .  .        558 

Salt,  common  .  .         195 

Epsom  .  .        212 

Glauber  .  ,         191 

Saltpetre         .  .  .179 

Salt  poisoning  .  .         197 

Sandal-wood  nil  .  ,         124 

Sanitas  .  .  .626 

Sanoform         .  .  .        418 

Santonica         .  .  .         605 

Santonin  .  .  .         606 

Sapo  durus      .  .  .        677 

Saponin  .  .  .         525 

Savary's  liquid  sinapism         .        572 
Savin  .  .  .  .617 

Scammony       ,  .  .        448 

Schmidt's  treatment  of  parturient 

apoplexy,  179. 
Scilla   .  .  .  .534 

Scillain  ...         534 

Scillitoxin        .  .  .         534 

Scoparin  .  .  .        534 

Secale  cei'eale .  .  .         612 

Sedatives  or  depressants  (see 

Paralysants),  64,  91,  383,  422,  518, 

537,  550. 

Semina  crotonis  .  .         442 

ricini     .  .  .        439 

Senegal  gum  .     .     .    646 

Senna  leaves  .     .     .    449 

Sotons      ...    52 

Shampooing     ...  50 

Sheep,   actions  of  medicines  on,   21, 

94,  104,  123, 197,  269,  275,  287, 352. 

cathartics   for,   104,   431,  441, 

443,  449. 

dips       .  .  280,634 

precautions  in  dipping         283 

Sialogogues     .  .       92,  183,  520 

Sieves  .  .  .709 

Silver  and  its  compounds       .         246 

citrate  .  .  .250 

colloid  .  .  .249 

lactate  .  .  .         250 

nitrate  .  •  .         246 

oxide     .  .  .249 

Sinalbin  and  sinigrin .  .        569 

Sinapisms   or  mustard   applications, 

50,  571,  .572. 
Size — weak  glue  .  .         674 

Skin,  mcilicines  acting  on  115,  175, 
194. 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


795 


Smelling-salts 

PAGE 

167 

Smoothing-iron 

50 

Soaps   . 

677 

Castile  . 

678 

glycerin             . 

678 

hard  or  soda 

677 

medicinal 

678 

Soap  liniment 

679 

soft  or  potash   . 

678 

Socaloin 

435 

Socins'  paste   . 

240 

Soda  salts 

187 

Soda  water 

188 

Sodium  and  its  compounds 

187 

bicarbonate 

188 

biborate             , 

190 

bromide            . 

308 

carbolate 

408 

carbonates 

188 

chlorata 

.»       201 

chloride 

195 

ethylate  solution 

187 

hydroxide  or  caustic  s( 

3da    188 

hyposulphite     . 

192 

iodide    . 

177 

liquid,  Labarraque's 

201 

nitrate  . 

198 

Sodium  nitrite 

386 

phosphate 

191 

soap 

677 

sulphate 

191 

sulphite 

192 

thiosulphate 

192 

Soft  soap 

678 

Solutio  arsenicalis 

284 

chlori    . 

309 

plurabi  diacetatis 

232 

Solutions 

702 

Solutol 

415 

Solveol 

415 

Soporifics 

64 

Southernwood 

605 

SozoJodol 

418 

Spanish  flies    . 

661 

Spasm  . 

60,68 

Sparteine 

534 

Spatula} 

706 

Spearmint 

585 

Species  of  patient  ditferently 

affected 

by  drugs 

18 

Spermaceti — cetaceum 

682 

Sphacelinic  acid 

613 

Spinal  depressants 

76,  307 

stimulants         .        78, 

495,  501 

Spinal  hot-bag 

701 

ice-bag  . 

701 

Spirit  of  ammonia 

162 

chloroform 

373 

ether     . 

361 

salt 

330 

turpentine 

590 

Spirit  of  wine  .  .  ,        346 

Spirit,  proof    .  .  .         346 

rectified  .  .        346 

Spirits  or  essences      .  .         346 

Spiritus  Eetheris  .  .        361 

setheris  nitrosi  .         362 

compositus        .  .         361 

Mindereri  .  .         167 

rectificatus        .  .         346 

Spongiopiline  .  .  .158 

Sprays  .  .     247,  339,  627 

Spurred  rye     .  .  .         612 

Squill  .  .  .  .534 

Squire's  chemical  food  .         255 

Staphisagrine  .  .         607 

Starch  .  .  .654 

iodide  of  .  311,655 

Stavesacre  seeds  .  .         607 

Steam  a  disinfectant  .  ,  45 

Steam  kettle   ...  84 

Steaming  horse's  head  ,         158 

Steel,  tincture  of         .  .         260 

Sternutatories  .  .  84 

St.  Ignatius  bean         .  .         495 

Stibium  (antimony)    .  .         262 

Stimulants,  64,   350,  364,   373,  389, 

390,  39.3,  404,  411,  489,  495,  575, 

577,   579,  582,  583,  586,  593,  596, 

624,  642,  662,  678,  681. 

bronchial  .  .  85,  164 

cardiac .  .       88,  484,  489 

cerebral  .         63,  77,  358 

difi'usible,   63,    167,   349,   358, 

360. 
gastric,  95,  189,  272,  331,  507, 
548,  565,  573,  605,  624,  680, 
681. 
glandular,   92,  177,   358,   520, 

565,  573,  604. 
intestinal,  216,  502,  519,  604. 
liver,  109,  191,  300,  333,  429, 

449,  450,  455,  545. 
motor        59,  80,  217,  505,  520 
nervine,  63,  78,  79,  349,  495, 

501. 
respiratory       .       83,  167,  489 
skin  and  mucous  surfaces,  117, 

319. 

urino- genital     ,  120,  125 

vascular  .         88,  90,  167 

Stomachics   (see  also    Carminatives), 

106,  195,  199,  455,  5.55,  564,  565, 

566,   568,  570,  575,  577,  578,  584, 

585,  587,  588,  589,  5i)(i. 

Stopping  for  horses'  feet         .         603 

Stramonium     .  .  .         480 

Strongyli  .  .  .         115 

Strophanthin  .  .  ,         532 

Strophanthus  Kombe  .         532 

Strychnine       .  .  .         495 

arsenite  .  .         502 


796 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


PAOE 

Strychnine  poisoning ,  .         496 
Styptic  colloid              .  .         640 
Styptics  (.see   also    Astringents    and 
Hemostatics),    51,    57,    220,    233, 
261,  326,  397,  412,  601,  639,  640. 
Styrax              .            .  .643 
Subcutaneous   injections  (.see    Hypo- 
dermic)        .             .  .151 
Succi    .            .            .  .699 
Sucrose            .            .  .         657 
Sudorificg         .             .  .116 
Suet     ....        672 
Sugar  ....        657 
Sugar,  cane     .            .  .         657 
grape    .            .  .        658 
liquorice            .  .         653 
of  fruits             .  .         658 
of  lead  .             .  .         232 
of  milk — lactose  .         658 
Sulphate  of  alumina  and  potash     219 
copper  .             .  ,         243 
iron        .             .  .         256 
magnesia           .  .        212 
potash  .            .  .176 
quinine .             .  .         553 
soda       .             .  .         191 
zinc       .            .  .        237 
Sulphates         .            .  .176 
Sulphite  of  soda          .  .192 
Sulphur           .            .  .316 
anhydride         .  .         327 
flowers  of          .  .         317 
iodide    .            .  .         316 
liniments  of      .  .        320 
liver  of .             .  .         175 
milk  of.            .  .         317 
ointments  of     .  .         320 
precipitated      .  .         317 
roll  or  stick      .  .         317 
sublimed           .  .        317 
vivum   .            .  .         317 
Sulphide  of  antimony  .         263 
potassium          .  .         175 
Sulpho-carbolic  acid  .  .        408 
carbolates         .  .         408 
phenic  acid       .  .         408 
Sulphonal        .             .  .  65,  379 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen  .         318 
Sulphuric  acid             .  .         324 
ether     .             .  .357 
Sulphurous  acid           .  .         327 
Sumbul  or  musk  root .  .         589 
Sunlight           .            .  .42,  130 
Suppositories  .             .  .         698 
Surgeon's  lint .             .  .         649 
Surroundings  modify  actions 

of  medicines             .  .           24 

Susceptibilities,  special  .           19 

Sweat  glands,  action  on  ,         116 

Swcot  spirit  of  nitre  .  .         362 

Synergists       .            .  .         687 


PAOE 

Syringes,  enema         .  .         698 

Syrups,  255,  378,  455,  501,  534,  659, 
710,711. 

Syrup  simple  .            .  659,711 

iodide  of  iron    .  .         259 

Easton's             .  255,  501 

Squire's             .  .         255 

Syrupus  chloral           .  .        378 

rhamni .             .  .        438 

rhei       .            .  .        455 

Tables  of  weights  and  measures,  714 
Tablets             .             .  .152 
Tannalbin        .             .  .640 
Tannigen          .             .  .         640 
Tannin  or  tannic  acid  .         637 
Tannoform       .             .  .         387 
Tansy  .             .             .  .606 
Tapeworms      .            .  .113 
Tapioca  starch             .  .         655 
Tar       .            .            .  .        425 
Barbados           .  .        424 
coal       .            .  .425 
oil  of     .            .  .602 
ointment           .  .         603 
Rangoon           .  .        424 
Taraxacum      .            .  .         568 
Tartar,  cream  of         .  .         186 
emetic  .             .  .         264 
Tartaric  acid  .             .  .         339 
Tartarised  antimony  .  .        264 
experiments  with          .        287 
Tartrate  of  potash      .  .         186 
Tseniacides      .             .  .112 
Tea      .             .            .  .         488 
Temperature    modifying    ac- 
tions of  medicines   .  .           22 
high,    destroys  micro- 
organisms     .  .           45 
of  stables           .  .         130 
Tenaline           .            .  .605 
Terebene          .             .  .         594 
Terebinthinaj  .            .  590,  591 
oleum    .            .  .         594 
Terpene            .            .  .600 
Terpinol           .             .  .600 
Tetanus  antitoxine      .  .             6 
Thallin             .            .  .42,  395 
Thebaine          .            .  .461 
Theine               .             .  .488 
Theobromine  .            .  .        488 
Therapeutic  action  of  medicines      12 
Theriaca  (treacle)        .  .         658 
Thermometers             .  .         716 
Thioform         ...        224 
Thiol    .            .            .  .681 
Thirst  ....  93 
Thus  (Frankincense)  .  .        592 
Thyme             .             .  .629 
Thymol             .             .  .629 
Tinctura  aconiti          .  .         543 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


797 


Tinctura  aloes 

PAGE 

434 

Unguentum  gallaj  cum  opio 

PAOB 

640 

aruicje  , 

582 

hydrargyri 

288 

BellatlonnfB 

487 

hydrar-iodidi  rubri 

302 

benzoini  composila 

642 

nitratis . 

304 

calumbaj 

565 

iodi 

316 

cannabis  indicai 

493 

resinae   . 

601 

cantharidis 

667 

simplex 

601 

,683 

cascarillae 

566 

sulphuris 

320 

catechu 

636 

veratrinae 

548 

chirata? 

565 

zinci  oxidi 

237 

chloroformi     et     mor 

Upas  antiar 

2 

phinfe  composita 

373 

Urari  or  curara 

523 

cinchonse 

557 

Urethane 

380 

colchici 

622 

Urinary  deposits 

122 

digitalis 

532 

disinfectants. 

391,    392, 

394, 

ergotffi  ammoniata 

617 

535,  536. 

ferri  perchloridi 

260 

sedatives        124,  485, 

514 

,625 

gentianse 

565 

tonics    . 

.     124, 

500 

,664 

iodi 

316 

Urine,  secretion  of 

119 

,,     decolorata 

316 

Uva  ursi 

537 

,  636 

,,     oleosa 

316 

myrrhag 

574 

Vaccines 

4,  33,  34 

nucis  vomicae    . 

502 

Valerian 

588 

opii 

476 

Valerianic  acid 

589 

,,    ammoniata 

476 

Van  Swieten's  solutio 

n 

301 

Zingiberis 

578 

Vapour  bath    . 

691 

Tinctures,  how  made,  etc. 

711 

Vapours  or  inhalation 

s 

712 

Tobacco 

630 

Vascular  depressants 

91, 

453 

538 

alkaloids 

631 

stimulants       8 

8,  484, 

526 

585 

enemas . 

634 

tonics,  90,  479 

495,  529, 

533, 

Tolu  balsam     . 

643 

534. 

Tolerance  of  medicine 

23 

Vaseline 

425 

Tonics.  132,  133,  238,  245,  2 

48, 

255, 

Vehicle 

688 

256,  259,  260,  272,  278,  3 

25, 

330, 

Veins,  injection  into 

150 

433,  438,  499,  555,  564,  670 

Venesection    , 

138 

140 

Tonics,  blood,  23,  133,  252,  2 

55, 

256, 

Venice  turpentine 

590 

,591 

259. 

Ventilation 

130 

gastric,  95,  132,  334,  [ 

!36, 

495, 

Veratrine 

547 

501,  504,  507,  548,  t 

)55, 

565, 

Veratrum  album 

549 

573,  624,  680,  681. 

viride    . 

549 

heart  and  vascular,  89, 

90,  479, 

Verdigris 

245 

495,  529,  533,  5.34. 

Verdigris  liniment 

246 

nerve     . 

79 

,  133 

Vermicides  and  vermi 

fuges,  112, 

113, 

Tow     . 

649 

244,  256,  296,  392, 

393,  424, 

432, 

Tragacanth 

645 

453,  568,  579,  593, 

597,  604, 

606, 

Treacle 

658 

608,  609,  611,  612, 

619,  629, 

630, 

Trichinae 

115 

634. 

Tropacocaine  . 

518 

Vermin-killers 

501 

Tropeines 

478 

Vesicants  (see  Counte 

r-irritants) 

50, 

Tuberculin 

685 

288,  662. 

Tumenol 

682 

Veterinary  Pharmacy 

687 

Turkey  opium 

457 

Vienna  paste  . 

172 

Turkish  baths 

691 

Vinegar 

337 

Turpentines    . 

590, 

591 

,  592 

of  cantharides 

339 

Turpentine,  oil  of 

594 

of  colchicum 

622 

Tuson's  disinfectants 

258 

of  opium 

476 

Virginian  tobacco 

631 

Unguenta,  407,  424,  425,  4 

88, 

512, 

Vitriol,  blue    . 

243 

517,  601,  628,  640,  683,  705 

green     . 

256 

Unguentum  cantharidis 

665 

oil  of     . 

324 

cupri  acetatis 

246 

of  copper 

243 

798 


INDEX    OF   MEDICINES 


PAflE 

PAOI 

Vitriol,  white. 

237 

Whiting 

2U5 

Volatile  oils    . 

704 

Wines  . 

347 

Volckniann's  antiseptic 

630 

Wintergreen    . 

558 

Vomica,  nux    . 

493 

Wolfsbane 

536 

Vomiting,  how  produced 

96 

Wood  charcoal 

343 

checked 

100 

naphtha 

347 

Vulneraries     .             .     574, 

■381,  641 

or  pyroxylic  spirit        .         347 

tar 

425,  602 

Wash,  black  . 

291 

Wormwood 

605 

yellow  . 

301 

Woorara  or  curara  poison       .  Gl,  523 

Water 

153 

Wounds 

40 

impurities 

154 

actions  and  uses 

155 

Xerofoem 

224 

dressings 

158 

hemlock 

509 

lime 
mineral . 

204 
155 

Yeast  . 

Yellow  cinchona  bark 

.  31,  645 
551 

of  ammonia 

167 

resin 

601 

tar 

603 

wash 

301 
683 

Watering  of  horses 

156 

wax 

Wax    . 

683 

Weights  and  measures 

713 

Zinc  and  its  compounds         .        235 

Wet  pack 

136,  158 

acetate  . 

240 

Wheat  flour     . 

654 

bromide 

308 

Whisky 

347 

butter  of 

239 

White  arsenic 

271 

carbolate 

239 

hellebore 

549 

carbonate 

237 

lotion    .             .     235, 

239,  240 

chloride 

239 

mustard  seed    . 

569 

oxide 

236 

pepper  . 

574 

sulphate 

237 

vitriol  . 

237 

Zingiber  officinale 

576 

wax 

683 

Zingiberis  tinctura 

578 

Printed  by  T.  and  A.  Constahi.k,  Printers  to  His  Majosly 
at  tlie  Edinburgli  University  Press 


CATALOGUE    OF 

William  R.  Jenkins  Co/s 

Works   Concerning 

HORSES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  SWINE,  Etc. 

1907-8 


(*)  Designates  New  Books. 

(f)  Designates  Recent  Publications. 


AXDERSOX.  "Vice  in  the  Horse"  and  other  papers 
on  Horses  and  Riding.  By  E.  L.  Anderson.  Size, 
6x9,  cloth,  illustrated 1  75 

ARMSTEAD.      "The  Artistic  Anatomy  of  the  Horse." 

A  brief  description  of  the  various  Anatomical  Struc- 
tures which  may  be  distinguished  during  Life  through 
the  Skin.  By  Hugh  W.  Armstead,  M.D.,  F.R.C.S. 
With  illustrations  from  drawings  by  the  author. 
Cloth  oblong,  10  x  12^ 3  75 

BACH.  "How  to  Judge  a  Horse."  A  concise  treatise 
as  to  its  Qualities  and  Soundness ;  Including  Bits  and 
Bitting,  Saddles  and  Saddling,  Stable  Drainage,  Driv- 
ing One  Horse,  a  Pair,  Four-in-hand,  or  Tandem,  etc. 
By  Capt.  F.W.Bach.     Size,  5  x7i,  clo.,  fully  illus.l  00 

BANHAHT.     "Tables  of  Veterinary   Posology  and  Thera- 
peutics," with  weights,  measures,  etc.     By  Geo.  A. 
Banhara,    F.  R.  C.  V.  S.     New  edition.      Cloth,    size 
4x5  1-2,  192  pages 1  00 

BAUCHER.  "Method  of  Horsemanship."  Including 
the  Breaking  and  Training  of  Horses.  By 
F.  Baucher 1  0<^ 

BELL.  (*)"The  Veterinarian's  Call  Book  (Perpetual)." 
By  Koscoe  R.  Bell,  D.V.S.,  editor  of  the  AmerixMn 
Veterinary  Review.     Completely  revised  1907. 

A  visiting  list,  that  can  be  commenced  at  any  time 
and  used  until  full,  containing  much  useful  informa- 
tion for  the  student  and  the  busy  practitioner. 
Among  contents  are  items  concerning:  Prescription 
writing;  Veterinary  Drugs;  Poisons;  Solubility  of 
Drugs;  Composition  of  Milk,Bile,  Blood,  Gastric 
Juice,  Urine,  Saliva;  Respiration;  Dentition;  Temp- 
erature, etc.,  etc.  Bound  in  flexible  leather,  with 
flap  and  pocket , , , ,.,,...  1  25 


BITTING.    "Caaiol's  Exorcises  in  Equine  Snifrerj." 

See  •'C'adiut." 

BRADLEY.         "Outlines      of     Veterinary    Anatomy." 

By  O.Charnock  Bradley,  Member  of  the  Koyal  Col- 
lege of  Veterinary  Surgeons ;  Professor  of  Anatomy 
In  the  New  Veterinary  College,  Edinburgh. 

The  author  presents  the  most  important  facts  of 
veterinary  anatomy  in  as  condensed  a  form  as  possible, 
consistent  with  lucidity,     12mo. 

Complete  in  three  parts. 

Pakt  I.  :      The  Limbs  (cloth) 1  25 

Part  II.  :     The  Trunk  (pap»-r) 1  25 

Part  III, :    T/ie  Head  and  Neck  (paper). 1  25 

The  Set  complete 3  25 

CADIOT.  "  Exercises  in  Equine  SurgrerY."  By  P,  J, 
Cadiot.  Translated  by  Prof.  A.  W.  Bitting,  D.V.M, 
Edited  by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D.V.M.  Size,6x9X- 
cloth,  illustrated 2  50 

—  "Roarintc    in    Horses."     Its    Pathology   and    Treatment. 

This  work  represents  the  latest  development  in  oper- 
ative methods  for  the  alleviation  of  roaring.  Each 
step  is  most  clearly  defined  bv  excellent  full-page 
illustrations.  By  P.  .1.  Cadiot,  Professor  at  the 
Veterinary  School,  Alfort.  Translated  by  Thos  J. 
Watt  Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S.,  etc.  Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-8, 
77  pages,  illustrated 75 

—  "Studies  in  Clinical  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery." 

By  P.  J.  Cadiot.  Traiislaied,  edited,  and  supplemented 
with  49  new  articles  and  34  illustrations  by  Jno.  A.  W. 
Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S  Cloth,  size  7x9  34,  619  pages, 
94  black  and  white  illustrations 5  25 

—(•)"  A  Treatise  on  Surgical  Therapeutics  of  the  Domestic 

Animals."  By  F.  J.  Cadiot  and  J.  Almy.     Translated 

by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M,D.,V.M, 

I.  General  Surgery. — Means  of  restraint  of  animals, 
general  anaesthesia,  local  anesthesia,  surgical  anti- 
sepsis and  asepsis,  hematosis,  cauterization,  filing, 

II  Diseases  Common  to  all  Tissues. — Inflammation, 
abscess,  gangrene,  ulcers,  fistula,  foreign  bodies, 
traumatic  lesions,  complications  of  traumatic  les- 
ions, granulations,  cicatrices,  mycosis,  virulent 
diseases,  tumors. 

Ill,  Diseases  Special  to  all  Tissues  and  Affections  of 
the  Extremities. — Diseases  of  skin  and  cellular  tis- 
^up,  of  serous  bursae,  of  muscles,  of  tendons,  of 
tendinous  svnovial  sacs,  of  aponeurosis,  of  arteries, 
of  veins,  of  lymphatics,  of  nerves,  of  bones,  of 
articulations. 

Cloth,  si/H  fi  X  9,  580  pages,  118  illustrations 4  50 

CHAFMAN.  "Manual  of  the  Pathological  Treatment 
of  Lameness  in  the  Horse,"  treated  solely  by 
mechanical  means.  By  George  T.  Chapman,  Cloth, 
pizt»  6x9,  124  pages  with  portrait ,,...,.?  00 


CLARKE.  "Clinrf  of  tlifi  Feet  and  Teeth  of  Fossil 
Horses."  By  W.  H.  Clarke.  Card,  size  9  1-2  x  13. .  25 

*' Horses'  Teeth. ^'     Fourth  edition,  re-revised,  with  second 

appendix.     Cloth,  size  5  1-4  x  7  1-2,  322  pp.,  illus.. 2  60 

CLEAVELAND.        "  Pronounoiiigr      Medical     Lexicon." 

Pocket  tiilition.  By  C  H.  Cleveland,  M.D.  Cloth, 
size  3  1-4x4  1-2,  302  pages 76 

CLEMENT,  *'  Veterinary  Post  Mortem  Examina- 
tions." By  A.  W.  Clement,  V.S.  1  he  absence  in  the 
Eiifili.-h  languajre!  <>f  any  gnide  in  making  autopsies 
upon  the  lower  ariirnal»,  induced  Dr.  Clement  to 
write  this  book,  trusting  that  it  would  prove  of  prac- 
tical value  to  th«>  profession.  Cloth,  size  5x7  1-2,  64 
pages,  illustrated 75 

COURTENA  Y.  (f)  "  Mannal  of  the  Practice  of  Veterinary 
Medicine."  By  Edward  Courtcnay,  V.  S,  Revised  by 
Frederick  T.  G.  Hobday,  F  R.C.V.8.  Second  edition. 
Cloth,  size  5  1-4x7  1-2,  573  pages    2  75 

COX.       "  Horses  :     In     Accident    and    Disease."       The 

sketches  introduced  embrace  various  attitudes  which 
have  been  observed,  such  as  in  choking  ;  the  disorders 
and  accidents  occurring  to  the  stomach  and  intestines ; 
affection  of  the  brain  ;  and  some  special  forms  of  lame- 
HBss,  etc.  By  J.  Roalfe  Cox,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size 
6x  9,  28  full  page  Ulustrations 1  LO 

DALRYMPLE.  {*)"Veteri nary  Obstetrics."  A  compen- 
dium for  th«  use  of  advanced  students  and  Practi- 
tioners. By  W.  H.  Dalrymple,  M.  R.  C.  V.  S., 
principal  of  the  Department  of  Veterinary  Science  in 
the  Louisiana  State  University  and  A.  &  M.  College; 
Veterinarian  to  the  Louisiana  State  Bureau  of 
Agriculture,  and  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations. 
Second  edition  revised.  Cloth,  si^e  6x9  1-4,162  pages. 
51  illustrations 2  50 

DALZIEL.  "  Breaking  and  Training  Doprs."  Part  I,  by 
Pathfinder.  Part  II,  by  Hugh  Dalziel.  Clolh. 
illustrated 2  50 

—  "  The    Collie."    By  Hugh  Dalziel.     Paper,  illu.'strated 50 

—  "The  Diseases  of  Dogs."     Causes,  symptoms  and  treatment. 

By  Hugh  Dalziel.  Illustrated.  Paper,  50c.  Cloth,  1  fO 

—  "Diseases  of  Horses."    Paper    50 

—  "  The  Fox  Terrier."    By  Hugh  Dalziel.    Paper,  50 ;  clo.l  00 

—  "The  Greyhound."   Cloth,  illus 1  oo 

^  "  The  St,  Bernard."    Cloth,  illustrated. ..,..,  ........  1  OQ 


DANA,  "Tables  in  ComparatiTe  Phyaiology."  Bj  Prof. 
C.  L.  Dana,  M.D.     Chart,  17  x  17 26 

DANCE.  "Veterinary  Tablet."  By  A.  A.  Dance.  Chart, 
17  X  24,  mounted  on  linen,  folded  in  a  cloth  case  for 
the  pocket,  size  3  3-4  x  6  1-2.  Shows  at  a  glance  the 
synopsis  of  the  diseases  of  horses,  cattle  and  dogs ; 
with  their  cause,  symptoms  and  cure 75 

DE  BR  UIN.  (♦)"  Bovine  Obstetrics."  By  M.  G.  De  Bruin 
Instructor  of  Obstetrics  at  the  State  Veterinary 
School  in  Utrecht.  Translated  by  W.  E.  A.  Wyman, 
formerly  Professor  of  Veterinary  Science  at  Clemson 
A.  &  M.  College,  and  Veterinarian  to  the  South 
Carolina  Experiment  Station.  Cloth,  size  6x9,  382 
pages,  77  illustrations 5  00 

!S)'nopi«ii4  of  the  Essential  Features  of  the  Work 

1.  Authorized  translation. 

2.  The  only  obstetrical  work  which  is  up  to  date. 

3.  Written  by  Europe's  leading  authority  on  the  subject. 

4.  Written  by  a  man  who  has  practiced  the  art  a  lifetime. 

5.  Written  by  a  man  who,  on  account  of  his  eminence  as 
bovine  practitioner  and  teacher  of  obstetrics,  was  selected 
by  Prof.  Dr.  FrOhner  and  Prof.  Dr.  Bayer  (Berlin  and 
Vienna),  to  discuss  bovine  obstetrics  both  practically  and 
scientifically. 

b.  The  only  work  containing  a  thorough  differential  diaK- 
nosis  of  ante  and  post  partum  diseases. 

7.  The  only  work  doing  justice  to  modern  obstetrical 
surgery  and  therapeutics. 

8.  Written  by  a  man  whose  practical  suggestions  revolu- 
tionized the  teaching  of  veterinary  obstetrics  even  in  the 
great  schools  of  Europe. 

9.  The  only  work  dealing  fully  with  the  now  no  longer 
obscure  contagious  and  infectious  diseases  of  calveB. 

10.  Absolutely  original  and  no  compilation. 

11.  The  only  work  dealing  fully  with  the  difficult  problem 
of  teaching  obstetrics  in  the  colleges. 

12.  The  only  work  where  the  practical  part  is  not  over- 
shadowed by  theory. 

...  A  veterinarian,  particularly  if  his  location  brings  him  in 
contact  witli  obstetrical  practice,  who  makes  any  pretence  toward 
being  scientific  and  in  possession  of  modern  knowledge  upon  this 
subject,  will  not  be  without  this  excellent  work,  as  it  is  really  a  very 
valuable  treatise.— P?o/.  Roscoe  R.  Bell,  in  the  Ameiican  VeteHnary 
Remew. 

In  translating  into  English  Professor  De  Bruin's  excellent  text- 
book on  Bovine  Obstetrics,  Dr.  Wyman  has  laid  British  and  American 
veterinary  surgeons  and  students  under  a  debt  of  gratitude.  The 
works  represents  the  happy  medium  between  the  booklets  which  are 
adapted  for  criiinrnin!,'  purposes  by  the  student,  and  the  ponderous 
tomes  which,  although  useful  to  the  teacher,  are  not  exactly  suited  to 
the  requirements  of  the  everyday  practitioner  .  .  .  We  can  strongly 
recommend  the  work  to  veterinary  students  and  practitioners.-The 
Journal  of  Comparative  Pathology  and  Thcra})eutics. 

DOLLAR.  r*i"  Diseases  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  Goats  and 
Snine."  By  G.  Moussu  and  Jno.  A.  W.  Dollar, 
M.R.C.V.S.  Size  6  x  9  1-2,  7«5  pages,  329  illustrations 
in  the  text  and  4  full  page  plates 8  75 

—  (t)''A  Hand-book  of  Horse-Shoeing',"  with  Introductory 
chapters  on  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
horse's  foot.  By  Jno.  A.  W.  Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S., 
with  the  collaboration  of  AlbertWheatley,  F.R.C.V.S. 
ploth,  si^e  658  1-2,  433  pages,  4O6  illustrfttions  ,  .4  76 


DOLLAE  (continued) 

—  (t) "eperative  Technifiue."     Volume  1  of  "  The  Practice  of 

Veterinary  Surgery."  Clolb,  size  6  3-1  x  10,  264  paces 
272  illustrations '  .375 

—  "  tJeucral  Siirt'ery."    Volume  2  of  "  The  Practice  of  Veter- 

inary  Surgery."     In  preparation. 

—  (t)"Begional   Veterinary  Surgery."     Volume  3  of  "The 

Practice  of  Veterinary  Surgery."  By  Drs  Jno  A 
W.  Dollar  and  H.  Moller.  Cloch,  size  6  1-2  x  10  853 
and  XVI  pages,  315  illustrations 6  25 

—  "Cadiot's  Clinical  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Snrsery." 

See  '•  Vadiot." 

—  "  Cadiot's  Roaring  in  Horses."    See  "  Cadiot." 

DUN,     "Veterinary  Medicines,  their  Actions  and  U«es." 

By  Finlay  Dun,  V.S.,  late  leetuier  on  Materia 
Medica  and  Dietetics  at  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary 
College,  and  Examiner  in  Chemistry  "to  the  Eoyal 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons.  Edited  bv  James 
Macqueen,  F.K.C.V.S.  Tenth  revised  English  edition. 
Cloth,  size  6x9 3  75 

FLEMIXG.    "  Tlie  Contagions  Diseases  of  Animals."    Their 
influence  on  the  wealth  and  health  of  nations  and  how 
they  are  to  be    combated.     Paper,   size  5  x   7  1-2 
30  pages 25 

-  "Human  and  Animal  Variolae."    A  Study  in  Comparative 

Pathology.      Paper,  size  5  1-2x8  1-2,  61  pages. . .     25 

-  "  Parasites  and  Parasitic  Diseases  of  tLe  Domesticated 

Animals.  By  L.  G.  Neumann.  Translated  by 
Dr.  Fleming.     See  "  Xeumayiyi." 

-  "Operative  Veterinary  Surgery."     Vol.    I,    by  Dr    Geo 

Fleming,  M.K.C.V.S.  This  valuable  work,  one'of  the 
most  practical  treatises  yet  issued  on  the  subject  in 
the  ±.nglish  language,  is  devoted  to  the  common  opera- 
tions of  Veterinary  Surgery  ;  and  the  concise  descrip- 
tions and  directions  of  the  text  are  illustrated  with 
numerous  wood  engravings.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-4  285 
and  xviii  pages.  343  illustrations 2  75 

Q^^^'  ^^^f!^}^^'^  ^^^  P^'^^d  through  the  press  by 
W  Owen  Williams,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  6  x  9  1-4. 
430  and  xxxvii  pages,  344  illustrations..  3  25 

-  "  Roaring     in     Horses."         By    Dr.     George      Fleming, 

■5.1  "*  history,  nalure,  causes,  prevention 
and  treatment.  Cloth,  size  5  1-2  x  8  3-4,  160  pa-e«  01 
engravings,  1  colored  plate ., T . .°. . V  5u 

-  "  Veterinary  Obstetrics."    Including  the  Accidents  and  Dis- 

eases incident  to  Pregnancy,  Parturition,  and  the  Early 
f"r  ^"v^^^^'p^i?^^^  Animals.  By  Geo.  Fleming 
i.E.UV.S.    Cloth,  size  6x8  3-4,  758  pages,  illus.6  25 


GOTTHIEL.     O^A    Manual    of    General    Histology." 

By  Wm.  S.  GoUheil,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Pathology  in 
the  American  Veterinary  College,  New  Yorli;  etc.,  etc. 
Histology  is  the  basis  of  the  physician's  art,  aa 
Anatomy  is  the  foundation  of  the  surgeon's  science. 
Only  by  knowing  the  processes  of  life  can  we  under- 
stand the  changes  of  disease  and  the  action  of 
remedies;  as  the  architect  must  know  his  building 
materials,  so  must  the  practitioner  of  medicine  know 
the  intimate  structure  of  the  body.  To  present  this 
knowledge  in  an  accessible  and  simple  form  has 
been  the  author's  task.  Second  edition  revised. 
Cloth,  size  5  1-2  x  8,  152  pages,  68  illustrations. . .  1  OU 

GRESSWELL.    ••  The  Borine  Prescriber."    For  the  use 

of  Veterinarians  and  Veterinary  Students.  Second 
edition  i-evised  and  enlarged,  by  James  B.  and  Albert 
Gresswell,  M.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size,  5x7  1-2,  102 
pages 75 

—  "The  Equine  Hospital  Prescriber."    For  the  use  of  Veter- 

inary Practitioners  and  Students.  Third  edition  re- 
vised and  enlaiged,  by  Drs.  James  B.  and  Albert 
Gresswell,  M.E.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  5x7  1-2,  165 
pages 75 

—  "Diseases  and  Disorders  of  the  Horse."     A  Treatise  on 

Equine  Medicine  and  Surgery,  bt^ing  a  contribution  to 
the  science  of  comparative  pathology.  By  Albert, 
Jas.  B.  and  Geo.  Gresswell.  Cloth,  size  5  3-<l  x  8  3  4, 
227  pages,  illustrated 1  75 

—  Manual  of  "The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Equine  Medicine," 

By  James  B.  Gresswell,  F.E.C.V.S.,  and  Albert 
Gresswell,  M.R.C.V.S.  Second  edition  revised. 
Cloth,  size  5  1-4x7  1-2,  539  pages 2  75 

—  (f)  "Veterinary  Pharniacopseia  and  Manual  of  Comparatiye 

Therapy."  By  George  and  Charles  Gresswell,  with 
descriptions  and  physiological  actions  of  medicines, 
by  Albert  Gresswell.  Second  edition  revised  and 
enlarged.     Cloth,  6x8  3-4,  457  pages 3  60 

HASSLOCH.  "  A  Compend  of  Veterinary  Materia  Medica 
and  Therapeutics."  By  A.  C.  Hassloch,  V.S., 
Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,  and 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Dentistry  at  the  New  York 
College  of  Veterinary  Sureeons  and  School  of  Compa- 
rative Medicine,  N.  Y,  Cloth,  size  5  1-4x7  1-2,  225 
pages 1 50 

HEATLEY.  "  The  Stock  Oirner's  Guide."  A  handy  Medi- 
cal "Treatise  for  every  man  who  owns  an  ox  or  cow. 
Bv  George  S.  Heatley,  M.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size 
5  i-4  X  8,  172  pages 1  26 


HILL.  (f)"The  Diseases  of  the  Cat."  By  J.  Woodroffe 
Hill,  F.K.C.V  S.     CloLh,  size  5  1-4x7  1-2,  123  pages, 

illustrated 1  25 

Written  from  the  experience  of  many  years'  prac- 
tice and  close  pathological  research  into. the  maladies 
to  which  our.dcnnesticated  feline  friends  are  liable — a 
subject  which  it  must  be  admitted  has  not  found  the 
prominence  in  veterinary  literature  to  which  it  is 
undoubtedly  entitled. 

—  "The   Management   and   Diseases   of  the   Dog-"     By  J. 

Woodroffe  Hill,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  5x7  1-2, 
extra  fully  illustrated. 

HINEBAUCH.    "Veterinary  Dental  Surgery."     By  T.  D. 

Hinebauch,  M.S.V.S.  For  the  use  of  Students,  Prac- 
titioners and  Stockmen.  Cloth,  size  5  1-4  x  8,  256 
pages,  illustrated 2  uu 

HO  ARE.  (•)"!  Manual  of  Veterinary  Therapeutics  and 
Pharmacologry."  By  E.  Wallis  Hoare,  F.R.C.V.S. 
Cloth,  size  5  1-4x7  1-4,  xxvi  plus  78«  pages 4  75 

HOBDAY,  (t)"  The  Castration  of  Crjptorchid  Horses  and 
the  Orariotomy  of  Troublesome  Mares."  By 
Frederick  T.  G.  Hobday,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size 
6  3-4  X  8  3  -4,  IC 6  pages,  34  illustrations 1  75 

HUNTING,  (t)  The  Art  of  Horse-shoeiiig.  A  manual 
for  Horseshoers.  By  William  Hunting,  F.R.C.V.S., 
ex-President  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Sur- 
geons. One  of  the  most  up-to-date,  concise  books  of 
its  kind  in  the  English  language.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-4. 
126  pages,  96  illustrations 1  00 

JENKINS.  (*)"  Anatomical  and  Physiological  Model  of 
the  Cow."  Half  life  size.  Composed  of  superposed 
plates,  colored  to  nature,  showing  internal  organs, 
•  muscles,  skeleton,  etc.,  mounted  on  strong  boards, 
with  explanatory  text.  Size  of  Model  opened, 
10  ft.  X  3  ft.,  closed  3  ft.  x  1^  ft 12  00 

—  "Anatomical  and  Physiological   Model    of  the   Horse." 

Halt  life  size.     Size  of  Model  38  x  41  in 12  00 

These  models  may  also  be  obtained  in  smaller 
sizes  together  with  Models  of  the  Dog,  Sheep  and 
Pig. 

JONES.     (*)*<The   Surgical   Anatomy    of  the    Horse." 

By  Jno.  T.  Share  Jones,  M.R  C.V.S.  Part  I.  To  be 
completed  in  four  parts.  Each  part — paper,  $4.25 ; 
cloth,  $5.00.  Subscriptions  for  the  four  parts,  pay- 
able in  advance,  paper,  $15.00;  cloth,  $17.50. 


ROBERT.     "Practical    Toxicology   for  Physicians    and 

Students  "  By  Professor  Dr.  Eudolph  Kobert, 
Medical  Director  of  Dr.  Brehmer's  Sanitarium  for 
Pulmonary  Diseases  at  Goerbersderf  in  Silesia  (Prus- 
sia), late  Director  of  the  Pharmacological  Institute, 
Dorpat,  Kussia.  Translated  and  edited  by  L.  H, 
Friedburg,  Ph.D.  Authorized  Edition.  Practical 
knowledge  by  means  of  tables  which  occupy  little 
space,  but  show  at  a  glance  similarities  and  differ- 
ences between  poisons  of  the  same  group.  Al.'?o  rules 
for  the  Spelling  and  Pronunciation  of  Chemical  Terms, 
as  adopted  by  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science.     Cloth,  6  1-2  x  10,  201  pp.. 2  60 

KOCH.     **J=;tiology  of  Tuberculosis."     By  Dr.  R.  Koch. 

Translated  by  T.  Saure.  Cloth,  size  G  x  9  1-4,  97 
pages 1  00 

LAMBERT.       "The      Werra     Theory       of      Disease." 

Bearing  upon  the  health  and  welfare  of  man  and  the 
domesticated  animals.  By  James  Lambert,  F.R.C.V.S. 
Paper,  size  5  1-4  x  8  1-4,  26  pages,  illustrated 25 

LAW,  "Farmers'  Veterinary  Adviser."  A  Guide  to  the 
Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Disease  in  Domestic 
Animals.  By  Prof.  James  Law.  Cloth,  size 
5  1-4x7  1-2,  illustrated 3  00 

LIAUTARD,  (f)" Animal  Castration."  A  concise  and 
practical  Treatise  on  the  Castration  of  the  Domestic 
Animals.  The  only  work  on  the  subject  in  the 
English  language.  By  Alexander  Liautard,  M.D.,V.S. 
Having  a  fine  portrait  of  the  author.  Tenth  edition 
revised  and  enlarged.  Cloth,  size  5  1-4x7  1-2,  165 
pages,  45  Illustrations 2  00 

.  .  ,  The  most  complete  and  comprehensive  work  on  the 
subject  in  English  veterinary  literature.— ^mericoJi  Affri- 
cvXturist. 

—  "Cadiot's  Exercises  in  Eqtiine  Surgery."     Translated  by 

Prof.  Bitting  and  edited  by  Dr.  Liautard. 
iSee  "  Cadiot." 

—  "A  Treatise  on   Surgical   Therapeutics  of  the  Domestic 

Animals."  By  Prof.  Dr.  P.  J.  Cadiot  and  J.  Almy. 
Translated  by  Prof.  Liautard.     See  "  Cadiot." 

—  "  How  to  Tell   the   Age   of  the  Domestic  Animal."    By 

Dr.  A.  Liautard,  M.D.,  V.S.  Standard  work  upon 
this  subject,  concise,  helpful  and  containing  many 
illustrations.  Cloth,  size  5x7  1-2,  35  pages,  42 
illustrations 50 

—  "Lameness  of  Horses  and  Diseases  of  the    Looomotory 

A|M»aratus."  By  A.  Liautar.l,  M.D.,V.S.  This  work 
is  the  r»^snlt  of  Dr.  Liautard's  many  years  of  experi- 
ence.   Cloth,  size  5  1-4  X  7  1-2,  314  pages 2  6U 


LIAUTARD  (continued). 

—  (•)"  Manual   of   Operative  Teterinary  Surgery  "     By    A. 

Liiautard,  M.D.,  V.M.  Engaged  for  years  in  the  work 
of  teaching  this  special  department  of  veterinary 
medicine,  and  having  abundaut  opportunities  of 
realizing  the  difficulties  which  the  student  who 
earnestly  strives  to  peifect  himself  in  his  calling  is 
obliged  to  encounter,  the  author  formed  the  deter- 
mination to  facilitate  his  acquisition  of  knowledge, 
and  began  the  accumulation  of  material  by  the  com- 
pilation of  data  and  arrangement  of  memorandum, 
with  the  recorded  notes  of  his  own  experience,  the 
fruit  of  a  long  and  extended  practice  and  a  careful 
study  of  the  various  authorities  who  have  illustrated 
and  organized  veterinary  literature.  Eevised  edition, 
with  complete  index.  Cloth,  size  6  1-4  x  9,  xxx  and  803 
pages,  563  illustrations 5  00 

—  "Pellerin's    Median    Xenrotomy    in    the    Treatment   of 

Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Perlostosis  of  the  Fetlock." 

Translated  by  Dr.  A.  Liautard.     See  "  Pellerin." 

—  **Yade  Mecum   of  Equine   Anatomy."     By  A.  Liautard, 

il.D.V.S.  For  the  use  of  advanced  students  and 
veterinary  surgeons.  Third  edition.  Cloth,  size 
5x7  1-2,  30  pages  and  10  full  page  illustrations  of 
the  arteries 2  00 

—  ZundePs  "  The  Horse's  Foot  and  Its  Diseases." 

See  "  Zundel." 

LONG.  "  Booli  of  the  Pig."  Its  selection,  Breeding- 
Feeding  aiidllanagement.     Cloth 4.00 

LOWE.  (f)"  Breeding  Racehorses  by  the  Figure 
System."  Compiled  by  the  late  C.  Bruce  Lowe. 
Edited  by  "William  Allison,  "  The  Special  Commis- 
sioner," London  Sportsman,  Hon.  Secretary  Sporting 
League,  and  Manager  of  the  International  Horse 
Agency  and  Exchange.  With  numerous  fine  illustra- 
tions of  celebrated  horses.  Cloth,  size  8  x  10,  262 
pages • 7  50 

LUnLOW.  "Science  in  the  Stable";  or  How  a  Horse 
can  be  Kept  in  Perfect  Health  and  be  Used  "Without 
Shoes,  in  Harness  or  under  the  Saddle.  With  the 
Reason  Why.  Second  Edition.  Bv  Jacob  R.  Ludlow, 
M.D.  Late  Staff  Surgeon,  XJ.  S.  Army.  Paper,  size 
4  1-2  X  5  3-4,  166  pages 50 

LUPTON.  *' Horses:  Sound  and  Unsound,"  with 
Law  relating  to  Sales  and  Warianiv.  By  .T  Irvine 
Lupton,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  6  3-4  x  7  12,  2)7 
pages,  28  illustrations 1  25 


M'FADTEAif.  (t)  "  Anatomy  of  the  Horse.*'  Second 
edition  completely  revised.  A  Dissection  Guide. 
By  John  M'Fadyean,   M.B.,  B.Sc  ,  F.R.S.E.      Cloth. 

size  6x834,  38S  pages,  illustrated d  50 

This  book  is  intended  for  Veterinary  students,  and 
offers  to  them  in  its  48  full-page  colored  plates, 
54  illustrations  and  excellent  text,  a  valuable  and 
practical  aid  in  the  study  of  Veterinary  Anatomy, 
especially  in  the  dissecting  room. 

—  **  Comparatire  Anatomy  of  the   Domesticated  Animals." 

By  ,].  M'Fadyean.     Profusely  illustrated,  and  to  be 

issued  in  two  parts. 

Part  I— Osteology,   ready.      Size  5  1-2x8  1-2,   166 

pages,  132  illustrations.     Paper,  2  50;  cloth 2  75 

(Part  II  in  preparation.) 

MAGNER.    *' Standard    Horse    and   Stoclt    Book."      By 

D.  Magner.  Comprising  over  1,000  pages,  illustrated 
with  1756  engravings.     Leather  binding.   6  l  0 

MILLS.    "How  to     Keep     a     Bog     in     the     City."     By 

Wesley  Mills,  M.D,  D.V.S.  It  tells  how  to  choose, 
manage,  house,  feed,  educate  the  pup,  how  to  keep  him 
clean  and  teach  him  cleanliness.     Paper,  size  5x7 1-2, 

40  pages 25 

MOHLEB.  "Handboolf  of  Meat  Inspection."  By  Robert 
Ostertag,  M.D.  Translated  by  Earley  Vernon 
Wilcox,  A.M.,  Ph.D.  With  an  introduction  by 
John  R.  Mohler,  V.M.D.,  A.M.     See  "  Ostertag." 

MOLLER  —  DOLLAR.        (f)  "  Regional        Yeterinary 

Surgery."  See  "  Dollar." 
MOSSELMAN-LIEXAUX.  "Manual  of  Veterinary 
Microbiology."  By  Professors  Mosselman  and 
Lienaui,  Nat.  Veterinary  College,  Cureghem,  Belgium. 
Translated  and  edited  by  R.  R.  Dinwiddle,  Professor 
of  Veterinary  Science, CollegeofAgriculture,Arkansa8 
State  University.  Cloth,  size  5  12x8,  342  pages, 
illustrated 2  00 

MOUSSV.  (•)"  Diseases  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  Goats  and 
Swine."     See  "  Dollar." 

NEUMANN.  {*)"  A.  Treatise  on  Parasites  and  Parasitic 
Diseases  of  the  Domesticated  Animals."  A  work 
to  which  the  students  of  human  or  veterinary  medi- 
cine, the  sanitarian,  agriculturist  or  breeder  or  rearer 
of  animals,  may  refer  for  full  information  regarding 
the  external  and  internal  Parasites — vegetable  and 
animal — which  attack  various  species  of  Domestic 
Animals.  A  Treatise  by  L.  G.  Neumann,  Professor 
at  the  National  Veterinary  School  of  Toulouse. 
Translated  and  edited  by  Geo.  Fleming,  C.B.,  LL.D., 
F.R  O.V.S.  Second  edition,  revised  and  edited  by 
James  Macqueen,  F.R.C.V.S.,  Professor  at  the  Royal 
Veterinary  College,  London.  Cloth,  size  6  3  4  x  10, 
xvi  +  698  pages,  305  illustrations 6  76 


NOCAitD.  "  The  Animal  Tuberculoses,  and  their  Relation 
to  Human  Tuberculosis."  By  Ed.  Nocard,  Prof,  of  the 
Alfort  Veterinary  Oollefre.  Translated  by  H.  Scurfield, 
M.D.  Ed.,  Ph.  Carab.  Cloth,  5x7  1-2, 143  pages . .  1  00 
Perhaps  the  chief  interest  to  doctors  of  human 
medicine  in  Professor  Nocard's  book  lies  in  the 
demonstration  of  the  small  part  played  by  heredity, 
and  the  great  part  played  by  contagion  in  the  propa- 
gation of  bovine  tuberculosis. 

NUN:N'.  (*)"  Veterinary  Toxicology."  By  Joshua  A.  Nunn, 
F.R.C.V.S.  The  study  of  toxicology  is  intimately 
blended  with  other  biological  sciences,  particularly 
physiology  and  chemistry,  both  of  which  it  on  many 
occasions  overlaps.  A  carefully  arranged  and  com- 
plete index  is  given  in  the  front  of  the  volume. 
Cloth,  size  Gx83-4,  vii  +  191  pages 1  75 

OSTERTAG,    C)  "  Handbook  of  Meat  Inspection."      By 

Robert  Ostert.ig,  M  D.  Authorized  Translation  by 
Earley  Vernon  Wilcox.  A.M.,  Ph.D.  With  an  intro- 
duction by  John  R.  Mohler,  V.M.D.,  A.M.  The  work 
is  exhaustive  and  auihorative  and  has  at  once  become 
the  standard  authority  upon  the  subject  Second 
edition,  revised.  Clotb,  size  6  3-4x9  3-4,  920  pages, 
260  illustrations  and  1  colored  plate 7  60 

PAL  LIN.    (*)  "  A  Treatise  on  Epizootic  Lymphangitis."  By 

Capt.  W.  A.  Pallin,  F.K.C.V.S.  In  this  work  the 
author  has  endeavored  to  combine  his  own  experience 
with  that  of  other  writers  and  so  attempts  to  give  a 
clear  and  complete  account  of  a  subject  about  which 
there  is  little  at  present  in  English  veterinary  litera- 
ture. Cloth,  size  5  3-4x8  1-2,  90  pages,  with  17  fine 
full  page  illustrations 1  25 

PEGLEB.  "  Goat  Keeping  for  Amateurs."  Paper,  5x7^, 
77  pages,  illustrated 50 

PELLERIN,  "Median  Neurotomy  in  the  Treatment 
of  Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Periostosis  of  the  Fetlock." 

By  C.  Pellerin,  late  repetitor  of  Clinic  and  Surgery  to 
the  Alfort  Veterinary  School.  Translated,  with  Addi- 
tional Facts  Relating  to  It,  by  Prof."  A.  Liautard,  M.D., 
V.M.  Having  rendered  good  results  when  performed 
by  himself,  the  author  believes  the  operation,  which 
consists  in  dividing  the  cubito-plantar  nerve  and  in 
excising  a  portion  of  the  peripherical  end,  the  means 
of  improving  the  conditions,  and  consequently  the 
values  of  many  apparently  doomed  animals.  Agricul- 
ture in  particular  will  be  benefited. 

The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  covers 
the  study  of  Median  Neurotomy  itself;  the  second, 
the  exact  relations  of  the  facts  as  observed  by  the 
author.    Boards,  6x9  1-2,  61  pages,  illustrated . .  1  00 


PETERS.  "  A  Tuberculous  Herd— Test  irith  Tuber, 
culin."  By  AusbiH  Peters,  M.  K.  C.  V.  S.,  Chief 
Inspector  of  Cattle  for  the  New  York  State  Board  of 
Health  during  the  winter  of  lb92-93.     Pamphlet 25 

REYNOLDS.  "An  Essay  on  the  Breeding  and  Manage- 
ment of  Draught  Horses."  By  R.  S.  Reynolds, 
M.R.C.V.S.     Cloth,  size  6  1-2  x  8  3-4,  104  pages.  .1  4U 

ROBERGE.  "  The  Foot  of  the  Horse,"  or  Lameness 
and  all  Diseases  of  the  Feet  traced  to  an  Unbalanced 
Foot  Bone,  prevented  or  cured  by  balancing:  the  foot. 
By  David  Roberge.  Cloth,  size  G  x  9  1-4,  308  pages, 
Hluslrated 5  CO 

SESSIONS.  (*)"  ("attle  Tuberculosis,"  a  Practical  Guide  to 
the  Agriculturist  and  Inspector.  By  Harold  Sessions, 
F.R.C.  V.S.,  etc.     Second  edition.     Size  5x7  1-4,  vi  -f- 

120  pages 1  00 

The  subject  can  be  understood  by  those  who  have 
to  deal  particularly  with  it.  yet  who,  perhaps,  have 
not  had  the  necessarj'  training  to  appreciate  technical 
phraseology. 

SEWELLi.     "The   Examination  of  Horses   as  to  Sound- 
ness and  Selection  as  to  Purchase."     By  Edward 
Sewell.  M.R.C.V.S.     Paper,  size  51-2x8  1-2,  86  pages, 
illustrated  with  8  plates  in  color 1  60 

—  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  the  business  man  to 
know  something  of  the  elements  of  law,  and  nobody 
ought  either  to  buy  or  own  a  horse  who  does  not  know 
something  about  the  animal.  That  something  this  book 
gives,  and  gives  in  a  thoroughly  excellent  way 


SMITH.    (*)  *'  A  Manual  of  Veterinary   Physiology."     By 

Col.  F.Smith,  C.M.S.,  F.R.aV.S..  F.I.C.,  author  of 
"  A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene." 

Throughout  this  manual  the  object  has  been  to  con- 
dense the  information  as  much  as  possible.  The 
broad  facts  of  the  sciences  are  stated  so  as  to  render 
them  of  use  to  the  student  and  practitioner.  Revised 
and  enlarged,  1907. 

—  (')"  Manual  of  "Veterinary  Hygiene,"  Third  edition  revised. 
Cloth,  size  5  1-4x7  1-2,  xx  +  1036  pages,  with  255 

illustrations 4  7R 

Recognizing  the  rapid  advance  and  extended  field 
of  the  subject  since  the  previous  issue,  the  author 
has  entirely  re-written  the  work  and  enlarged  its 
scope,  whieh  is  brought  thoroughly  up  to  date.  Con- 
tains over  600  more  pages  than  the  second  edition. 


8TBANOEWAT.  (f)" Veterinary  Anatomy."  Edited  by 
I.  Vaughan,  F.L.S.,  M.K.U  V.S.  New  edition  revised. 
Cloth,  size  6  1-4x9  1-2,  625  pages,  224  illus 5  OU 

SUSSDOBF.    "  Six  Large  Colored  Wall  Diagrams."    By 

Prof.  Sussdorf,  M.D.  (of  Goltingen).  Text  translated 
by  Prof.  W.  Owen  William.s,  of  tlie  New  Veterinary 
College,  Edinburgli.     Size,  44  incties  by  30  inches. 

1.— Horse.  4.— Ox. 

2.  -Mare.  5.— Boar  and  Sow. 

3.— Cow.                       6.— Dog  and  Bitch. 
The  above  are  printed  in  eight  or  nine  colors. 
SShowiiig  the   position   of   the   viscera  in  the  large 
cavities  of  the  body. 
Price,  unmounted 1  75  each 

"      mounted  on  linen,  with  roller 3  50    " 

THOMPSON,  ff)'* Elementary  Lectures  on  Yeterinary 
Science."  For  agricultural  students,  farmers  and 
slock  keepers.  By  Henry  Thompson,  M.E.C.V.S., 
lecturer  on  Veterinary  Science  at  the  Aspatria  Agri- 
cultural College,  England.  It  is  complete  yet  concise 
and  an  up-to-date  book.     Cloth,  397  pp.,  51  illus.. 3  75 

VAN  MATEB.      '*  A   Text  Book    of    Veterinary  Opli- 

thalmology."  By  George  G.  Van  Mater,  M.D., 
D.V.S.,  Professor  of  Ophthalmology  in  the  American 
Veterinary  College;  Oculist  and  Auristto  St.  Martha's 
Sanitarium  arid  Dispensary;  Consulting  Eye  and  Ear 
Surgeon  to  the  Twenty-sixth  Ward  Dispensary ;  Eye 
and  Ear  Surgeon,  Brooklyn  Eastern  District  Dispen- 
sary, etc.  Illustrated  by  one  chromo  lithograph  plate 
and  71  engravings.     Cloth,  6x9  1-4,  151  pages.. .3  00 

.  .  .  We  intend  to  adopt  this  valuable  work  as  a  text 
book.— E.  J.  Creely,  D.V.S.,  Dean  of  the  San  Francisco 
Veterinary  College. 

VETEBINABT  DIAGBAMS  in  Tabular  Form. 
Size,  28|  in.  x  22  inches.     Price  per  set  of  five. . .  .4  00 

Mounted  and  folded  in  case 7  J'O 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 10  00 

No.  1.  "Tiie  External  Form  and  Elementary  Ana- 
tomy of  the  Horse."  Eight  colored  illustrations — 
1.  External  regions;  2.  Skeleton  ;  3.  Muscles  (Superior 
Layer) ;  4.  Muscles  (Deep  Layer) ;  5.  Respiratory  Ap- 
paratus ;  6.  Digestive  Apparatus ;  7.  Circulatory  Ap- 
paratus ;  8.  Nerve  Apparatus ;  with  description. ...  1  25 
Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  25 

No.  2.  "The  Age  of  Domestic  Animals."  Forty-two 
figures  illustrating  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  indicat- 
ing the  Age  of  the  Horse,  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Dog,  with 

full  description 75 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  00 


ETERIXARY  DIAGtRA.MS  (continued). 

No.  3.    «'Tlie  Unsoundness  and  Defects  of  the  Horse." 

Fifty  fi^,'iues  iilu.si rating— 1.  Ttie  Defects  of  Confor- 
mation ;  2.  Defncts  of  Position  ;  3.  Inlirmities  or  Signs 
of  DisHHse :  4.  Unsoundnesses ;  6.  Defects  of  the  Foot ; 

with  full  description 75 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished    2  00 

No.  4.    "The  Shoeing  of  the  Horse,  Mule  and  Ox." 

Fifty  figures  descriptive  of  the  Anatomy  and  Physio- 

Ingy  of  the  Foot  and  of  Horse-shoeing 75 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  00 

No.  5.  "The  Elementary  Anatomy,  Points,  and  But- 
clier's  Joints  of  the  Ox."  Ten  coloreci  illustrations 
—  1.  Skeleton;  2.  Nervous  System:  3.  Digestive 
System  (Right  Side) ;  4.  Respiratory  System  ;  5.  Points 
of  a  Fat  Ox  ;  6.  Muscular  System  ;  7.  Vascular  System; 
8.  Digestive  System  (Left  Side);  9.  Butcher's  Sections 
of  a  Calf:   10.  Butcher's  Sections  of  an  Ox ;  with  full 

description ^  2.'i 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  25 

WALLET.    "  A  Practical  Guide  to  Meat  Inspection."    By 

Thomas  Walley,  M.RC.V.S.,  late  principal  of  the 
Edinburgh  Royal  (Dick)  Veterinary  College;  Pro- 
fessor of  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery,  etc. 
Fourth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  enlarged 
by  Stewart  Stockman.  M.R.C.V.S  ,  Professor  of 
Pathology,  Lecturer  on  Hygiene  and  Meat  Inspection 
at  Dick  Veteiinary  College.  Edinburgh.  Cloth,  size 
5  1-2  X  8  1-4,  with  45  colored  illus.,  295  pages 3  GO 

An  experience  of  over  30  years  in  his  profession 
and  a  long  official  connection  (some  sixteen  years) 
with  Edinburgh  Abattoirs  have  enabled  the  author  to 
gather  a  large  store  of  information  on  the  subject, 
which  he  has  embodied  in  his  hook. 

While  Dr.  Stockman  is  indeed  indebted  to  the 
old  for  much  useful  information,  tiiis  up-to- 
dat^e  work  will  hardly  bo  recognized  as  the  old 
"  Wallcy's  Meat  Inspection." 

WILCOX,  (*)''  Handbook  of  Meat  Inspection."  By  Robert 
Ostertag,  M.D.     See.  "  Ostertag." 

WILLIAMS.  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Veterinary 
Medicine."  Author's  edition,  entirely  revised  and 
illustrated  with  numerous  plain  and  colored  plates. 
Bv  W.  Williams,  M.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  5  8-1  x  8  3-4, 
865  pages 7  50 

—  "  Principles    and    Practice    of     Veterinary     Surgrery." 

Author's   edition,    entirely    revised    and     illustrated 
with    numerous    plain    and     colored  plates.     By  W 
Williams,  M.R.C.V.S.      Cloth,  size  6  1-2x9  1-4,  756 


pages 


.7  50 


THE  MOST  COMPLETE,  PROGRESSIVE  AND 
SCIENTIFIC  BOOK  ON  THE  SUBJECT  IN 
THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

(*)  WIN  SLOW.  "Veterinary  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeu- 
tics." By  Kenelm  Winslow.  B.A.S.,  M.D.V.,  M.D., 
(HarvJ  ;  formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  Therapeutics 
in  the  Veterinary  School  of  Harvard  University; 
Fellow  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society  ;  Surgeon 
to  the  Newton  Hospital,  etc. 

Fifth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged 

Cloth,  size  6  1-4x9  1-4,  x  +  804  pages 6  00 

In  accordance  with  the  hitherto  expressed  desire  of  the  aiithor  and 
T)ul)H8hers  to  keep  this  work  at  its  highest  point  of  efficiency,  it  has 
been  deemed  incumbent  upon  them  to  again  present  a  new  and  revised 
edition— the  fourth  edition  of  19U6  being  exhausted. 

In  the  present  revision  the  most  notable  teature  is  the  substitution 
of  a  section  on  Condensed  Treatment  of  Diseases  of  the  Domestic 
Animals  for  the  Index  of  Diseases  and  Remedial  Measures,  at  the  end 
of  the  book  In  the  preparation  of  this  matter,  very  considerable  time 
and  pains  have  been  taken  to  render  this  section  a  reflection  and  epi- 
tome of  all  that  is  most  modern  and  progressive  m  veterinary  thera- 

^'^"snecial  indications  for  treatment,  including  drugs  and  therapeutic 
agents  other  than  drugs,  in  the  different  phases  and  stages  of  all  the 
important  diseases  of  the  domestic  animals  are  to  be  found.  These  dis- 
eases oiii1)iacc  not  only  medical  and  surgical  disorders,  but  those  of  the 
EVK  SKIN  and  EAR.  It  the  attempt  has  been  in  any  degree  successful, 
this"  new  edition  to  the  book  should  prove  one  of  its  most  valuable 
features  both  to  practitioners  and  students. 

INIoreover.  manv  changes  have  been  made  m  the  text  in  consonance 
with  recent  advances  in  our  knowledge  of  the  action  of  drugs. 


WYHdAN.    (*)"  Bovine  Obstetrics."     By  M.  G.  De  Bruin. 
Translated  by    W.  E.  A.  Wyman,  M.D.V.,V.S. 
See  also  "  De  Bruin." 

—  (•)*' Catechism  of  the  Principles  of  Veterinary  Surgery," 

Bv  W.  E.  A.  Wyman,  M.D.V..V.S.      Cloth,  size  6x9, 
321  pages 3  50 

Concerning  this  ne^v  work  attention  is  called  to  the 
follo^ving  points: 

l._It  discusses  the  subject  upon  the  basis  of  veterinary  investigations. 

2.— It  does  away  with  works  on  human  pathology,  histology,  etc. 

3.— It  explains  each  question  thoroughly  both  from  a  scientific  as  well 

as  a  practical  point  of  view. 
4.— It  is  writen  by  one  knowing  the  needs  of  the  student. 
5.— It  deals  exhaustively  with  a  chapter  on  tumors,  heretofore  utterly 

neglected  in  veterinary  pathology. 
6.— The  only  work  in  English  specializing  the  subject. 
7.— The  only  work  thoroughly  taking  into  consideration  American  as 

well  as  European  investigations. 
8.— Offering  practical  hints  which  have  not  appeared  in  print,  the 

result  of  lai'ge  city  and  country  practice. 


WYMAN  (Continued) 


—  ^t,"The    Clinical  Diagnosis  of  Lameness  in  the  Horse." 

I^y  W.  E.  A.  Wyiiian,  D.V.b.,  formerly  Proft-ssor  of 
Veterinary  Science,  Clemson  A.  &  M.  College,  and 
Veterinarian  to  ttie  South  Carolioa  Experiment 
Station.     Cloth,  size  6x9  1-2,  182  pp.,  32  illus. . .  .2  50 


—  (|)**Tlbio. peroneal   Nenrectoiiiy  for  tlie  Relief  of  Spavin 
Lameness."     By  W.  E.  A.  Wyman,  M.D.V.,  V.S. 
Boards,  size  6  x  9,  30  pages,  illustrated 50 

Anyone  wanting  to  perform  this  operation  should  procure 
this  little  treatise ;  ho  will  hnd  it  of  considerable  help. — Tlie 
VeterUiary  Jouynal. 


ZUILL.  "Typhoid  Fever;  or  Cont!i{?ious  Influenza 
in  the  Horse."  By  Prof.  W.  L.  Zuill,  M.D.,D.V.S. 
Pamphlet,  size  6x9  1-4,  29  pages 25 


Z UNI) EL.      "The    Horse's   Foot   and    Its   Diseases."    By 

A.  Zundel,  Principal  Veterinarian  of  Alsace  Lorraine. 
Translated  by  Dr.  A.  Liautard,  V.S.  Cloth,  size 
5x7  3-4,  248  pages,  illustrated 2  00 


Any  book  sent  prepaid  for  the  price 

WILLIAM  R.  JENKINS  CO. 

851  and  853  Sixth  Avenue,  NEW  YORK. 


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